Concepts & Connections - A Publication for Leadership Educators

Leadership Competencies
A Publication for Leadership Educators
CONCEPTS &
CONNECTIONS
Volume 20, Issue 2 2014

1
INSIDE THIS ISSUE
Feature:
Leadership Resilience: Employing Constructivism and
Connectivism in Cross-Cultural Leadership Development
by Dr. Linda D. Grooms and Dr. Kathaleen Reid-Martinez
Feature:
The Resilient Leader
by Dr. Jeff Zimmerman
Learning by Design:
Positive Perspectives and Strengths Development: Keys to
Leadership Resilience
by Dr. Laurie A. Schreiner and Dr. Karen A. Longman
Program Spotlight:
Building Resilience through Experiential Education
by Sadhana Hall, Adam Goodman, and Gama Perruci
Scholarship and Research Updates:
Leadership and Resilience
by Brenda McKenzie
NCLP STAFF
3
7
10
14
18
Director Dr. Craig Slack
Concepts & Connections Editor Michelle L. Kusel
Membership Services Alice Bishop
Scholarship & Research Editor Dr. John Dugan
NCLP Scholar Dr. Susan Komives
National Clearinghouse
for Leadership Programs
0110 Adele H. Stamp Student Union
Center for Campus Life
University of Maryland
College Park, MD
nclp.umd.edu

2National Clearinghouse for Leadership Programs
When I was in high school, I attended a retreat where we received
letters from loved ones. One of these letters was read out loud. As
an introvert, this was an absolutely miserable experience for me.
But that is a topic for a different issue of Concepts & Connections.
I remember my teacher proclaiming one line in my letter very clear-
ly: “If I were to choose one word to describe you, it would be
resilient, like a diamond.”
Admittedly, my vocabulary was not (and still is not) very large,
so after the weekend I went home and looked up what resilient
meant. Webster gave me a pretty good idea, but I believe that my
lived experiences brought my definition to a higher level and gave
my diamond a new sparkle. I hope this issue of Concepts and
Connections provides answers but also new questions around lead-
ership resiliency allowing you to see your diamond with brand new
sparkle. Editing this edition of Concepts & Connections allowed
me time to reflect on how I have grown and how resiliency exists in
leadership and my life. I hope this piece is as timely for you as it was
for me and we hope you enjoy, reflect, and learn from this edition
of Concepts & Connections.
Connections from the Editor
by Michelle L. Kusel
Follow us on Twitter
@ed_lead
Connect on Facebook:
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to join NCLP. Get discounts on publications, subscribe to
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Whether one considers resilience to be “a class of
phenomena characterized by good outcomes in spite of
serious threats” (Masten, 2001, p. 228), “the ability to
spring or bounce back” (Freeman, Hirschhorn, & Maltz,
2004, p. 77), a form of “psychologic capital” (Froman,
2010, p. 62), a positive response to stress (Hind, Frost,
& Rowley, 1996), or even the ability to be stress-resistant
(Luthar & Zigler, 1991), all tend to agree that resilience
is “the human capacity to deal with, overcome, learn
from, or even be transformed by the inevitable adversi-
ties of life” (Grotberg, 2003, p. 1). Without resilience,
especially in today’s complex cross-cultural environ-
ment, leaders come and go, fail and fall, but with it, they
not only survive but thrive
with remarkable success and
sustainability.
The future of many
around the globe depends
upon the proliferation of
effective, resilient, and sus-
tainable leaders; thus, the
role of leadership education
has never been more critical.
This demands that educators
must be ever-cognizant of
the implications that arise as
we train cross-cultural leaders
to interact and engage with
society in the 21st century.
As we prepare these leaders,
three questions surface: Can
resilience be facilitated? If
so, what type of education
is needed for such leadership
development and how do educators help unfold, unveil,
and reveal resilience in their learners?
Based on our experience, resilient and sustainable
leadership can evolve from carefully orchestrated lead-
ership education programs. Regardless of the ven-
ue--traditional face-to-face, hybrid, or online--we have
found that using the right educational methods can pro-
duce resilient leaders, particularly in the cross-cultural
environment. This intentional structuring of the learn-
ing experience facilitates continuous leadership growth,
signifying that the development of leadership resilience
represents a process, not an end state.
Two basic approaches to learning have dominat-
ed the halls of academe: the traditional and the con-
structivist. While many still adhere to the traditional,
we have found connec-
tivism (Siemans, 1995)
coupled with social
constructivism (Berger
& Luckmann, 1967; Vy-
gotsky, 1978) particular-
ly effective to facilitate
both resilience and suc-
cess as we have trained
cross-cultural leaders.
With roots in our earli-
er work (e.g., Grooms,
2000; Reid-Martinez,
Grooms, & Bocarnea,
2009) and falling into
three basic catego-
ries--professor, learner,
and learning/content
delivery--13 key differ-
ences distinguish these
learning approaches.
When examining the role of today’s professors, con-
Feature: Leadership Resilience:
Employing Constructivism and
Connectivism in Cross-Cultural
Leadership Development
by Linda D. Grooms, Ph.D. and Kathaleen Reid-Martinez
“The learner in turn is
required to become an
active participant in the
educational process.
No longer can he or she
simply passively receive
and remain dependent
upon the professor.”

temporary higher education recognizes their primary
function as one of content facilitator. No longer is it
essential for the professor to be the primary reservoir of
information or the sole decision-maker for the learning
process; rather, he or she serves as one who guides, sup-
ports, and develops the learner.
The learner in turn is required to become an active
participant in the educational process. No longer can
he or she simply passively receive and remain depen-
dent upon the professor. Instead, today’s empowered
learners help determine not only when and how they
will learn, but also how they will interact with and shape
the information and knowledge they receive in light of
the context in which they are operating.
While traditional learning focuses on fact gathering
for knowledge and understanding, today’s learner must
negotiate and generate meaning through constructivist
and connectivist approaches. This suggests that knowl-
edge is no longer a fixed object to be obtained but rather
it is a fluid process of gathering information and then
shaping it to bring meaning and credence to problem
solving within the context in which the learners must
function. Thus, the knowledge and understanding of
the traditional leadership development program must
shift to the levels of application, analysis, synthesis, and
evaluation: the higher order in Bloom’s (1956) taxono-
my.
With so many vectors needed to solve the complex
problems of today, the learning environment is often
open and chaotic, and a simple deductive approach may
no longer be appropriate. The structures of the past of-
ten result in too great of a constraint to the complexities
the learners will face in today’s cross-cultural leadership
environment. This new learning environment requires
that the primary resources move beyond the text and the
individual professor into the realm of multiple resources
from multiple sources through multiple channels. The
traditional lecture, which is primarily a one-way meth-
od of learning, becomes too passive and inadequately
interactive to produce the synthesis and evaluation re-
quired of contemporary leaders. This passive approach
must be replaced with active processes of learning that
require full engagement of the learner who will no lon-
ger look only to the printed sources of the academy but
more often to resources such as peers and global experts
through multiple and blended media: from the life all
around them. Because of this proliferation and melding
of resources, the key for the professor as facilitator is
to help the learner negotiate, mediate, and mitigate the
Traditional Constructivist / Connectivist
Role & External Demeanor Content Provider Content Facilitator
Sage on the Stage Guide on the Side
Role & Internal State Passive Recipient Active Participant
Dependence Empowerment
Learning Focus Fact Gathering Negotiate & Construct meaning
through multiple networks
Knowledge & Understanding Application, Analysis, Synthesis, &
Evaluation
Knowledge Fixed Object Fluid Process
Learning Environment Ordered & Structured Open & Often Chaotic
Deductive Inductive
Primary Resources Text & Professor Multiple Sources
Method Lecture Active Process
Media Print Blended
Communication Uni-directional Multi-directional
Format Individal Silos Collaborative & Connected Teams
Individual Informational Expert Collective Wisdom
Activities Goal-oriented Problem-centered
Assessment Recall Alternative Assessment
Community Educational Institution Integrated with Life

multiple inputs with which they engage.
Communication in such a learning environment will
no longer be uni-directional; rather it will be multi-direc-
tional. Communicationstructureswillbeflattened. Con-
versations will flow freely up and down the hierarchy and
across the aisles as many grapple with finding solutions.
Learners will no longer be able to operate in individual
silos of growing expertise, but rather they must learn
and operate within team initiatives. Learning activities
become problem-centered and not goal-oriented simply
to meet the expectations of a given professor. No lon-
ger is learning limited to the receipt of a grade, but the
learner’s ideas must withstand community engagement,
just as any leader’s initiative must withstand their orga-
nizational context. This new connected community of
praxis provides feedback, creates dialogue, and contains
an accountability factor with learners negotiating their
way through these
teams of people
so that together
they create a col-
lective wisdom of
the crowd (Surow-
iecki, 2004). When
placed within the
connectivist arena,
leadership capacity
moves beyond the
traditional mod-
el; it is further en-
hanced, and more
importantly, it is
expanded. This
type of commu-
nity engagement
is inherent in any
leader’s world, and,
thus, its facilitation
is critical within our
leadership develop-
ment programs.
Such complex
learning environ-
ments also demand
alternative forms of assessments and not simply the
recall of what the professor deems appropriate. This
approach means that learning is no longer confined to
an educational institution, rather it is integrated with the
life. In this way, the learner is engaged with the commu-
nity responding to community needs as an active partic-
ipant in that community rather than a passive recipient
of information in one educational institution.
Coutu (2002) defines “resilience as a reflex, a way of
facing and understanding the world that is deeply etched
into a person’s mind and soul” (p. 55). The construc-
tivist and connectivist learning process becomes the
means by which resilience is etched within the learner.
In our work with a cross-cultural leadership program,
we found that as learners “negotiated and generated
meaning through shared understanding and experienc-
es filtered by their axiological screens” (Grooms & Re-
id-Martinez, 2011, p. 425), they were empowered with
the ability to replicate, which gave them the capacity to
build resilience. The empowered construction of mean-
ing resulted in empowered problem solvers, which is a
major role of leaders. As active participants, the learn-
ers remained engaged problem
solvers as they constructed
meaning through multiple net-
works and hierarchies across
both the academic and cultural
terrain. No longer were they
bounded by an educational
institution; instead, they were
empowered with critical think-
ing skills that enabled them in
their larger capacity as leaders.
They now have transferable ca-
pacity and that is what makes
resilience.
REFERENCES
Berger, P. L., & Luckmann,
T. (1967). The social construc-
tion of reality: A treatise in the
sociology of knowledge. Gar-
den City, NY: Anchor Books.
Bloom, B. S. (Ed.). (1956).
Taxonomy of educational ob-
jectives. Handbook 1: Cogni-
tive domain. New York, NY:
David McKay.
Coutu, D. L. (2002). How resilience works. Harvard
Business Review, 80(5), 46-55.
Freeman, S. F., Hirschhorn, L., & Maltz, M. (2004).
The power of moral purpose: Sandler O’Neill & Part-
“No longer is it
essential for the
professor to be the
primary reservoir of
information or the sole
decision-maker for the
learning process; rather,
he or she serves as one
who guides, supports,
and develops the
learner.”

ners in the aftermath of September 11th, 2001. Organi-
zational Development Journal, 22(4), 69-81.
Froman, L. (2010). Positive psychology in the work-
place. Journal of Adult Development, 17, 59-69. doi:
10.1007/s10804-009-9080-0
Grooms, L. D. (2000). Interaction in the comput-
er-mediated adult distance learning environment: Lead-
ership development through online education. Disser-
tation Abstracts International, 61(12), 4692A.
Grooms, L. D., & Reid-Martinez, K. (2011). Sus-
tainable leadership development: A conceptual model
of a cross-cultural blending learning program. Interna-
tional Journal of Leadership Studies 6(3), 412-429.
Grotberg, E. H. (2003). What is resilience? How
do you promote it? How do you use it? In E. H. Grot-
berg (Ed.), Resilience for today: Gaining strength from
adversity (pp. 1-29). Westport, CT: Praeger.
Hind, P., Frost, M., & Rowley, S. (1996). The re-
silience audit and the psychological contract. Jour-
nal of Managerial Psychology,11(7), 18-29. doi:
10.1108/02683949610148838
Luthar, S. S., & Zigler, E. (1991). Vulnerability and
competence: A review of research on resilience in child-
hood. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 61(1),
6-22.
Masten, A. S. (2001). Ordinary magic: Resilience
processes in development. American Psychologist
56(3). 227-238. doi: 10.1037//0003-066X.56.3.227
Reid-Martinez, K., Grooms, L. D., & Bocarnea, M.
C. (2009). Constructivism in online distance education.
In Encyclopedia of information science and technolo-
gy: Vol. 2 (2nd ed., pp. 701-707). Hershey, PA: Idea
Group.
Siemans, G. (2005). Connectivism: A learning
theory for the digital age. International Journal of In-
structional Technology and Distance Learning, 2(1).
Retrieved from http://www.itdl.org/Journal/Jan_05/
article01.htm
Surowiecki, J. (2004). The wisdom of crowds: Why
the many are smarter than the few and how collective
wisdom shapes business, economies, societies, and na-
tions. New York, NY: Doubleday.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The devel-
opment of higher psychological processes. Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University Press.
Dr. Linda Grooms is an Associate Professor
of Educational Leadership in the School of Educa-
tion at Regent University. In addition to her university
teaching, she conducts leadership training both nation-
ally and internationally, while continuing her longitu-
dinal research in online learning and pedagogy, com-
puter-mediated communication, and virtual leadership
development.
Dr. Kathaleen Reid-Martinez currently
serves as Provost at Oral Roberts University. With
research, presentations, and consultancy opportunities
that have spanned five continents, she’s noted for her
capacity to lead multinational teams to bring democrat-
ic values into the best practices of leadership develop-
ment in globally diverse settings.
The Center for Leadership (CFL) at Florida International
University is pleased to sponsor the Alvah H. Chapman Jr.
Outstanding Dissertation Award in partnership with the
Network of Leadership Scholars (NLS). http://lead.fiu.edu/
research/award/

It is difficult to argue that some of our most ef-
fective leaders were effective or leaders simply because
they were lucky, wealthy, intelligent, attractive, humble,
or powerful. Indeed, many of our greatest leaders could
be characterized as having one or more of these factors.
However, while these factors can certainly heighten a
leader’s influence (a key component of the leadership
process), these factors alone do not make a leader effec-
tive. The reality is that leadership is more complex than
this simplified train of thinking. Leadership is “a process
whereby an individual influences a group of individuals
to achieve a common goal” (Kreitner & Kinicki, 2013,
p.462). As such a process of influence, one of the most
endearing qualities of an effective leader is their ability
to show resilience in the most trying of situations.
A closer look at some of the most revered leaders
of the modern era highlights the impact that resilience
has on effective leaders. At the pinnacle of his life, Nel-
son Mandela was as pow-
erful as Oprah Winfrey
is wealthy today. And yet
power and wealth do not
make a leader (they barely
come close to being the
pre-requisites). Success in
academic endeavors does
not make a leader either.
Winston Churchill (the
former Prime Minister
of Great Britain during
World War II) is admired
in the history books as a
leader who stood up to
the tyranny of Nazi Ger-
many, and yet he was at
the bottom of his class in
school (Stobaugh, 2012,
p.231). A closer look at
Mandela and Winfrey
reveals that neither was
born into wealth or priv-
ilege [Mandela was born
to an illiterate father
(Mandela, 1994, p.5); Winfrey was sexually abused and
raped by her own father (Kelley, 2010, p.5)], nor did they
stumble upon their success at leading others. The same
can be said of Churchill. All of them do, however, have
one very important thing in common: their stories are
rife with instances of resilience. Yes, resilience, oth-
erwise known as “the capability of individuals to cope
successfully in the face of significant change, adversity,
or risk” (Roberts-Levine, 2003, p.1000).
In German it is called Ausdauer, while in French it is
called ressort. The word “resilience” actually stems from
the Latin word “resilire” (to recoil or leap back). Re-
gardless of the language, resilience has been and still is
a key ingredient to effective leadership across the spec-
trum of society (regional, national, and international). It
is clear that millions of people around the world hold
Mandela, Winfrey, Churchill and other leaders in such
high-esteem in part because of the resilience they have
shown on their remark-
able journeys.
While it may be diffi-
cult to mention ourselves
in the same sentence as
Mandela, Winfrey, Chur-
chill or others, the one
thing that we have in
common with them is
the fact that we are af-
forded the ability to prac-
tice resilience.
I arrived at this or-
dinary conclusion be-
cause few would argue
that Nelson Mandela’s
resilience (aka: his abil-
ity to overcome the ha-
tred and intolerance that
landed him in prison for
27 years and emerge and
forgive those who placed
him there) did not have a
significant impact on his
Feature: The Resilient Leader
by Jeff Zimmerman, PhD
“While it may be
difficult to mention
ourselves in the same
sentence as Mandela,
Winfrey, Churchill
or others, the one
thing that we have in
common with them is
the fact that we are
afforded the ability to
practice resilience.”

appeal or ability to influence others. The reality is that
his resilience is the subject of our admiration, which is
as powerful as it is influential. As a matter of fact, if
we were to delete from his already impressive resume
his long struggle with Apartheid in South Africa, his in-
fluence over others would likely be diminished because
of what his struggle meant to millions of other human
beings. His triumph over hatred and suppression is ad-
mired not only for its significance as a turning point in
South African history, but also because such resilience is
often elusive to so many of us.
Resilience is one of those rare occurrences that can
inspire others to move mountains and cross oceans…
even from within the walls of a prison. There is per-
haps an important lesson in studying the life of Man-
dela and other effective leaders. And this lesson crosses
time, continents and differences. The lesson is that we
do not have to be Nelson Mandela to exhibit resilience
and improve the lives of others. We can (and perhaps
should) start simply by recognizing that we can practice
resilience in our everyday lives. Yes, it may not be on as
grand a stage as the one on which Mandela’s work was
played out; however, our everyday lives offer a steady
flow of opportunities to show resilience. And while we
may not face the same type of hatred and intolerance
thrown at Nelson Mandela, we certainly have our fair
share of challenges that we can use as springboards of
resilience to inspire and motivate those following us: our
students, our employees, our neighbors, our fellow hu-
man beings, etc. Whether it is from working hard each
day at our jobs, to keeping our promises when we of-
fer them, to remaining honest when the temptation to
deceive is strong, these are the everyday examples of
resilience that can move a classroom, a company, a com-
munity, a nation, and even a world. Because we may be
the world to our students, our employees, our neighbors,
and our fellow human beings, it is safe to say that the
world may be watching us. And the reason these in-
stances of resilience are moving is simply because they
are the exception in today’s society (and not the norm).
Far too often we are bombarded by the media with ex-
amples of corruption, inequality, and hatred. Not every-
one has the opportunity to work, and even if they do,
some choose not to work hard; not everyone keeps their
promises; not everyone is honest. Not all systems of
justice or codes of law are fair. The fact that these sim-
ple acts of resilience are the exception is precisely what
makes them noteworthy, memorable, and influential.
We also have to remember that for every Nelson
Mandela, Oprah Winfrey, or Winston Churchill who ap-
peared to have a significant level of influence at a partic-
ular time and place, there are hundreds (even thousands)
of others who were equally influential in their own right
(parents, teachers, public officials, private citizens, etc.).
Furthermore, the faster our world spins the more chaot-
ic our everyday lives become, and the greater the need is
for practicing resilience because it is those watching us
who will benefit from our resilience (our children, our
students, our employees, our neighbors, and our fellow
human beings).
Again, the presence of resilience among so many
prolific leaders ought to serve as a reminder for us that
even the most ordinary of leaders (teachers, parents,
managers, etc.) can use resilience to their advantage
(similar to the way more visible leaders have used re-
silience to their own advantage). And it starts with rec-
ognizing the opportunities to practice resilience in our
everyday lives.
We, therefore, owe it to ourselves to take a step
back when we feel as if our plates are full, our backs are
against the wall, there is not enough time, not enough
money, or there are not enough resources to complete
whatever task we have set out to complete. But as Man-
dela and others have already proven, we do have the
power to choose what actions we take (even when those
actions seem impossible). And while it may never be
easy, showing resilience is fruitful for the effective lead-
er in the long run.
“One of the most
endearing qualities of
an effective leader is
their ability to show
resilience in the most
trying of situations.”

REFERENCES
Kelley, K. (2005). Oprah: A Biography. New York,
NY: Three Rivers Press.
Kreitner, R. & Kinicki, A. (2013). Organizational
Behavior. (10th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill/Ir-
win.
Mandela, N. (1994). Long Walk to Freedom. Bos-
ton, MA: Little, Brown and Company.
Roberts-Levine, E. (2003). Glossary. In: A. Roberts
& K. Yeager (Eds.), Evidenced-Based Practice Manual:
Research and Outcome Measures in Health and Human
Services (pp.971-1008). New York, NY: Oxford Univer-
sity Press.
Stobaugh, J. (2012). British History: Observations
and Assessments from Early Culture to Today. Green
Forest, AR: Master Books.
Jeff Zimmerman is assistant professor of or-
ganizational leadership at Northern Kentucky Univer-
sity (United States). His research focuses on expatriate
adjustment to foreign cultures, ethics, trust, resilience,
leadership development, and organizational change. He
earned a PhD in organizational development/group
dynamics and an MBA from the University of Klagen-
furt (Austria). Prior to this, he worked in the shipping
and insurance industries. He has served as an interpret-
er for the World Choir Games (2012) and for Cincin-
nati Children’s Hospital Medical Center. He has taught
at the University of Cincinnati and the University of
Klagenfurt (Austria) and belongs to the International
Leadership Association. Zimmermanj3@nku.edu.
The 9th Annual Tobias Leadership Conference
April 24-26, 2014
http://www.tobiascenter.iu.edu
2014 Assocation of Leadership Educators
July 13-16, 2014 | San Antonio, Texas
If you are interested in participating in the Multi Institution
Study of Leadership (MSL) 2015 go to:
www.leadershipstudy.net

Much has been written about the ever-increasing
challenges faced by those holding leadership roles in to-
day’s complex and global context. For example, after
surveying U.S. higher education regarding the state of
leadership development programming, Fusch and Mrig
(2011) challenged colleges and universities to prepare
future leaders who are diagnostic and creative systemic
thinkers, adept at cross-boundary collaboration and will-
ing to take measured risks. Similarly, Kellerman (2013),
in The End of Leadership has outlined how the expec-
tations of both leaders and followers have changed in
recent years, including the significant impact of technol-
ogy on both.
The next generation of leaders thus faces a new sce-
nario for leadership beyond the heavy demands on the
shoulders of those from previous generations. Resil-
ience, the focus of this issue of Concepts and Connec-
tions, is increasingly recognized as being critical to long-
term leadership effectiveness. According to Avolio and
Luthans (2006), resilience is “exhibited by those who are
hit hard by a particular problem or challenge but still
find some way to keep moving ahead” (p. 155). With-
out doubt, leaders are expected to model this “bounce
back” approach to life’s challenges rather than joining
the chorus that simply bemoans the problems.
In The High Impact Leader, Avolio and Luthans
(2007) identify resilience as one of four essential lead-
ership constructs (in addition to hope, optimism, and
self-efficacy) that combine to form Psychological Capi-
tal (PsyCap). Substantial research confirms that each of
these four constructs can be developed not only within
leaders themselves, but within followers, as well; in fact,
Avolio and Luthans maintain that a high impact leader
is one who builds the psychological capital of his or her
followers. Thus, aspiring leaders and those carrying the
responsibilities of leadership benefit themselves and the
places they serve by knowing the literature about resil-
ience and taking steps to develop a mindset similar to
that popularly attributed to Winston Churchill: “When
you’re going through hell, keep going!”
Resilient leaders are those who are able not only to
bounce back from adversity, but to do so with renewed
vigor and commitment. Bennis and Thomas (2007),
who examined the lives of exemplary leaders across
generations, concluded that the way in which leaders
find meaning in negative events and learn from the chal-
lenges they face is one of the best predictors of their
leadership effectiveness. They described the “alchemy
of leadership” (p. 121) as including the ability to em-
brace and learn from the large and small “crucibles”—
trials and challenges that test one’s leadership and result
in deep reflection about one’s values, assumptions, and
judgments. Effective leaders, according to Bennis and
Thomas, display a remarkable sense of “adaptive ca-
pacity” (p. 91) in navigating difficult situations, allowing
them to land sure-footed and thus be better prepared
to meet the next challenge. In short, whether or not a
leader responds to crucible experiences with resilience,
self-efficacy, and optimism defines the trajectory of
both life and leadership.
This article draws from a chapter entitled “The Role
of Resilience and Relationships” (Schreiner, 2012) in
Thriving in Leadership (Longman, 2012) to illustrate
two dimensions of resilience that can contribute to a
leader’s effectiveness when challenges are encountered:
(1) the “power of perspective” (p. 40)—and positive
perspective in particular, and (2) the ability to recog-
nize and develop not only one’s own strengths, but the
strengths of others.
by Laurie A. Schreiner, PhD & Karen A. Longman, PhD
Learning by Design: Positive
Perspectives and Strengths
Development: Keys to Leadership
Resilience

THE POWER OF POSITIVE
PERSPECTIVE IN BUILDING
RESILIENCE
The importance of an individual’s mental maps for
processing events in constructive ways has been well
established in the literature, whether in Dweck’s (2006)
articulation of the importance of having a “growth”
rather than “fixed” mindset, Bolman and Deal’s (2008)
emphasis on the skill of “reframing” to understand
alternative perspectives, or the “positive perspective”
(Keyes & Haidt, 2003) advocated by scholars in the
field of positive psychology. In their book Flourishing:
Positive Psychology and the Life Well-lived, Keyes and
Haidt describe how individuals who are engaged in their
work and experiencing healthy relationships exemplify
the concept of flourishing –moving beyond surviving
(in life or leadership) to thriving. According to these au-
thors, flourishing individuals are by nature resilient; they
have learned how to rise to the challenges of life rather
than being beaten down by them, embracing the growth
opportunities that life’s adversities bring.
When going through difficult circumstances, resil-
ient leaders take a “balcony view” (Heifetz & Linsky,
2002, p. 51) that allows them to rise above the fray, ap-
preciate the perspectives of others, and consider the
long-term implications of potential actions and deci-
sions. The alternative, evident all too often in conten-
tious situations, is key players being reactionary and
self-serving in their personalized emotional responses.
Clearly, taking a balcony view and embracing a positive
perspective contributes not only to personal resilience
but also to leading teams toward a more positive out-
come and organizational climate.
Resilience is a learned response to life events rather
than an inborn trait (Reivich & Shatte, 2003), although
certain personality characteristics may predispose some
people to be more resilient than others. Similarly, each
of the constructs that comprise Psychological Capital—
hope, self-efficacy, resilience, and optimism—can be
learned and developed in individuals in ways that allow
them to more effectively face challenges (Avolio & Lu-
thans, 2006). Key to enlarging one’s capacity for resil-
ience is what psychologists refer to as one’s explanatory
style—“the habitual way you explain the good and bad
things that happen to you” (Reivich & Shatte, 2003, p.
42). Resilient leaders tend to approach life with an op-
timistic explanatory style, perceiving adverse events as
temporary and situational. In contrast, those likely to
be overwhelmed by similar adversities typically reflect
an explanatory style that is rooted in pessimism, viewing
difficulties as personal, long-term, and pervasive. Reiv-
ich and Shatte refer to this kind of pessimistic thinking
as the primary roadblock to resilience.
Teaching student leaders how to reframe negative
events is thus a key component to fostering their resil-
ience. Southwick and Charney (2012) have established,
for instance, that teaching such cognitive reappraisal
skills alters brain functioning such that people recover
more quickly from such negative emotions as anger or
fear. Thus, providing opportunities for student leaders
to take multiple perspectives, to articulate what they
have learned from challenging experiences, and to view
failures as temporary setbacks are the specific elements
that are likely to build resilience (Schreiner, 2012).
THE POTENTIAL OF STRENGTHS
DEVELOPMENT IN BUILDING
RESILIENCE
Another key to resilience when moving through the
challenges of leadership is having an internal confidence
in one’s areas of strength as well as a mindset that val-
ues the strengths of others. Resilient leaders are self-
aware: they know their strengths and the environments
that tend to bring out their best, but they also are aware
of their limitations that may interfere with their effec-
tiveness (Reivich & Shatte, 2002). This self-awareness
grounds them during challenges and provides a reser-
voir from which to draw during difficult times. Shifting
one’s focus from deficits to strengths not only enables
leaders to experience a greater sense of self-efficacy, but
also creates an environment where others are more like-
ly to feel valued (Buckingham & Coffman 1999; Rath &
Conchie, 2008). In such an environment where people
“feel heard, validated, and cared for … they are more
willing to be active partners in a shared leadership vi-
sion” (Schreiner, 2012, p. 50).
British psychologist Alex Linley (2008) calls this
recognition of strengths in others strengths-spotting
and emphasizes that it results in a more positive work
environment and builds resilience in leaders and fol-
lowers alike. Linley’s work within the United Kingdom
has complemented the “strengths revolution” (Clifton
& Harter, 2003) launched by The Gallup Organization
and its CEO Donald O. Clifton that gained momentum
through the development of the Clifton StrengthsFind-

er (The Gallup Organization, 1999). This web-based
instrument has been used to assess themes of talent in
over 8.5 million people worldwide, primarily influencing
senior leadership in corporations worldwide. In addi-
tion, over 700 colleges and universities have adopted a
strengths-based approach that helps students to identify,
develop, and apply their strengths in the university set-
ting (Louis, 2009).
Identifying individuals’ strengths through the use of
an instrument such as the Clifton StrengthsFinder can
contribute to self-efficacy and career well-being (Rath
& Harter, 2010); strengths awareness can also aid the
development of teams and workplaces that identify and
apply talents in constructive ways. But awareness is only
the beginning; strengths development, in which leaders
learn to apply their talents to the challenges they face, is
the key to long-term success (Louis & Schreiner, 2012).
Teaching student leaders to identify and develop their
strengths as well as the strengths of others can foster
resilience because it encourages the perspective-taking
that is foundational to the cognitive style that epitomiz-
es resilient leaders. In short, strengths development
represents an orientation to work and life that contrib-
utes to emotional well-being and enhanced resilience.
Leaders who “spot talent” and reinforce the potential
they see in colleagues have a way of identifying and cel-
ebrating patterns of excellence, bolstering resilience in
themselves and their peers in the process.
CONCLUSION
Resilient leaders often see the world through a dif-
ferent lens, viewing both people and events from a pos-
itive perspective that enables them to see the big picture
and the potential in others, and as a result recover from
adversity and conflict with renewed energy and com-
mitment. By teaching student leaders to reframe neg-
ative events, while also becoming aware of how their
strengths interact with the strengths of others, we can
prepare the next generation of leaders for the level of
creative and collaborative problem solving that will be
required in an increasingly complex world.
REFERENCES
Avolio, B. J., and Luthans, F. (2006). The high im-
pact leader. New York, NY: McGraw Hill.
Bolman, L. G., & Deal, T. E. (2008). Reframing or-
ganizations: Artistry, choice, and leadership. San Fran-
cisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Buckingham, M. & Coffman, C. (1999). First break
all the rules: What the world’s greatest managers do dif-
ferently. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.
Clifton, D. O., & Harter, J. K. (2003). Investing in
strengths. In K.S. Cameron, J. E. Dutton, & R. E. Quinn
(Eds.), Positive organizational scholarship (pp. 111-121).
San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler.
Dweck, C.S. (2006). Mindset: The new psychology
of success. New York, NY: Random House.
Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emo-
tions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build
theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56,
218-216.
Fredrickson, B. L. (2003). The value of positive
emotions. American Psychologist, 91, 330-335.
Fusch, D., & Mrig, A. (2011, June). Rethinking
higher education’s leadership crisis. Higher Ed Impact:
Monthly Diagnostic. Retrieved from http://www.aca-
demicimpressions.com/hei_resources/0611-diagnostic.
pdf
Heifetz, R. A., & Linsky, M. (2002). Leadership on
the line. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
“Resilient leaders
take a “balcony view”
that allows them
to rise above the
fray, appreciate the
perspectives of others,
and consider the long-
term implications of
potential actions and
decisions.”

Kellerman, B. (2012). The end of leadership. New
York, NY: HarperCollins.
Keyes, C. L. M., & Haidt, J. (2003). Flourishing:
Positive psychology and the life well-lived. Washington,
D.C.: American Psychological Association.
Lindley,A.(2008).AveragetoA+:Realisingstrengths
in yourself and others. Warwick, England: CAPP Press.
Longman, K. (2012). (Ed.) Thriving in leadership:
Strategies for making a difference in Christian higher
education (pp. 39-58). Abilene, TX: Abilene Christian
University Press.
Louis, M. C. (2009). A summary and critique of ex-
isting strengths-based educational research utilizing the
Clifton StrengthsFinder. Omaha, NE: The Gallup Or-
ganization.
Louis, M. C., & Schreiner, L. A. (2012). Helping stu-
dents thrive: A strengths development model. In L. A.
Schreiner, M. C. Louis, & D. D. Nelson (Eds.), Thriving
in transitions: A research-based approach to college stu-
dent success (pp. 19-40). Columbia, SC: University of
South Carolina, National Resource Center for The First-
Year Experience and Students in Transition.
Rath, T., & Conchie, B. (2008). Great leaders, teams,
and why people follow: Strengths-based leadership.
New York, NY: Gallup Press.
Rath, T., & Harter, J. (2010). Well being: The five
essential elements. New York: Gallup Press.
Schreiner, L. A. (2012). Thriving as a leader: The
role of resilience and relationships. In K. Longman
(Ed.) Thriving in leadership: Strategies for making a
difference in Christian higher education (pp. 39-58).
Abilene, TX: Abilene Christian University Press.
Southwick, S. M. & Charney, D.C. (2012). Resilience:
The art of mastering life’s greatest challenges: Cam-
bridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Laurie A. Schreiner and Karen A. Longman
are professors in the Department of Higher Education
at Azusa Pacific University. In addition to preparing
100+ doctoral students for careers in higher education
leadership through “scholarship that makes a differ-
ence,” the authors are involved with leadership devel-
opment and research related to strengths and thriving.
The contents of this article were initially presented at
the October 2013 annual conference of the Interna-
tional Leadership Association in Montreal, Quebec.
The authors also co-edit the journal Christian Higher
Education: An International Journal of Research, The-
ory, and Practice.
Council for the Advancement for Standards in Higher
Education (CAS), Leadership Program Standards
www.cas.edu/index.php/standards
The Leadership Education Institute (LEI) is an innovative
forum geared specifically towards new to mid-level student
affairs professionals and leadership coordinators.
December 11-13, 2014 | Texas Christian University

How do individuals develop resilience? Does build-
ing resilience happen naturally or can the process be
intentionally promoted? Based on our experiences as
educators, we suggest that colleges and universities can
offer students the opportunity to build resilience. Pro-
grams focused on developing students’ management
and leadership skills can instill confidence in students,
encouraging them to take risks and learn from failure
in safe, open environments. Undergraduate leadership
programs in which students learn experientially can pro-
mote resilience building.
What do we mean by building resilience, and why
is doing so important for our students? Building resil-
ience has three components. First, resilience is not an
exclusive, unique trait; all students are capable of devel-
oping and exercising resilience through a combination
of personal skills and behaviors. Second, building resil-
ience centers on a student’s actions and reactions during
a period of adversity. The degree of resilience a stu-
dent exhibits depends on his or her ability to withstand
stress. Third, we associate resilience building with a pos-
itive outcome, such as creating success from adversity.
Simply stated, we want our student leaders to withstand
stress, learn from the stressful experience, and grow in
the process (Heifetz, 1994).
When students arrive on any campus, there may be
forces working against the students’ development of re-
silience. First, students often expect college life to be
an extension of their previously experienced lifestyles,
if not better. Competition among institutions, for in-
stance, has upped the ante on luxurious dormitory ame-
nities, creating a “club-med” effect. As such, modern
campus life is not designed to be a lesson in stressful
living (Selingo, 2013). Second, students—the millenni-
als—are often risk-averse. Many have grown up with
very structured lives (e.g., highly organized youth sports)
in a period of relative affluence and incredible techno-
logical advances (Howe & Strauss, 2000). Because mil-
lennials face a competitive job market, they might avoid
stressful experiences during college that could adversely
impact their future job prospects (such as taking diffi-
cult electives that may hurt their grade point averages).
Third, society often tells millennials that failing is bad
(Schulz, 2010). As a result, millennials may avoid experi-
ences that could increase the probability of failure.
It is within this context that educators create pro-
grams aimed at building resilience and helping students
develop into authentic leaders. Because the real world
does not shelter recent college graduates, it is the re-
sponsibility of colleges and universities to prepare stu-
dents for an uncertain, potentially stressful future.
Our institutions offer programs that help students
understand self-awareness, how they operate within
teams, how they contribute to their institution’s mission,
and how they ensure the congruence of their values and
actions (George & Sims, 2007). These factors help stu-
dents become more resilient when faced with adversity.
The Center for Leadership at Northwestern Univer-
sity was founded in 1990 through a grant from the W.K.
Kellogg Foundation. The Center helps students and
faculty understand the nature of leadership, preparing
students to become leaders. While the Center offers its
own programs for undergraduate students, most of its
work is in partnership with other university courses and
programs that involve over 50 faculty and 800 students
annually. Each year, approximately 120 undergraduate
students participate in individual leadership coaching,
300 conduct a 360-degree leadership assessment, 700
conduct teamwork assessments as part of another fac-
ulty member’s course, 90 students enroll in a leadership
course, and 25 complete an academic certificate pro-
gram. Notably, resilience is a central pedagogy in the
by Sadhana Hall, Adam Goodman, and Gama Perruci
Program Spotlight: Building
Resilience through Experiential
Education

Center’s partnerships and programs and is one of six
assets measured by the leadership assessment (http://
lead.northwestern.edu/).
The McDonough Leadership Center at Mariet-
ta College in Ohio was
established in 1986
through a generous gift
from Alma McDonough,
the widow of industri-
alist and entrepreneur
Bernard P. McDonough,
and the McDonough
Foundation. The Center
offers a comprehensive
undergraduate leader-
ship program with five
possible tracks: Interna-
tional Leadership Studies
Major; Minor in Leader-
ship Studies; Certificate
in Leadership Studies;
Teacher Leadership Cer-
tificate; and Engineer-
ing Leadership Certif-
icate. These tracks are
organized around three
components: knowledge
(leadership education
– curricular content);
action (leadership train-
ing – skill-building); and
growth (leadership devel-
opment through self-as-
sessment and coaching
sessions). The “action”
component is based on
an experiential education
model, which includes
workshops, service proj-
ects, internships, and
study-abroad (http://mcdonough.marietta.edu).
The Rockefeller Center at Dartmouth College was
founded in 1983 to commemorate the civic contribu-
tions of Nelson A. Rockefeller ‘30. The Rockefeller
Center’s mission is to educate, train, and inspire the
next generation of public policy leaders in all fields of
endeavor. The Center seeks to connect undergraduate
student experiences in and out of the classroom, on and
off campus, throughout students’ four years.
The curricular offerings of the Rockefeller Center
allow students to engage with public policy in their areas
of interest. Students can enroll in public policy courses
and complete a Public Policy minor, enabling students
to explore the public pol-
icy process and conduct
policy. The Center offers
the Policy Research Shop,
a student-staffed, fac-
ulty-mentored research
program in which stu-
dents conduct research
and testify their findings
at the request of New
Hampshire and Vermont
state legislatures. Oth-
er programs include an
exchange program with
Keble College at Oxford
University, a fellowship
through the Center for
the Study of the Presi-
dency and Congress, and
grants for students’ hon-
ors theses in the social
sciences.
Outside the class-
room, the Center uses
Kolb’s learning cycle
and provides students
with structured, ro-
bust co-curricular pro-
grams designed to build
on students’ leadership
skills and capacities.
Student-led discussion
groups (VoxMasters,
RBEL, and PoliTalk), the
First-Year Fellows Pro-
gram in Washington, DC,
funding for off-campus internships, the Management
and Leadership Development Program, a Mini-Grants
program for supporting special student-initiated proj-
ects, Create Your Path, Rockefeller Global Leadership
Program, and the Rockefeller Leadership Fellows Pro-
gram help students develop self-awareness, reflect upon
their strengths, and assess their capacities to work in
teams within organizational settings (http://rockefeller.
dartmouth.edu/studentopps/).
“These resilience-
building programs
… are rigorous, link
theory and practice,
create opportunities
for reflection, provide
students with feedback,
build community,
allow students to
assess their own skills
and capabilities in
addressing adversity,
and provide tools for
routine learning from
future adversity.”

These resilience-building programs share the fol-
lowing characteristics: they are rigorous, link theory and
practice, create opportunities for reflection, provide stu-
dents with feedback, build community, allow students
to assess their own skills and capabilities in addressing
adversity, and provide tools for routine learning from
future adversity.
Adverse experienc-
es teach and shape peo-
ple more than successful
experiences do. In this
article, we provide an
example of an effective
tool for documenting
and discussing “leader-
ship crucibles.” Crucibles
are those “transformative
experiences” that enable
students, particularly stu-
dent leaders, to “exam-
ine their values, question
their assumptions, and hone their judgments” (Thomas,
2008, p. 5-6). Crucibles allow student leaders to come
“face-to-face with” themselves and recognize that life is
“about far more than being a hero.” Following an analy-
sis of their crucibles, student leaders can then recognize
how they came to be leaders (George, McLean, & Craig,
2008, p. 36-37). If properly documented, these crucible
moments can help reveal a student leader’s core values.
Furthermore, routinely doing reflective work around
crucible experiences can build resilience.
We now outline the process by which student lead-
ers can reflect upon their crucible moments via a 7-step
process (Goodman, 2008):
1. Students begin by recalling a transformative in-
cident, describing the crucible in narrative form. At this
point in the exercise, students should refrain from draw-
ing conclusions about their crucible.
2. Next, students describe the backstory, such as
the events that led to the crucible.
3. Students then describe how this crucible has af-
fected their leadership capability. Crucibles typically af-
fect a student leader’s choices.
4. Students then describe their insights. For exam-
ple, students may ask themselves what does the crucible
reveal about their leadership styles and realities.
5. Students then consider the values present in
their narrative, identifying their most prioritized value.
This activity challenges students to be honest about
their values and behaviors.
6. Next, students identify the key lessons gleaned
from their crucibles.
7. Students conclude the exercise by organizing
their crucibles into brief stories, allowing them to fo-
cus on the essence of
the crucible (Goodman,
2008b).
Hundreds of lead-
ers, students and adults,
have used the aforemen-
tioned process (Good-
man, Wolff, Bocken-
feld, Tiedeman, & Kim,
2010) and a compan-
ion discussion guide
(Goodman, 2008b) to
explore past failures and
challenges. In doing so,
student leaders can learn from their crucible moments
and improve their roles as leaders by applying their
newfound insights to future challenges. In addition,
a student leader can build resilience by refining his or
her ability to detect crucible moments in a timely man-
ner. Understanding their crucible moments, what they
learned from their transformative experiences, and why
their experiences have made them who they are today
will allow student leaders to navigate future stressful sit-
uations.
REFERENCES
George, B., & Sims, P. (2007). True North: Discover
Your Authentic Leadership. San Francisco,
CA: Jossey-Bass/John Wiley & Sons.
George, B., McLean, A., & Craig, N. (2008). Finding
Your True North: A Personal Guide. San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass/John Wiley & Sons.
Goodman, A. (2008). Leadership Crucible Work-
sheet. Unpublished worksheet. Evanston, IL: Center for
Leadership, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL.
Goodman, A. (2008b). Leadership Crucible Work-
sheet. Worksheet. Evanston, IL: Center for
Leadership. Northwestern University.
“Adverse experiences
teach and shape people
more than successful
experiences do.”

Goodman, A., Wolff, A., Bockenfeld, D., Tiedeman,
B., & Kim, M. (2010). Leadership Portal
(Version 1.0). Evanston, IL: Center for Leadership,
Northwestern University. Retrieved
from <http://lead.northwestern.edu/pages/por-
tal>.
Heifetz, R. (1994). Leadership Without Easy An-
swers. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of
Harvard University Press.
Howe, N., & Strauss, B. (2000). Millennials Rising:
The Next Great Generation. New York, NY:
Vintage Books.
Schulz, K. (2010). Being Wrong: Adventures in the
Margin of Error. New York, NY: Ecco.
Selingo, J. J. (2013). College (Un)Bound: The Future
of Higher Education and What It Means
for Students. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Har-
court.
Thomas, R. J. (2008). Crucibles of Leadership: How
to Learn from Experience to Become a
Great Leader. Boston, MA: Harvard Business Re-
view Press.
Sadhana Hall is the Deputy Director of the
Nelson A. Rockefeller Center for Public Policy and the
Social Sciences.
Prof. Adam Goodman directs Northwest-
ern University’s Center for Leadership and is a faculty
member in the McCormick School of Engineering and
Applied Science.
Dr. Gama Perruci is Dean of the Mc-
Donough Leadership Center and the McCoy Professor
of Leadership Studies at Marietta College.
Special thanks to Nikki Sachdeva ’15 (Dart-
mouth College) for editing assistance.
The 16th Annual ILA Global Conference
Conscious Leading for Global Change: Emergence of our
Collective Realities
Thurs. Oct. 30 - Sun. Nov. 2, 2014
San Diego, CA, USA | Hilton Bayfront Hotel

Think of a difficult experience in your life. What
got you through it? Was it a state of mind? A skill set?
An attitude? At the base of how you handled the diffi-
culty was the concept of resilience.
Research on resilience began in the 1970’s in the
fields of psychology and psychiatry to understand “…
the phenomenon of resilience in children at risk for
psychopathology and problems in development due to
genetic and experiential circumstances” (Masten, 2001,
p. 227). Since that time, resilience has been studied in
fields as varied as human development, change manage-
ment, medicine, and nursing (Ledesma, 2013).
DEFINING RESILIENCE
Many definitions of resilience exist but they most
commonly boil down to having the ability to overcome
difficult situations or to persevere through challenges.
Masten (2001) defines resilience as “…a class of phe-
nomena characterized by good outcomes in spite of
serious threats to adaptation or development” (p. 228).
Bonanno (2004) defines resilience as protective psycho-
logical risk factors that foster positive outcomes. Resil-
ience has also been defined as the ability to bounce back
and to withstand hardship by repairing oneself (Hig-
gins, 1994 and Wolin & Wolin, 1993 as cited in Ledes-
ma, 2013); as the ability to cope with challenges while
maintaining an integrated sense of self (Garmezy &
Masten, 1986); the ability to successfully cope with ad-
versity (Werner & Smith, 2001); and the ability to thrive
in difficult situations (Geocaris, 2004).
Frankl (1984) has identified several themes regard-
ing resilience, including that unavoidable suffering is a
hidden opportunity for human achievement. In other
words, as humans we “get through” our suffering not
“get over it” and come out the other side stronger for it.
Barbour (2013), in her International Leadership Associ-
ation presentation, identified four individual features of
resilience from the scholarship: accepting reality, find-
ing meaning, having a broad perspective, and building
relationships. Resilience is less a trait, and is more man-
ifested in one’s behavior (Masten & Powell, n.d.).
In addition to individuals, resilience is relevant at or-
ganizational and ecological levels as well. Resilience, at
an organization level, can be defined as “the adaptation
of a system [that] has been threatened by experiences
capable of disrupting or destroying the successful oper-
ation of the system” (Masten & Obradovic, 2006, p. 14).
At an ecological level, resilience is about the stability of
an ecosystem and the capability of a system to tolerate
disturbance and then restore itself to maintain function
(Folke, Carpenter, Elmqvist, Gunderson, Holling, &
Walker, 2002).
RESILIENCE = SUCCESS
Research on the effectiveness of school adminis-
trators has identified resilience as a factor contribut-
ing to leadership success (Maulding, Peters, Roberts,
Leonard, & Sparkman, 2012; Christman & McClellan,
2008). Maulding et al (2012) found that resilience of
school leaders may positively or negatively impact the
organization’s culture. Relationship building skills were
identified as key to resilience for leaders (Maulding et al,
2012; Christman & McClellan, 2008). Leaders able to
communicate, listen, and build trust have the capability
to weather adversity. Having supportive relationships
contributes to a leaders’ ability to overcome adversity.
Similar concepts are found in research on college
students (Komives, Longerbeam, Owen, Marnella, &
Osteen, 2006; Jackson, Smith, & Hill, 2003; Pizzolato,
2003). The Leadership Identity Development research
conducted by Komives et al (2006) has aspects of resil-
ience reflected in Stages Four, Five, and Six. At Stage
Four, students begin to be committed to the concept of
interdependence and the need to develop trust. In Stage
by Brenda McKenzie
Scholarship and Research Updates:
Leadership and Resilience

Five, students express concern for the sustainability of
their groups (organizational resilience). In Stage Six, as
students encounter new situations, they are able to as-
sess and find their fit.
Research on the persistence of at-risk college stu-
dents can also provide insight on individual resilience.
Jackson et al (2003) identified Native American students’
confidence in their ability to succeed to be of great im-
portance to their persistence. Their research identified
conflicting pressures of family support for succeeding
and maintaining their Native American community
identity, incidents of racism (subtle and overt), and the
nonlinear path many of the students took to completing
their education (i.e. stopping out, transferring multiple
times) as major roadblocks to the persistence of Native
American students. The students in this study demon-
strated an innate ability to develop the resilience to suc-
ceed. The ability to take advantage of opportunities on
campus, “…the ability to adapt to a different culture,
and the ability to effectively deal with racism may be due
to personal attributes…” (Jackson et al, 2003, p. 561).
Similar findings can be found in other studies (Clauss-
Ehlers & Wibrowski, 2007, for example).
RESILIENCE RELATED TO LEADERSHIP
As Heifitz and Linsky (2004) note, leadership often
“…requires helping groups make difficult choices and
give up something they value on behalf of something
they care about more…” (p. 33). Adaptive (and resil-
ient) leaders solve these kind of challenges by changing
people’s values, habits, or ways of life (Heifitz & Linsky,
2004). To do this requires establishing relationships,
involving others (even naysayers), and accepting one’s
own responsibility for the situation. As Ledesma (2013)
states, “The biggest challenge that leaders face today is
accepting the responsibility for doing whatever it takes
to move ahead in the face of adversity” (p. 15). It takes
resilience!
Research is lacking on leadership and resilience, how
leaders overcome challenges and develop resilience, how
leaders use the concepts of organizational resilience in
their work, and how leadership educators could guide
college students in the development of their resilience.
Leadership educators in higher education can take their
cues from the research conducted in the social sciences,
business, and the medical arena to conduct research in
this area.
CONCLUSION
“Resilience appears to be a common phenomenon
arising from ordinary human adaptive processes” (Mas-
ten, 2001, p. 234). Resilience can grow from seemingly
negative life experiences. Resilience has moved from
being thought of as a trait to being a process and now as
an innate force within us. So back to the question posed
at the beginning – how did you get through the diffi-
cult situation you identified? How can you now use this
knowledge in future challenging situations as a leader?
“Many definitions of
resilience exist but
they most commonly
boil down to having
the ability to overcome
difficult situations or
to persevere through
challenges.”
“It is our intent that
programs and services
will function as a
history of connected
learning opportunities
rather than a series of
isolated activities.”

REFERENCES
Barbour, J. D. (2013). Resilience theory applied:
Synopsis for organizations and leaders. Paper
presented at International Leadership Association,
Montreal, Canada.
Bonanno, G. A. (2004). Loss, trauma, and human
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28.
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Brenda McKenzie is currently a second year doc-
toral student in the Higher Education Administration
program at Kent State University. Her current research
interest is women and leadership. She has 20+ years
of higher education experience, most recently at Kent
State working with leadership development, Greek life,
and snt activities. Her other professional experience in-
cluded working with student organizations, new student
programs, non-traditional adult students, and residence
life.
Renew your membership now. It’s never been a better time
to join NCLP. Get discounts on publications, subscribe to
the NCLP listserv, and benefit from discounted conference
registration. Join or renew now at www.nclp.umd.edu!
Interested in learning more about student leadership? Join
NASPA’s Knowledge Community for Student Leadership
Programs (www.naspa.org) and ACPA’s Commission for
Student Involvement (www.myacpa.org)

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UPCOMING EVENTS
2014 National Leadership Symposium:
Leadership Competencies from Research to
Results
July 14 - 17, University of Tampa, FL
A formal meeting at which several specialists deliver short ad-
dresses on a topic or on related topics; participants engaging in a
collection of opinions, dialogue and idea exchange.
About the Symposium and the Learner Community
The National Leadership Symposium is a professional
development experience designed for faculty members, student
affairs professionals, and other educators involved with promoting
leadership education at colleges and universities. The program is
coordinated by the National Association for Campus Activities
(NACA) and the National Clearinghouse for Leadership Programs
(NCLP). The Symposium includes a variety of formats, exercises,
and conversations to engage different learning styles and pref-
erences, both introverted and extroverted. Given the immersive
learning environment of the Symposium, it is advised that
participants have significant professional experience in leadership
education.
In order to fully engage in the Symposium learner commu-
nity, participants are expected to have read several selected read-
ings in advance of the arriving for the NLS experience. The Na-
tional Leadership Symposium is designed for an intimate collegial
learning environment of 50 participants. Your engagement will
involve intense periods for learning in the large community, small
group, and individual levels.
Symposium 2014 Focus
As student leadership development professionals, the task
of assisting students in the development of their leadership com-
petencies seems to be a much harder task than the theoretical
framework we base our craft on. What leadership competencies
are most critical for students to develop? How do we create mean-
ingful experiences to assist students in developing those compe-

tencies? And how will we know they have developed the intended
competencies? This symposium will introduce participants to the
world of leadership competencies; how they are conceptualized,
utilized, and evaluated. In addition symposium participants will
work together to explore the following issues in regard to leader-
ship competencies:
• What exactly is a competency? What are the foundational tenets
and the historical context of competency-based learning?
• What competency-based models currently exist? If I were to
create a competency-based model, how would I do that? Where
do I start?
• What is the process for creating a competency-based leadership
curriculum? How do I determine what competencies to focus on
for students at my individual institution?
• Can competencies be developed or mastered? How would one
know? What kind of assessment and reflective techniques assist in
measuring competency development?
As in the past, this year’s National Leadership Symposium
will provide a framework for theory to practice in delving into
these and other questions.
Association of Leadership Educators 2014 An-
nual Conference
July 13-16, 2014 | San Antonio, TX
The Association of Leadership Educators (ALE) invites
you to join us at our annual professional conference in San An-
tonio. This year’s conference theme, “Visions of Leadership
- Reflecting on the Past, Focusing on the Future,” emphasizes
the dynamic nature of leadership education and the ALE. ALE
recognizes that leadership education is about providing learners
and practitioners with knowledge and skills for growth, change,
and forward movement. This year we will focus on honoring our
tradition while exploring future opportunities for leadership edu-
cation. Participants will be invited to step outside of their comfort
zone and participate in activities and sessions aimed at creating an

exciting future full of opportunities and innovation for those we
serve.
Please see our organization website for more information, includ-
ing the 2014 Call for Proposals: www.leadershipeducators.org/
NextConference. Please note that registration for the conference
will be available in January of 2014.

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