BurkleyFirst edition Chapter 7BelongingCopyright © 201.docx

Burkley
First edition
Chapter 7
Belonging
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
1
Learning Objectives (1 of 2)
7.1 Analyze the concept of belonging as a core motive
7.1.1 Analyze how belonging elicits behaviors
7.1.2 Explain how belonging produces positive outcomes
7.1.3 Describe the universality of belonging
7.2 Describe how the sociometer theory is related to motivation
7.2.1 Explain the concepts that influence self-esteem
7.3 Analyze the ways people gain and maintain belonging
7.3.1 Explain the relationship between likeability and belonging
7.3.2 Explain the relationship between competence and
belonging
7.4 Analyze theories that examine how groups help fulfill the
need to belong
7.4.1 Describe social identity theory
Slide 2 is list of textbook LO numbers and statements
2
7.4.2 Explain terror management theory

7.4.3 Describe optimal distinctiveness theory
7.5 Compare the psychological outcomes of belonging in
cyberspace versus real-world interactions
7.5.1 Explain how cyberspace affects belonging
7.5.2 Explain the relationship between cyberspace and face-to-
face contact
7.6 Analyze how the loss of belonging can affect motivation
7.6.1 Describe how researchers study ostracism
7.6.2 Explain how internal reactions to rejection can affect
motivation
7.6.3 Explain how behavioral reactions to rejection can affect
motivation
7.6.4 Explain how long-term reactions to rejection can affect
motivation
3
Introduction: Belonging
Key questions to be answered
The need to belong
Sociometer theory
How we gain and maintain belonging
Fulfilling our need to belong within groups
Fulfilling our need to belong within cyberspace
Reactions to loss of belonging
Humans have a fundamental need to belong and to form and
maintain lasting, positive relationships.
A person’s relational value reflects the degree to which other
people value a relationship with them.
Self-presentation refers to our attempts to project a positive

social impression.
Our group memberships are ones that fulfill our need to belong.
People often fulfill their need to belong through the use of the
Internet and social media.
Ostracism occurs frequently, and it can result in many reactions,
short term and long term.
4
7.1: The Need to Belong (1 of 3)
7.1: Analyze the concept of belonging as a core motive
Belonging as a core motive
Rejection
Pervasive drive to form and maintain lasting, positive
interpersonal relationships
How do we know belonging is a core motive?
Babies
Pair bonding
Loners/hermits
7.1: Analyze the concept of belonging as a core motive
Point 1 – Belonging as a core motive
71% of students report bullying as a problem; 42% report being
bullied online/cell phones.
Belonging is also sometimes referred to as a need for affiliation
or need for relatedness.
Point 2 – How do we know belonging is a core motive?
Within 36 hours of birth, babies prefer human faces.
Only 3% of mammals practice pair bonding.
Even loners have ongoing contact with others. When people
truly live alone or do not have social connectedness, it is not
usually done out of choice.
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7.1.1: Belonging Elicits Behaviors
7.1.1: Analyze how belonging elicits behaviors
How does belonging elicit behaviors?
Quickly and easily form bonds with caregivers, group members,
and acquaintances
“Rebound” relationships
Social snacking
7.1.2: Belonging Produces Positive Outcomes
7.1.2: Explain how belonging produces positive outcomes
How does belonging produce positive outcomes?
Adaptive
Mental health and well-being
Physical health
7.1.1: Belonging Elicits Behaviors
7.1.1: Analyze how belonging elicits behaviors
Point 1 – How does belonging elicit behaviors?
Consider Tom Hanks’ character in Castaway and how he created
human contact with the volleyball he called Wilson.
Physical proximity is a major determinant of friendship
development and interpersonal attraction.
How does this relate to dating and friendships in college?
After a relationship ends, we often try to fill that hole.
Discuss Sheldon and Gunz (2009) and the personality test
challenging belonging.
Social snacking involves seeking out symbolic reminders of our
current or past social connections.
7.1.2: Belonging Produces Positive Outcomes

7.1.2: Explain how belonging produces positive outcomes
Point 1 – How does belonging produce positive outcomes?
Social connections compensated for a lack of speed, ferocity,
and strength in our ancestors.
How does that social connectedness translate to survival in our
modern world?
Studies show that people who report being lonely have
increased rates of depression, personality disorders, and suicidal
thoughts and behaviors.
Belonging is associated with more exercise, better diets, and
better dental hygiene.
Being lonely is associated with higher death rates. Discuss Luo
et al. (2012) and research with the National Death Index.
6
7.1.3: Belonging Is Universal
7.1.3: Describe the universality of belonging
Belonging is universal
Found in every culture/country
Cultural differences
Individual differences
Belonging in the brain
Structure responsible for processing pain and pleasure
Anterior cingulate cortex
Oxytocin
Neurochemical
Treating social disorders
Increase socialness
7.1.3: Belonging Is Universal
7.1.3: Describe the universality of belonging

Point 1 – Belonging is universal.
People in every society belong to small groups.
Western cultures tend to seek loose relationships, while Eastern
cultures seek secure, tight relationships.
Some people have a stronger “affiliation motive” than others
and have high fears of rejection. Men focus on loose bonds with
large groups, while women prefer tight, intimate relationships.
Point 2 – Belonging in the brain
Social connections are inherently pleasurable.
Raises the idea that social rejection produces the same effects
as physical pain.
Point 3 – Oxytocin
Oxytocin plays a role in social affiliation and pair bonding.
Oxytocin has been influential in treating autism spectrum
disorder.
Oxytocin can help typical people become more social. Refer to
Kosfeld et al. (2005) and game of trust.
7
7.2: Sociometer Theory
7.2: Describe how the sociometer theory is related to motivation
What is sociometer theory?
Relational value
Self-esteem
Gauge
7.2.1: Does Acceptance Boost Self-Esteem and Rejection
Reduce It?
7.2.1: Explain the concepts that influence self-esteem
Does acceptance boost self-esteem?
Exclusion lowers self-esteem when it reflects disapproval from
others.
Exclusion by strangers

7.2: Describe how the sociometer theory is related to motivation
Point 1 – What is sociometer theory?
Our attempts to maximize acceptance and reduce rejection is an
effort to enhance relational value.
Both positive and negative behaviors are linked to increasing
our relational value.
Self-esteem is influenced heavily by our sense of belonging.
The sociometer monitors social relationships and gives a
warning when one is in danger of being rejected.
7.2.1: Does Acceptance Boost Self-Esteem and Rejection
Reduce It?
7.2.1: Explain the concepts that influence self-esteem
Point 1 – Does acceptance boost self-esteem?
Refer to Figure 7.1: Effect of Group Exclusion on Self-Esteem.
Discuss Leary et al. (1995) and group exclusion study.
Self-esteem decreases with rejection from strangers, people we
desire, and even by non-sentient beings.
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Figure 7.1: Effect of Group Exclusion on Self-Esteem
9
7.3: How We Gain and Maintain Belonging (1 of 2)
7.3: Analyze the ways people gain and maintain belonging
How do we gain and maintain belonging?

Self-presentation
Likeability
Competence
7.3.1: Likeability
7.3.1: Explain the relationship between likeability and
belonging
The relationship between likeability and belonging
Pleasant, friendly, agreeable
Emphasize similarity
Primary factor in being liked
Matching hypothesis
Utilize ingratiation
Flattery, praise
7.3: Analyze the ways people gain and maintain belonging
Point 1 – How do we gain and maintain belonging?
Impression management is important because making a good
impression is one of the most important tasks in initiating a
social relationship.
We try to present traits to gain and maintain relationships.
7.3.1: Likeability
7.3.1: Explain the relationship between likeability and
belonging
Point 1 – The relationship between competence and belonging
People who are more competent have a higher relational value.
Why do we want to share our accomplishments with others?
10
7.3: How We Gain and Maintain Belonging (2 of 2)
7.3.2: Competence

7.3.2: Explain the relationship between competence and
belonging
The relationship between competence and belonging
Strive for success
7.3.2: Competence
7.3.2: Explain the relationship between competence and
belonging
Point 1 – The relationship between competence and belonging
People who are more competent have a higher relational value.
Why do we want to share our accomplishments with others?
11
7.4: Fulfilling Our Need to Belong Within Groups (1 of 3)
7.4: Analyze theories that examine how groups help fulfill the
need to belong
Why do we want to belong to groups?
Minimal group paradigm
In-group favoritism
7.4.1: Social Identity Theory
7.4.1: Describe social identity theory
What is social identity theory?
We form groups quickly because our groups represent a major
source of self-esteem.
Self-esteem from group memberships
Favor in-group members
7.4: Analyze theories that examine how groups help fulfill the
need to belong

Point 1 – Why do we want to belong to groups?
Groups are created from the most minimal of conditions.
Once minimal groups are created, people start to show
preferential treatment toward their in-group and hostility to the
out-group.
7.4.1: Social Identity Theory
7.4.1: Describe social identity theory
Point 1 – What is social identity theory?
We categorize others into in-groups and out-groups to arouse
feelings of competition and a desire to win.
When our group does well, we experience a rise in self-esteem.
Discuss De Dreu et al. (2011) and Dutch participants with a
moral dilemma.
12
7.4.2: Terror Management Theory
7.4.2: Explain terror management theory
What is terror management theory?
Recognize mortality
Coping mechanisms—perceived immortality
People cope with the inherent fear of their own death by
promoting and defending the groups to which they belong.
Evidence for terror management theory
Mortality salience
Conformity to group norms
Identification with one’s gender and race
Criticisms
Inconsistent with evolutionary theory
Cannot account for behaviors like suicide
Uncertainty or meaning can create the same responses
Do people actually experience “terror” when thinking about
their own death?

7.4.2: Terror Management Theory
7.4.2: Explain terror management theory
Point 1 – What is terror management theory?
Humans can imagine the future, both good and bad.
Coping mechanisms include the group and culture, which
provides a sense of immortality, from an afterlife or culture.
Point 2 – Evidence for terror management theory
Watching videos or writing an essay predicting death is the
most common way to examine terror management theory.
Refer to Figure 7.2: Terror Management Theory
We seek out groups to which we can belong, and reminders of
death increase people’s commitment to others.
Point 3 – Criticisms
Which criticisms do you think are valid? Why?
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Figure 7.2: Terror Management Theory
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7.4.3: Optimal Distinctiveness Theory
7.4.3: Describe optimal distinctiveness theory
What is optimal distinctiveness theory?
Tension between assimilation and differentiation

Define identity in an accepting but selective group.
7.4.3: Optimal Distinctiveness Theory
7.4.3: Describe optimal distinctiveness theory
Point 1 – What is optimal distinctiveness theory?
Within a group setting, these two desires are opposites, and we
work to resolve the tension.
Refer to Figure 7.3: Humans Constantly Experience a Tension
Between Desires for Assimilation and Differentiation.
15
Figure 7.3: Humans Constantly Experience a Tension Between
Desires for Assimilation and Differentiation
16
7.5: Fulfilling Our Need to Belong Within Cyberspace (1 of 2)
7.5: Compare the psychological outcomes of belonging in
How do we fulfill our need to belong in cyberspace?
Communication options
Social media
7.5.1: Is Cyberspace Good or Bad for Belonging?
7.5.1: Explain how cyberspace affects belonging
Is cyberspace good or bad for belonging?
Mixed studies
Facebook
Disconnection

Increased connection
Temporary fix
7.5: Compare the psychological outcomes of belonging in
Point 1 – How do we fulfill our need to belong in cyberspace?
The Internet has dramatically changed how we communicate and
interact with one another.
7.5.1: Is Cyberspace Good or Bad for Belonging?
7.5.1: Explain how cyberspace affects belonging
Point 1 – Is cyberspace good or bad for belonging?
Some studies show negative impacts, such as a reduced sense of
belonging. Others show that cyberspace is a good way to fulfill
the need to belong.
Point 2 – Facebook
People who feel disconnected are more likely to use Facebook.
They then feel more connected.
But, Facebook does not help people resolve their sense of
loneliness and isolation.
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7.5: Fulfilling Our Need to Belong Within Cyberspace (2 of 2)
7.5.2: Does Cyberspace Reduce Face-to-Face Contact?
7.5.2: Explain the relationship between cyberspace and face-to-
face contact
Does cyberspace reduce face-to-face contact?
Unwarranted concern
Facilitate relationships
Retain connections over long distances

7.5.2: Does Cyberspace Reduce Face-to-Face Contact?
7.5.2: Explain the relationship between cyberspace and face-to-
face contact
Point 1 – Does cyberspace reduce face-to-face contact?
People must eventually bring their online relationships into the
real world of face-to-face interactions.
Why do some studies suggest that relationships that start online
can be better than those that start the traditional way?
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7.6: Reactions to Loss of Belonging (1 of 5)
7.6: Analyze how the loss of belonging can affect motivation
What are the reactions to loss of belonging?
Ostracism
Bullying
Cyberbullying
School violence
7.6: Analyze how the loss of belonging can affect motivation
Point 1 – What are the reactions to loss of belonging?
There are many forms of ostracism, some more severe than
another.
Increased incidences of violence, especially among children,
has led to a greater awareness of ostracism.
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7.6.1: How Researchers Study Ostracism

7.6.1: Describe how researchers study ostracism
Studying ostracism
“Life Alone” technique
“Get Acquainted” technique
Cyberball
Consequences of rejection
Internal
Behavioral
Long term
7.6.1: How Researchers Study Ostracism
7.6.1: Describe how researchers study ostracism
Point 1 – Studying ostracism
What are the various ways researchers can study ostracism?
Why are these ways effective?
Point 2 – Consequences of rejection
Refer to Figure 7.4: Consequences of Rejection This figure is
not listed in the template.
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Figure 7.4: Consequences of Rejection
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7.6.2: Internal Reactions to Rejection
7.6.2: Explain how internal reactions to rejection can affect

motivation
The hurt feelings of rejection
Hurt feelings
Anterior cingulate cortex
Treating hurt feelings
Emotional numbness
Shock
“Life alone” technique
Impaired cognitive functioning
Poorer cognitive functioning
Poorer memory
“Life alone” technique
7.6.2: Internal Reactions to Rejection
7.6.2: Explain how internal reactions to rejection can affect
motivation
Point 1 – The hurt feelings of rejection
Refer to Figure 7.5: Six Experiences That Cause Hurt Feelings
All of the experiences that cause hurt feelings involve low
relational value in some form or another.
Why does social reject hurt in ways that other negative events
do not?
Discuss the Eisenberger, Leiberman, and Williams (2003) study
with Cyberball.
Does acetaminophen help treat hurt feelings? Discuss DeWall et
al. (2010).
Point 2 – Emotional numbness
Studies show that rejection causes people to become
emotionally numb and less likely to help others in need.
Point 1 – Impaired cognitive functioning

Refer to Figure 7.6: Effect of Rejection on Test Performance
Considering a lonely future negatively impacts cognitive
functioning.
22
Figure 7.5: Six Experiences That Cause Hurt Feelings
23
Figure 7.6: Effect of Rejection on Test Performance
24
7.6.3: Behavioral Reactions to Rejection
7.6.3: Explain how behavioral reactions to rejection can affect
motivation
Aggression
Experiences of ostracism
School shootings
Desensitization
Impaired self-regulation
Self-defeating behaviors
7.6.3: Behavioral Reactions to Rejection

7.6.3: Explain how behavioral reactions to rejection can affect
motivation
Point 1 – Aggression
Many school shooters have the experience of ostracism in
common.
Two-thirds of school shootings in the United States involved
bullying and ostracism.
Discuss Twenge et al. (2001) and aggression responses.
Rejection makes people more sensitive to rejection information.
What can help offset the aggression response to rejection?
Point 2 – Impaired self-regulation
Discuss Tice et al. (2001) and self-defeating behaviors.
Neuroimaging reveals that rejection decreases activity in the
brain that controls regulation.
25
7.6.4: Long-Term Reactions to Rejection
7.6.4: Explain how long-term reactions to rejection can affect
motivation
What are the long-term reactions to rejection?
Shame
Humiliation
Low self-esteem
Depression
Self-destruction
7.6.4: Long-Term Reactions to Rejection
7.6.4: Explain how long-term reactions to rejection can affect
motivation

Point 1 – What are the long-term reactions to rejection?
Chronic teasing, bullying, and ostracism can lead to many
negative psychological indicators.
Long-term rejection can lead to self-destructive behaviors, such
as eating disorders or suicide.
What do we need to do to reduce suicide risks?
26
Summary: Belonging
The concept of belonging as a core motive
The concepts that influence self-esteem
The ways people gain and maintain belonging
The theories that examine how groups help fulfill the need to
belong
The psychological outcomes of belonging in cyberspace versus
real-world interactions
How the loss of belonging can affect motivation
Humans seek out social connections, form bonds easily, and be
reluctant to break bonds once they are formed.
According to sociometer theory, self-esteem acts like a gauge.
When self-esteem is high, we are accepted by others, and vice
versa.
People try to present themselves as likeable by emphasizing
their similarities or engaging in ingratiation techniques.
Research using the minimal group paradigm indicates that
people form group bonds quickly and easily, and that once a
group is formed, people demonstrate in-group favoritism.
According to social identity theory, we automatically categorize
people into in-groups and out-groups. According to terror
management theory, our groups protect us against the fear of
death by promising immortality. According to optimal
distinctiveness theory, people strive to strike a balance between
assimilation and differentiation.

People who feel disconnected from others are more likely to use
social media, which helps them feel more connected.
Researchers study ostracism in a variety of methods. Ostracism
results in a number of inner reactions, including hurt feelings,
numbness, and impaired cognitive functioning. Long-term
ostracism is associated with self-destructive behaviors and
suicide.
27
Burkley
First edition
Chapter 6
Competence
1
Learning Objectives
6.1 Analyze the concept of competence as a core motive
6.1.1 Analyze how competence elicits behaviors
6.1.2 Explain how competence produces positive outcomes
6.1.3 Describe the universality of competence
6.2 Analyze the ways in which people express competence
6.2.1 Contrast learning and performance goals
6.2.2 Contrast entity and incremental beliefs
6.2.3 Explain the concept of self-efficacy
6.2.4 Explain the concept of flow
6.3 Evaluate how the self impacts our motivation
6.3.1 Analyze how goal fusion can impact motivation
6.3.2 Analyze how self-esteem can impact motivation

2
Learning Objectives
6.4.1 Describe social comparison theory
6.4.2 Explain the concept of self-assessment
6.4.3 Explain the concept of self-verification
6.4.4 Explain the concept of self-enhancement
6.4.5 Explain the concept of self-improvement
6.4.6 Describe how self-evaluation motives may be used
6.5 Analyze how the loss of competence can affect motivation
6.5.1 Explain the concept of self-serving attributional bias
6.5.2 Explain the concept of self-handicapping
6.5.3 Explain the concept of excuse making
3
Introduction: Competence
The need for competence
Variability in the expression of competence
The role of the self
Self-evaluation motives
Reactions to a loss of competence

The need for competence is a core motive that refers to people’s
basic desire for effectiveness, ability, or success.
People vary in the ways they express and fulfill their
competence.
The self-concept refers to an individual’s collection of self-
knowledge.
Self-evaluation refers to people’s attempts to judge aspects of
their self-concepts, including their competencies and abilities.
Self-serving attributions involve making internal attributions
for successes and external attributions for failures.
4
6.1: The Need for Competence (1 of 3)
6.1: Analyze the concept of competence as a core motive
What is the need for competence?
Desire for effectiveness, ability, or success
Doing one’s best
Learning new skills
6.1: Analyze the concept of competence as a core motive
Point 1 –What is the need for competence?
Refer to Figure 6.1: Competence Involves the Desire for
Ability, Success, and a Sense of Effectiveness
5
Figure 6.1: Competence Involves the Desire for Ability,
Success, and a Sense of Effectiveness

6
6.1.1: Competence Elicits Behaviors
6.1.1: Analyze how competence elicits behaviors
How does competence elicit behaviors?
Natural curiosity
Seek new information
Fear of incompetence
6.1.2: Competence Produces Positive Outcomes
6.1.2: Explain how competence produces positive outcomes
How does competence produce positive outcomes?
Physical health
Mental health
6.1.3: Competence Is Universal
6.1.3: Describe the universality of competence
6.1.1: Competence Elicits Behaviors
6.1.1: Analyze how competence elicits behaviors
Point 1 – How does competence elicit behaviors?
From birth, we seek out new information, set and strive for
abstract goals, and avoid situations in which we feel
incompetent.
Discuss Sheldon and Gunz (2009) and college students and a
personality test.
6.1.2: Competence Produces Positive Outcomes

6.1.2: Explain how competence produces positive outcomes
Point 1 – How does competence produce positive outcomes?
Feeling competent is linked to many positive benefits.
Benefits from competence often only occur if the individual
also feels autonomy.
Why would autonomy be linked to competence?
Discuss Fisher (1978) and word-find puzzles.
6.1.3: Competence Is Universal
6.1.3: Describe the universality of competence
Point 1 – Competence is universal.
Competence is universal in all cultures.
However, Eastern cultures are more likely than Western cultures
to value competence within group-based domains.
7
Competence is universal.
Western and Eastern cultures
Different definitions
8
6.2: Variability in the Expression of Competence (1 of 5)
6.2: Analyze the ways in which people express competence
How do people differ in their approach to competence?
Achievement motivation
Types of goals
Beliefs about where competencies come from
Perception of competency level

6.2.1: Learning Versus Performance Goals
6.2.1: Contrast learning and performance goals
Learning goals vs. performance goals
Learning goals—learn and improve competence
Performance goals—prove their competence
Independent goal types
High learning/high performance
High learning/low performance
Low learning/high performance
Low learning/low performance
6.2: Analyze the ways in which people express competence
Point 1 – How do people differ in their approach to
competence?
Some people are more driven to fulfill their competence need
than others.
Some people adopt the goal to improve their competence, while
others adopt to goal to prove their competence.
People who think competencies are something they are born
with respond differently from people who think their
competencies are something they had to work hard to achieve.
People who perceive themselves to be competent respond
differently from people who see themselves as incompetent.
6.2.1: Learning Versus Performance Goals
6.2.1: Contrast learning and performance goals
Point 1 – Learning goals vs. performance goals
People who prefer learning goals are not concerned about
making mistakes and want to learn new things.
People who prefer performance goals are concerned with

looking competent.
Point 2 – Independent goal types
Goals may not be on the same continuum, and people can fall
into different categories.
Point 3 – Approach vs. avoidance
Refer to the 2 x 2 goal taxonomy.
Learning-approach goals are the most beneficial, while
performance-avoidance goals are the least.
9
Approach vs. avoidance
Desire to approach success
Desire to avoid failure
10
Figure 6.2: The 2 × 2 Goal Taxonomy
11
6.2.2: Entity Versus Incremental Beliefs
6.2.2: Contrast entity and incremental beliefs
Dweck’s theory of implicit beliefs
Entity theorists

Incremental theorists
Differing outcomes for entity and incremental beliefs
Differences in the definition of competence
Differences in goal adaptation
Differences in effort after failure
How praise influences entity and incremental beliefs
Effort
Intelligence
6.2.2: Entity Versus Incremental Beliefs
6.2.2: Contrast entity and incremental beliefs
Point 1 – Dweck’s theory of implicit beliefs
Entity theorists believe traits and abilities are fixed.
Incremental theorists believe traits and abilities are malleable.
Point 2 – Differing outcomes for entity and incremental beliefs
Entity theorists means being competent is doing something well
right away without effort. Incremental theorists believe you
work hard and improve over time.
Entity people adopt performance goals while incremental people
adopt learning goals.
Incremental people increase efforts after failure, while entity
people are more likely to walk away.
Point 3 – How praise influences entity and incremental beliefs
Refer to Mueller and Dweck (1998) study of task persistence.
Refer to Figure 6.3: Praise on Task Persistence.
12
Figure 6.3: Praise on Task Persistence

13
6.2.3: Self-Efficacy
6.2.3: Explain the concept of self-efficacy
What is self-efficacy?
Belief about ability to accomplish a task
Task-specific
Not actual ability
Self-efficacy and motivational outcomes
Exert effort
Less emotional stress
Goal achievement
Attributions and self-efficacy
Early experiences
Attributions: internal, external, stable, unstable
6.2.3: Self-Efficacy
6.2.3: Explain the concept of self-efficacy
Point 1 – What is self-efficacy?
Self-efficacy is demonstrated in the children’s book The Little
Engine That Could.
Self-efficacy beliefs are not global beliefs.
Refer to Figure 6.4: Our Level of Competence is Determined by
Both Our Abilities and Our Perceived Capabilities (Self-
Efficacy).
Point 2 – Self-efficacy and motivational outcomes

Students achieve more when their self-efficacy beliefs are
increased.
Point 3 – Attributions and self-efficacy
Early experiences partially contribute to self-efficacy beliefs.
Attributions play a high role: Internal attributions increase
feelings of pride and accomplishment, and stable attributions
increase hope that good performances will occur in the future.
14
Figure 6.4: Our Level of Competence Is Determined by Both
Our Abilities and Our Perceived Capabilities (Self-Efficacy)
15
6.2.4: Flow
6.2.4: Explain the concept of flow
What is flow?
A subjective state in which people feel completely absorbed and
focused on an activity
Concerns, anxieties, commitments, time melt away
What causes flow?
Self-efficacy matches task competency
Benefits of flow
Task performance
Task continuation
6.2.4: Flow

6.2.4: Explain the concept of flow
Point 1 – What is flow?
Csikszentmihalyi (1982) was interested in why people perform
time-consuming activities for no extrinsic reward.
Point 2 – What causes flow?
Refer to Figure 6.5: Factors That Determine Flow.
Point 3 – Benefits of flow
Discuss Keller and Bless (2008) and the study of college
students and Tetris.
Flow is both a mental and a physical experience.
16
Figure 6.5: Factors That Determine Flow
17
6.3: The Role of Self (1 of 2)
6.3: Evaluate how the self impacts our motivation
What is the self-concept?
Individual’s collection of self-knowledge
Competencies as a foundation
6.3.1: Goal Fusion
6.3.1: Analyze how goal fusion can impact motivation
What is goal fusion?
The extent a goal is perceived to be integrated into a person’s
self-concept
Measuring goal fusion

6.3: Evaluate how the self impacts our motivation
Point 1 – What is the self-concept?
The self-concept is who you think you are.
Discuss the reflection list of “I am.” Competencies form the
basis for the sense of self.
6.3.1: Goal Fusion
6.3.1: Analyze how goal fusion can impact motivation
Point 1 –What is goal fusion?
When fusion is high, people feel one with their goal. (People
who jog vs. people who are joggers.)
Refer to Figure 6.6: Measure of Goal Fusion.
When we do not feel fused with a goal, successes and failures
with that goal have little impact.
18
Figure 6.6: Measure of Goal Fusion
19
6.3: The Role of Self (2 of 2)
6.3.2: Self-Esteem
6.3.2: Analyze how self-esteem can impact motivation
What is self-esteem?
How favorably or unfavorably people evaluate themselves
What determines self-esteem?

Contingencies of self-worth
6.3.2: Self-Esteem
6.3.2: Analyze how self-esteem can impact motivation
Point 1 – What is self-esteem?
Self-esteem is considered to be a major motivator of human
behavior.
Point 2 – What determines self-esteem?
Crocker at al. (2003; 2012; 2001) discuss that the impact an
event has on one’s self-esteem depends on the relevance of that
event to one’s contingencies of self-worth.
Discuss Crocker, Sommers, and Luhtanen (2002) study of
college seniors applying to graduate school.
20
6.4: Self-Evaluation Motives (1 of 4)
6.4: Differentiate self-evaluation motives
What is self-evaluation?
Judging aspects of self-concept
6.4.1: Social Comparison Theory
6.4.1: Describe social comparison theory
Social comparison theory
Festinger (1954)—We only know who we are and what we are
capable of by comparing ourselves to others
Need to accurate assess abilities
Four self-evaluation motives
Self-assessment
Self-verification
Self-enhancement
Self-improvement

6.4: Differentiate self-evaluation motives
Point 1 – What is self-evaluation?
People tend to compare their skills to those around them.
6.4.1: Social Comparison Theory
6.4.1: Describe social comparison theory
Point 1 – Social comparison theory
We make decisions of athletic ability or intelligence by
comparing ourselves to others.
When no definitive test is available, we look to others.
Is it important to know how others score?
Point 2 – Four self-evaluation motives
Refer to Figure 6.7: Motives to Evaluate Own Competencies.
21
Figure 6.7: Motives to Evaluate Own Competencies
22
6.4.2: Self-Assessment: To Thine Own Self Be True
6.4.2: Explain the concept of self-assessment
What is self-assessment?
The motivation to obtain an accurate evaluation of one’s
abilities and competencies

Diagnostic tests
6.4.3: Self-Verification: To Thine Own Self Be Sure
6.4.3: Explain the concept of self-verification
What is self-verification?
The motivation to maintain consistency between self-
conceptions and new information
Company of others
Negative self-views
Symbolic completion theory
Clothing or symbols that represent to those around us who we
are
6.4.2: Self-Assessment: To Thine Own Self Be True
6.4.2: Explain the concept of self-assessment
Point 1 – What is self-assessment?
Polonius suggested that the most important thing in life is to be
true to yourself and not to pretend to be something you are not.
Diagnostic tests like personality tests or horoscopes are one way
to fulfill self-assessment.
6.4.3: Self-Verification: To Thine Own Self Be Sure
6.4.3: Explain the concept of self-verification
Point 1 – What is self-verification?
Sometimes, we engage in a behavior to prove that we are good
at it.
We like having consistent information.
Discuss Giesler, Josephs, and Swann’s (1996) study on positive
self-views and negative self-views.
Refer to Figure 6.8: Which Profile Would You Pick ?
We tend to seek out the company of others who verify their

self-views.
People are more likely to divorce a spouse when they think that
their spouse perceives them too favorably.
This figure is not included in the template.
Point 2 – Symbolic completion theory
From clothing to symbols (like ribbons), we choose items that
send a message about ourselves.
23
Figure 6.8: A hotspot with a stick diagram shows the two
profiles of an individual, the positive profile has a happy face,
while the negative profile has a sad face.
24
6.4.4: Self-Enhancement: To Thine Own Self Be Good
6.4.4: Explain the concept of self-enhancement
What is self-enhancement?
The motivation to enhance the positive aspects and decrease the
negative aspects of our self-concept
Positive feedback
Positive illusions
The better-than-average effect
Downward social comparison
Self-affirmation theory
If one part of our self-concept is threatened, we can restore our
sense of self by affirming another values part of the self-
concept.
6.4.5: Self-Improvement: To Thine Own Self Be Better

6.4.5: Explain the concept of self-improvement
6.4.4: Self-Enhancement: To Thine Own Self Be Good
6.4.4: Explain the concept of self-enhancement
Point 1 – What is self-enhancement?
Sometimes, we just want to feel good about ourselves.
We engage in behaviors that help us feel good about ourselves.
The better-than-average effect is the pattern of thinking that we
are better than the average.
Point 2 – Self-affirmation theory
Facebook and our profiles enable users to reaffirm competence.
6.4.5: Self-Improvement: To Thine Own Self Be Better
6.4.5: Explain the concept of self-improvement
Point 1 – What is self-improvement?
We constantly seek self-improvement in jobs, school, and
relationships.
Point 2 – How does self-improvement motivate people?
When we compare our skills to people who are more skilled, we
are more inspired to become competent.
What dangers are associated with upward social comparisons?
We are more likely to feel threatened when someone outdoes us
on a domain that is dear to our heart.
25
What is self-improvement?
The motivation to improve one’s traits, abilities, and well-being

How does self-improvement motivate people?
Upward social comparisons
Domain-specific
26
6.5: Reactions to Loss of Competence (1 of 3)
6.5: Analyze how the loss of competence can affect motivation
Self-defensive strategies
Self-serving attributional bias
Self-handicapping
Excuse making
6.5: Analyze how the loss of competence can affect motivation
Point 2 – Self-defensive strategies
Self-defensive strategies allow us to externalize information
when it threatens our sense of competency.
Refer to Figure 6.9: Self-Defensive Strategies.
27
Figure 6.9: Self-Defensive Strategies
28
6.5.1: Self-Serving Attributional Bias

6.5.1: Explain the concept of self-serving attributional bias
What is self-serving attributional bias?
People take credit for their successes and deny blame for their
failures.
Beneficial
6.5.2: Self-Handicapping
6.5.2: Explain the concept of self-handicapping
What is self-handicapping?
The tendency to create an external obstacle that blocks one’s
own performance
Anticipating a potential failure
Harmful
6.5.1: Self-Serving Attributional Bias
6.5.1: Explain the concept of self-serving attributional bias
Point 2 – What is self-serving attributional bias?
We strategically use internal and external attributions to
maintain overly positive self-evaluations.
While it seems delusionary, it helps people put more effort to
positive solutions.
6.5.2: Self-Handicapping
6.5.2: Explain the concept of self-handicapping
Point 2 – What is self-handicapping?
By creating an obstacle that guarantees failure, people can
blame the poor outcome on the external cause and not blame
themselves.
People are more likely to use this strategy when they expect
failure.

Discuss Berglas and Jones (1978) study of IQ tests.
Refer to Figure 6.10: Self-Handicapping as Expressed Through
Drug Choice.
Self-handicapping seems to do more harm than good.
29
Figure 6.10: Self-Handicapping as Expressed Through Drug
Choice
30
6.5.3: Excuse Making
6.5.3: Explain the concept of excuse making
What is excuse making?
An attempt to shift attributions for a negative outcome from
internal causes to external causes
6.5.3: Excuse Making
6.5.3: Explain the concept of excuse making
Point 2 – What is excuse making?
How is excuse making different from self-handicapping?
31
Summary: Competence

The concept of competence as a core motive
The ways in which people express competence
How the self impacts our motivation
The different self-evaluation motives
How the loss of competence can affect motivation
People whose sense of competencies is threatened show a higher
desire for competence. People who pursue competence-relevant
goals are happier and healthier than those who pursue other
types of goals.
Learning goals frame the task as an opportunity to improve
competencies; performance goals frame it an opportunity to
prove their competencies. Entity theorists believe traits and
abilities are fixed while incremental theorists believe they can
and do change over time. Praising for effort is better than
praising for ability. Flow occurs when a person is in a state of
concentration and becomes completely absorbed within an
activity.
Goal fusion refers to the extent that a goal is perceived to be
integrated into one’s self-concept. People highly fused with
their goal are more likely to achieve their goal and are more
impacted by goal feedback.
Social comparison theory posits that people evaluate their
abilities by comparing to the abilities of similar others. Self-
assessment states people are motivated to obtain an accurate
evaluation of their abilities. Self-verification states people are
motivated to maintain consistency between their self-concepts
and new information. Self-enhancement states people are
motivated to enhance positive aspects and decrease negative
aspects of their self-concept. Positive illusions are overly
positive self-perceptions. Downward social comparisons involve
comparing our skills to those worse off; self-affirmation theory
states that if one aspect of the self-concept is threatened, we can
reflect on another valued aspect. Self-improvement states

people are motivated to improve their abilities. We compare
ourselves to others better than ourselves, but self-enhancement
appears to be the dominant motive.
Self-handicapping occurs when someone who is anticipating
failure purposely creates an obstacle that will prevent his or her
own success. Excuses try to shift the cause of a negative
outcome from internal to external causes. It protects self-esteem
and makes others less likely to blame us for our failures.
32
Burkley
First edition
Chapter 5
Autonomy
1
5.1 Analyze the concept of autonomy as a core motive
5.1.1 Describe the panic button effect
5.1.2 Explain the relationship between control and money
5.1.3 Analyze how autonomy elicits behaviors
5.1.4 Explain how autonomy produces positive outcomes
5.1.5 Describe the universality of autonomy
5.2 Analyze the attribution theory
5.2.1 Describe the types of attributions
5.2.2 Analyze the factors that influence attributions
5.3 Evaluate the overjustification effect in relation to
motivation

5.3.1 Describe examples of the overjustification effect
2
5.3.2 Analyze the causes of the overjustification effect
5.4 Analyze the positive effects of the illusion of control
5.4.1 Explain how choice influences the illusion of control
5.4.2 Explain how outcome sequence influences the illusion of
control
5.5 Contrast the different types of magical thinking
5.5.1 Explain the concept of tempting fate
5.5.2 Explain the concept of mind control
5.6 Analyze how the loss of autonomy can affect motivation
5.6.1 Describe the concept of reactance
5.6.2 Explain the concept of learned helplessness
5.7 Contrast the potential reasons people may desire a lack of
control
5.7.1 Explain how choice can affect motivation
3
Introduction: Autonomy
The need for autonomy
Attribution theory

Overjustification effect
Illusion of control
Magical thinking
Reaction to loss of autonomy
Desire for no control
The need for autonomy represents a basic desire for personal
control.
Attributions refer to people’s beliefs about the cause of a
particular outcome and can be in a variety of forms.
The overjustification effect tells us that motivation decreases
when people are given an extrinsic reward for a task that is
already intrinsically rewarding.
Most people overestimate the amount of control they have in
their lives.
The illusion of control leads to magical thinking, such as
tempting fate.
When people feel their freedom is being taken away, they can
be reactive and then possibly show learned helplessness.
Having too many options decreases motivation to do well.
4
5.1: The Need for Autonomy (2 of 4)
5.1: Analyze the concept of autonomy as a core motive
Autonomy as a core motive
Control
Basic need for autonomy
5.1.1: Panic Button Effect
5.1.1: Describe the panic button effect
What is the panic button effect?
Perception of control
Provides comfort

5.1.2: Is Control More Desirable Than Money?
5.1.2: Explain the relationship between control and money
Is control more desirable than money?
Ex.: College professors
Well-being
5.1: Analyze the concept of autonomy as a core motive
Point 1 – Autonomy as a core motive
Given a choice, people will choose a more painful option just to
retain control.
Autonomy is defined as a desire for freedom, personal control,
and free choice.
5.1.1: Panic Button Effect
5.1.1: Describe the panic button effect
Point 1 – What is the panic button effect?
Describe the experiment with the buzzer by Glass, Singer, and
Friedman (1969).
5.1.2: Is Control More Desirable Than Money?
5.1.2: Explain the relationship between control and money
Point 1 – Is control more desirable than money?
Psychology PhDs earn less than many other fields, but they
have more autonomy.
A greater sense of autonomy is associated with greater well-
being. Wealth was not directly associated with well-being.
Refer to Figure 5.1: Motivation: Money Versus Control.

5
Figure 5.1: Motivation: Money Versus Control
6
5.1.3: Autonomy Elicits Behaviors
5.1.3: Analyze how autonomy elicits behaviors
How does autonomy elicit behavior?
Self-determination theory
Autonomy as a deficit-oriented need
5.1.4: Autonomy Produces Positive Outcomes
5.1.4: Explain how autonomy produces positive outcomes
How does autonomy produce positive outcomes?
Link with survival
Higher self-esteem
Less depression
Goal performance
Pursuing the “right” goals
Self-concordance
Careers
5.1.3: Autonomy Elicits Behaviors
5.1.3: Analyze how autonomy elicits behaviors

Point 1 – How does autonomy elicit behavior?
Autonomy is one of the three core human motives that drive
behavior.
People who lack autonomy seek activities to restore it.
5.1.4: Autonomy Produces Positive Outcomes
5.1.4: Explain how autonomy produces positive outcomes
Point 1 – How does autonomy produce positive outcomes?
People who pursue goals that fulfill autonomy have higher
levels of well-being.
Autonomous motivation has been linked to greater conceptual
understanding and goal achievement.
Autonomy increases brain-based sensitivity to failure.
Given your understanding of autonomy, how is it used as a
punishment? Why?
Point 2 – Pursuing the “right” goals
Self-concordance means that the goal fits with the individual’s
sense of self.
How does self-concordance translate to your career goals?
7
5.1.5: Autonomy Is Universal
5.1.5: Describe the universality of autonomy
How is autonomy universal?
Cross-cultural
Eastern/Western cultures
5.1.5: Autonomy Is Universal

5.1.5: Describe the universality of autonomy
Point 1 – How is autonomy universal?
Studies show that throughout the world, greater autonomy is
associated with higher levels of well-being.
8
5.2: Attribution Theory (1 of 4)
5.2: Analyze the attribution theory
Attribution theory
Why do people do what they do?
Predict the future
Control a situation
When do we search for causal attributions?
Unexpected outcomes
Important outcomes
Negative outcomes
5.2: Analyze the attribution theory
Point 1 – Attribution theory
Determining the causes of behavior helps lead to autonomy.
Point 2 – When do we search for causal attributions?
We engage in attributional thinking as a way of regaining some
control.
9
5.2.1: Types of Attributions

5.2.1: Describe the types of attributions
Two dimensions of attributes
Locus
Stability
The four possibilities of attributions
Ability
Effort
Difficulty
Luck
Point 1 – Two dimensions of attributes
Refer to Figure 5.2: Two Dimensions of Attributions: Locus and
Stability.
Internal attribution resides within the person, and external
attribution resides within the situation.
Stable attribution happens regularly, and unstable attribution
happens irregularly.
Point 2 – The four possibilities of attributions
Refer to Figure 5.3: The Four Possibilities of Attributions.
What are some additional dimensions that could also play a
role?
10
Figure 5.2: Two Dimensions of Attributions: Locus and
Stability

11
Figure 5.3: The Four Possibilities of Attributions
12
5.2.2: Factors That Influence Attributions
5.2.2: Analyze the factors that influence attributions
Factors that influence attributions
Internal locus of control
External locus of control
Situational differences
Point 1 – Factors that influence attributions
People high in external locus of control are more likely to make
external attributions and feel less in control.
How does teaching styles impact autonomy and success? How
could this translate to a manager?

13
5.3: Overjustification Effect (1 of 4)
5.3: Evaluate the overjustification effect in relation to
motivation
What is the overjustification effect?
Combining intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
Reduction in motivation when people are given an extrinsic
reward for something they intrinsically enjoyed
5.3: Evaluate the overjustification effect in relation to
motivation
Point 1 – What is the overjustification effect?
Discuss Deci (1971) and the incentives with puzzles.
Refer to Figure 5.4: Overjustification Effect.
14
Figure 5.4: Overjustification Effect
15
5.3: Overjustification Effect (2 of 4)
5.3.1: Examples of the Overjustification Effect
5.3.1: Describe examples of the overjustification effect
Examples of the overjustification effect

David Chappelle
Rewarding college students
5.3.2: Why the Overjustification Effect Occurs
5.3.2: Analyze the causes of the overjustification effect
Why does the overjustification effect occur?
Autonomy
Certain conditions—interesting, expected reward, and material
reward
5.3.1: Examples of the Overjustification Effect
5.3.1: Describe examples of the overjustification effect
Point 1 – Examples of the overjustification effect
Why did Chappelle walk away from his Comedy Central show?
Why do college students whose parents pay for college have
lower grades?
5.3.2: Why the Overjustification Effect Occurs
5.3.2: Analyze the causes of the overjustification effect
Point 1 – Why does the overjustification effect occur?
When we work on a project because it’s fun, we feel a sense of
autonomy. Receiving a reward removes the control.
When the task is interesting, the reward is expected, and the
reward is material, the overjustification effect is more likely.
16
5.4: Illusion of Control (1 of 4)
5.4: Analyze the positive effects of the illusion of control
The illusion of control

Positive illusions
Depressive realism
5.4.1: Choice Influences the Illusion of Control
5.4.1: Explain how choice influences the illusion of control
How choice influences the illusion of control
More choices
Overestimate control
5.4: Analyze the positive effects of the illusion of control
Point 1 – The illusion of control
Mentally healthy people are more likely to view themselves in
unrealistically positive terms and think they have more control
over their environment.
People who suffer from depression hold a more accurate
perception of their abilities and their control.
5.4.1: Choice Influences the Illusion of Control
5.4.1: Explain how choice influences the illusion of control
Point 1 – How choice influences the illusion of control
Discuss Dunn and Wilson (1990) and die game.
17
5.4: Illusion of Control (2 of 4)
5.4.2: Outcome Sequence Influences the Illusion of Control
5.4.2: Explain how outcome sequence influences the illusion of
control
How does outcome sequence influence the illusion of control?
Positive outcomes

Timing
5.4.2: Outcome Sequence Influences the Illusion of Control
5.4.2: Explain how outcome sequence influences the illusion of
control
Point 1 – How does outcome sequence influence the illusion of
control?
People who experience a winning streak are more likely to
assume they have control over a task.
Discuss Figure 5.5: Timing of Winning Streaks on Perceptions
of Control.
18
Figure 5.5: Timing of Winning Streaks on Perceptions of
Control
19
5.5: Magical Thinking (1 of 4)
5.5: Contrast the different types of magical thinking
What is magical thinking?
Superstitions
Supernatural
5.5.1: Tempting Fate
5.5.1: Explain the concept of tempting fate
Tempting fate

Gut feeling not to tempt it
Inconsequential behaviors
5.5.2: Mind Control
5.5.2: Explain the concept of mind control
Mind control
Impact others’ behavior by thinking of it
5.5: Contrast the different types of magical thinking
Point 1 – What is magical thinking?
Magical thinking makes us feel as if we have more control over
an event than we really do.
How do superstitions act as secondary control methods?
5.5.1: Tempting Fate
5.5.1: Explain the concept of tempting fate
Point 1 – Tempting fate
We irrationally assume that inconsequential behaviors control
our future destiny.
5.5.2: Mind Control
5.5.2: Explain the concept of mind control
Point 1 – Mind control
Discuss Pronin et al. (2006) study on voodoo dolls.
20

5.6: Reactions to Loss of Autonomy (1 of 4)
5.6: Analyze how the loss of autonomy can affect motivation
How do people respond to a lack of control?
Psychological reactance
Learned helplessness
5.6.1: Reactance
5.6.1: Describe the concept of reactance
Reactance
Teenagers
College students
Forbidden fruit
5.6: Analyze how the loss of autonomy can affect motivation
Point 1 – How do people respond to a lack of control?
Psychological reactance is when people feel they are losing
their freedom, they reassert their autonomy by doing the
opposite of what was asked.
Learned helplessness is when we try to take back control and
fail.
5.6.1: Reactance
5.6.1: Describe the concept of reactance
Point 1 – Reactance
Refer to Figure 5.6: Warning Labels on Interest in Violent
Television.
21
Figure 5.6: Warning Labels on Interest in Violent Television

22
5.6: Reactions to Loss of Autonomy (1 of 4)
5.6.2: Learned Helplessness
5.6.2: Explain the concept of learned helplessness
Learned helplessness
Response after reactance
Helplessness in one situation applies to all situations
5.6.2: Learned Helplessness
5.6.2: Explain the concept of learned helplessness
Point 1 – Learned helplessness
Discuss Seligman and Maier (1967) and dogs.
How can this situation apply to human behavior?
23
5.7: Desire for No Control (1 of 4)
5.7: Contrast the potential reasons people may desire a lack of
control
Why do people sometimes desire a lack of control?
Others more knowledgeable
Others more skilled
5.7.1: Too Much or Too Little Choice
5.7.1: Explain how choice can affect motivation

Too much or too little choice?
Restaurants
Too many topics
The golden mean
Satisficer
Maximiser
5.7: Contrast the potential reasons people may desire a lack of
control
Point 1 – Why do people sometimes desire a lack of control?
In game shows and when we visit professionals, we are more
likely to give up control.
5.7.1: Too Much or Too Little Choice
5.7.1: Explain how choice can affect motivation
Point 1 – Too much or too little choice?
When we have too many choices, it often decreases our
motivation.
The more choices we have, the more information we have to
gather on each choice.
A satisficer accepts a good-enough choice.
A maximiser is someone who always wants to make the best
possible decision.
24
Summary: Autonomy
The concept of autonomy as a core motive
Attribution theory
The overjustification effect in relation to motivation
The positive effects of the illusion of control
The different types of magical thinking

How the loss of autonomy can affect motivation
The potential reasons people may desire a lack of control
As shown by the panic button effect, just believing you have
control can be beneficial. Autonomy is a strong predictor of
well-being, and people who pursue goals that fit them well are
more satisfied.
Attributions can be 1) internal or external; and 2) stable or
unstable. Internal attributions are more beneficial than external
attributions.
The overjustification effect occurs because it decreases
autonomy and is most likely to occur when the task is
interesting, the extrinsic reward is expected, and the reward is
material.
The illusion of control is good for mental health and causes
people to assume they can control or predict chance events.
Tempting fate and mind control are two forms of magical
thinking, which stems from the illusion of control.
When people lose autonomy, they may become reactive by
doing the opposite of what they were told to do. When a loss of
control persists, then people often experience learned
helplessness.
For the most part, a high level of control is best, but when there
are too many choices, then people’s motivation decreases.
25

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