This document discusses various topics related to environmental pollution and management. It defines pollution and describes the main types as air, water, soil, and noise pollution. It then focuses on air pollution, defining it and discussing the greenhouse effect and key greenhouse gases. It provides data on cumulative emissions by country from 1950-2003. It also summarizes various global conventions around air and atmosphere pollution abatement from the early 1970s through agreements like the Kyoto Protocol and goals for conferences like Copenhagen.

1. Environmental Management
(Pollution – Air & Atmosphere)
Prof. Sandeep Hegde

2. Pollution
• Contamination of Earth’s environment with
materials that interfere with human health,
the quality of life, or the natural functioning
of ecosystems (living organisms and their
physical surroundings).
• Although some environmental pollution is
a result of natural causes such as volcanic
eruptions, most is caused by human
activities.

3. Pollution
Types of Pollution
Air Water SoilNoiseAtmosphere

4. Air Pollution
Air pollution may be defined as the
presence in the air (outdoor atmosphere)
of one or more contaminants or
combinations thereof in such quantities
and of such durations as may be or tend
to be injurious to human, animal or
plant life, or property, or which
unreasonably interferes with the
comfortable enjoyment of life or
property or conduct of business.

9. CUMULATIVE EMISSIONS 1950-2003
Rank Country MtCO2 World
total
Tons CO2 per person
1 USA 230,200.80 26.37% 791.6
2 EU (25) 187,773.90 21.51% 411.6
3 CHINA 83,515.60 9.57% 64.8
4 RUSSIAN FEDERATION 81,779.50 9.37% 565.6
5 GERMANY 49,946.20 5.72% 605.1
6 JAPAN 41,057.30 4.70% 321.8
7 UK 31,415.702 3.60% 527.3
8 INDIA 22,098.00 2.53% 20.8
9 UKRAINE 21,722.20 2.49% 454.3
10 FRANCE 19,854.90 2.27% 330.8
* per capita emissions Source: Times of India, 11 May 2007

10. EURO I & II
• What are Emission Norms?
Emission norms are prescribed CO (Carbon Monoxide),
HC (Hydrocarbons) and NOX (Nitrous oxide) levels set
by the government which a vehicle would emit when
running on roads. All the manufacturers need to
implement the same for vehicles being manufactured
from the date of implementation.
• What are Euro Norms?
Euro norms refer to the permissible emission levels from
both petrol and Diesel vehicles, which have been
implemented in Europe. However in India, the
government has adopted the Euro norms for available
fuel quality and the method of testing. Euro-1 norms in
India are known as INDIA 2000 since it was
implemented from 1/4/2000. The norms equivalent to
Euro-2 are called 2005 norms.

11. EURO I & II
• WHAT ARE THE EURO I AND EURO II
NORMS?
The Euro norms require manufacturers to
reduce the existing polluting Emission
Levels in a more efficient manner by
making certain technical changes in their
vehicles.

12. EURO I & II
• WHAT CHANGES DO MANUFACTURERS HAVE TO MAKE IN
ORDER TO MAKE EURO COMPLIANT VEHICLES?
The following changes normally will be made by manufacturers in
order to have a EURO I compliant cars. Typically, the following
areas would require attention: (a) carburetor retuning (b) secondary
air intake. (c) exhaust gas recirculation (d) catalyser capacity
increase (e) trimetal coating in the catalyser.
• Changes for having a Euro II compliant vehicle require that the
carburetor be replaced by an MPFI system i.e. a Multi-point Fuel
Injection System. There are two basic types of engines, spark
ignition and compression ignition engines. In the former, fuel ignition
is triggered by an electric spark from a spark plug, while in the latter,
atomized liquid fuel is injected with the help of a fuel pump and a
nozzle into a cylinder full of hot compressed air, which results in
ignition taking place. Larger cylinders which need more fuel require
more than one injector, thus resulting in a multi-point fuel injection
system.

13. EURO EMISSION NORMS
Euro emission norms are standard emissions
of carbon-mono oxide (CO), hydro carbon
(HC), nitrogen oxide (NOx) & particulate
matter. they have been defined in terms of
grams/km & grams/KWh (by engine power) for
passenger cars & heavy vehicles respectively.
The latest Norm EURO-V requires heavy
goods vehicle to follow these standards :
• NOx = 2.0 kg/KWh (maximum)
• PM = 0.02 g/KWh
• CO = 1.5 g/KWh
• HC = 0.46 g/KWh
• Smoke = 0.5 g/KWh

14. Chronology of Euro Norms
norms = operational year = vehicle type
• EURO-I = 1993 = for passenger car
• EURO-II = 1996 = for passenger car
• EURO-III = 2000 = any vehicle
• EURO-IV = 2005 = any vehicle
• EURO-V = 2008 = for heavy good vehicle

15. Euro-IV Emission Norms In Phases By 2010
NEW DELHI: The government has laid out a phased programme for introducing Euro-IV vehicular emission
norms in the country by 2010. This will require an investment of Rs 55,000 crore by oil and automobile
companies in improving fuel quality and vehicular engine specifications.
Addressing a news conference in the Capital on Monday, petroleum minister Ram Naik said the Cabinet has
approved an auto fuel policy that lays a roadmap for implementing Euro-II, III and IV vehicular emission
standards by 2010. All automobiles and fuel — petrol and diesel — will have to meet Euro-III emission
specifications in the above 11 cities from April 1, 2005 and Euro-IV norms by April 1, 2010. The rest of the
country will have Euro-III emission norm compliant automobiles and fuels by 2010. The Bharat stage II
(equivalent to Euro-II norms), which are currently in place in 11 cities — Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai,
Bangalore, Hyderabad, Ahmedabad, Pune, Surat, Kanpur and Agra — will be applicable to all automobiles
throughout the country from April 1, 2005. For two/three wheelers, Bharat Stage-II norms will be applicable from
April 1, 2005 and Euro-III norms would come in force preferably from April 1, 2008 but not later than April 1,
2010, he said.
“The domestic oil refineries, which have already invested Rs 10,000 crore to achieve Euro-I auto fuel
specifications, would need to incur an additional investment of around Rs 18,000 crore by 2005 and another Rs
12,000 crore by 2010. The investment requirement of the automobile industry is estimated at around Rs 25,000
crore over this period,” Mr Naik said. Petroleum minister said the policy broadly gives a roadmap for achieving
various vehicular emission norms over a period of time and corresponding fuel quality upgradation
requirements.
“While it does not recommend any particular fuel or technology for achieving the desired emission norms, it
suggests, taking into account security of supplies and existing logistics perspectives, that liquid fuels should
remain as main auto fuels throughout the country and that the use of CNG/LPG be encouraged in cities affected
by higher pollution levels,” he said. The ministry of petroleum and natural gas will ensure fuel quality while the
ministry for road transport and highways will monitor automobiles engine specifications. Pollution checks will
be the responsibility of ministry of environment.
“The auto fuel policy has deviated from the RA Mashelkar Committee recommendations on two counts. Firstly,
the fiscal concessions like excise duty relief have not been provided immediately. This aspect will be looked
after in the annual budget. Secondly, the proposal to form a national automobile pollution and fuel authority has
not been accepted and individual ministers will continue to monitor standards,” he said.
Mr Naik said after April 1, 2007, inter-state buses/trucks would not be allowed to originate/terminate in Delhi
unless they meet minimum of euro-I emission norms. The cut off point for meeting Euro-II norms will be April 1,
2011.
“In other cities, all inter-state buses will have to meet a minimum of 1996 emission norms from April 1, 2006 and
Euro-I norm from April 2008,” he added.
Source : Financial Express (Online Edition) (10/6/2003)

16. The Atmosphere
The Greenhouse effect
• The earth receives energy from the sun, which warms the
earth’s surface. As this energy passes through the atmosphere,
a certain percentage (about 30) gets scattered.
• Some part of this energy is reflected back into the atmosphere
from the land and ocean surface. The rest (70%) actually
remains behind to heat the earth. In order to establish a
balance, therefore, the earth must radiate some energy back
into the atmosphere.
• As the earth is much cooler than the sun, it does not emit
energy as visible light. It emits through infrared or thermal
radiation. However, certain gases in the atmosphere form a
sort of blanket around the earth and absorb some of this
energy emitted back into the atmosphere.

17. The Atmosphere
The Greenhouse effect
• Without this blanket effect, the earth would be around 30 ° C
colder than it normally is.
• These gases like carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide,
along with water vapour, comprise less than one per cent of
the atmosphere. They are called 'greenhouse gases' as the
working principle is same as that which occurs in a
greenhouse.
• Just as the glass of the greenhouse prevents the radiation of
excess energy, this ‘gas blanket’ absorbs some of the energy
emitted by the earth and keeps temperature levels intact.
• This effect was first recognized by a French scientist, Jean-
Baptiste Fourier, who pointed out the similarity in what
happens in the atmosphere and in a greenhouse. Hence the
term the ‘greenhouse effect’.

19. The Greenhouse Effect

21. Greenhouse Gases
Kyoto Protocol recognizes six GHGs
1. Carbon dioxide
2. Methane
3. Nitrus oxide
4. Sulpher hexafluoride
5. Hydrofluorocarbons
6. Perfluorocarbons

22. GREENHOUSE EMISSION BY
SOURCE
Stern Review

23. Global Conventions on Air and
Atmosphere Pollution Abatement
• 1971: Polluter Pays the Principle, OECD (Organisation
of Economic Cooperation and Development) Council
says that those causing pollution should pay the costs.
• 1972: Conference on Human Environment, the
historical Conference on Human Environment held in
Stockholm in June 1972 was the first global recognition
that the environment was endangered and the
governments and the industry had to collectively put in
an effort. For the first time the developed countries
realised that they had completely ignored the impact on
the environment during their rapid development. Since
then, with the forming of the UNEP (United Nation
Environment Programme), almost all countries have
undertaken to monitor the quality of their air, water and
other components of the natural world.

24. Global Conventions on Air and
Atmosphere Pollution Abatement
• 1985: Vienna Convention for the Protection of the
Ozone Layer was attended by 21 countries and the
European Community. It was the same year that the
hole in the ozone layer over the Antarctica was first
discovered. This convention created a general obligation
for countries to take appropriate measures to protect the
ozone layer.
• 1987: Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete
the Ozone Layer was finalizing and approval and
entered into force in 1989. 36 countries that together
accounted for 80% of the CFC consumption ratified it.
• 1988: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change(IPCC) was set up to assess the technical
issues that were being raised. Its first report stated that
the possibility of global warming had to be taken
seriously.

25. Global Conventions on Air and
Atmosphere Pollution Abatement
• 1988: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change(IPCC) was set up to assess the technical
issues that were being raised. Its first report stated that
the possibility of global warming had to be taken
seriously.
• 1992: Earth Summit the United Nations Conference
on Environment and Development (UNCED), was held
in Rio de Janeiro in Brazil. The gathering momentum on
environmental issues was given support and global
focus and Agenda 21 was set out as a blueprint for
action for the 21st century.
The Rio conference was significantly different from the
Stockholm conference – it was not about the
environment itself but about the world economy and its
effects on the world environment.

26. Global Conventions on Air and
Atmosphere Pollution Abatement
• 1992: United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC) - the centerpiece of global
efforts to combat global warming. It was adopted in
May1992 at the Rio Earth Summit, and entered into
force on March 21st, 1994. The Convention's primary
objective is the stabilization of greenhouse gas
concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would
prevent dangerous anthropogenic (man-made)
interference with the climate system.
• 1995: The First Conference of the Parties (COP-1) to
the FCCC, the UN Framework Convention on Climate
Change took place in Berlin from 28 March - 7 April
1995. It comprised of 170+ nations that have ratified the
Convention and is expected to continue meeting on a
yearly basis.

27. THE KYOTO PROTOCOL
• As a response to the climate change threat, following the
evidence of human impact on climate, the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC) was established in 1992.
Governments realised that stronger commitments were
needed to mitigate climate change. Following years of
negotiations, the Kyoto Protocol entered into force on
February 16, 2005. It established legal commitments for
participating countries to reduce their emissions, or
suffer financial penalties.
• The Kyoto Protocol requires the signatory countries to
reduce, or limit their emissions relative to their base
year. Each country has been given a target related to the
base year (normally 1990), and the combined effect of
this should reduce these countries’ greenhouse gas
emissions by 5% per year in the period 2008–2012.

28. The Kyoto Protocol - 1997
• 159 nations attending the Third Conference of
Parties (COP-3) to the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change
(held in December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan) agreed
to reduce worldwide emissions of greenhouse
gases. Delegates to COP-3 agreed to the
following specific provisions.
• Thirty-eight developed countries agreed to
reduce their emissions of six greenhouse gases.
Collectively, developed countries agreed to cut
back their emissions by at least 5% below 1990
levels between 2008 and 2012.

29. The Kyoto Protocol - 1997
• Developing Countries - Countries which are in the
process of becoming industrialized but have constrained
resources with which to combat their environmental
problems, which include China and India, have no formal
binding targets, but have the option to set voluntary
reduction targets.
• The Kyoto Protocol also established emissions trading,
joint implementations, and clean development
mechanisms to encourage cooperative emission
reduction projects between developed and developing
countries. The reductions must be additional to any
that would have occurred without the project taking
place. Certified emission reductions (CERs)
generated can be used to meet reduction
commitments or they can be traded on the open
market as a futures commodity.

30. After Kyoto…..Copenhagen
Copenhagen 2009 is THE rendezvous
for the future of the planet!
• The most important international meeting on climate change since the one
at which the Kyoto Protocol was adopted will be held from December 7-18
2009 in Copenhagen, Denmark. Nicknamed "COP 15," the 15th
Conference
of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC) will bring together leaders from 193 countries in an
attempt to reach agreement on efforts required to reduce their greenhouse
gas (GHG) emissions in the medium and the long term and to adapt to
climate change that is already underway.
• Discussions should result in the signing of an agreement that will define new
objectives for the international community in the fight against climate
change, extending the Kyoto Protocol that ends in 2012.
• Copenhagen will be a decisive moment. Decisions made at this meeting
could have an impact on the future of all current inhabitants of the planet
and on many generations to come

31. 202020
• At Copenhagen last December, India
emerged as an unlikely partner, alongside
the United States, China, Brazil, and South
Africa, in brokering a political accord that
saved the climate summit from collapse.
Delhi has since formally pledged to reduce
the emissions intensity of its GDP by 20–25
percent from 2005 levels by 2020, which will
slow the growth rate of its greenhouse gas
output.

32. On a Mission: India’s National
Action Plan on Climate Change –
June 2008
• National Solar Mission
• National Mission on Enhanced Energy
Efficiency
• National Mission on Sustainable Habitat
• National Water Mission
• National Mission for Sustaining the
Himalayan Ecosystem
• National Mission for a “Green India”
• National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture
• National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for
Climate Change

35. WHAT IS A CARBON CREDIT?
• A Carbon Credit is created when the
equivalent of one metric tonne of carbon
dioxide is prevented from entering the
atmosphere. Internationally known as
Certified Emission Reductions, Emission
Reduction Units, or Verified Emission
Reductions, each carbon credit has a
monetary value depending on the type
and origin of the emission reduction
produced.

36. WHAT ARE THEY WORTH?
Each carbon credit can be
traded on the open market,
with the current spot rates
on the European Union’s
Emission Trading Scheme
averaging 25 Euros per
tonne during 2008, (EUA
DEC ’08). With the onset
of the current global
financial crisis and the
reduction in the price of
oil, the emissions market
has be affected. Please
see the current spot rate
as indicated by the graph
to the right. As the
economy begins to recover
and the price of oil rises,
the value of carbon credits
will also increase.

37. WHO BUYS CARBON CREDITS?
• Carbon credits are mostly purchased by governments &
corporations who have a legal or moral duty to reduce their carbon
footprint. Although these organizations could implement change in
their home country by sponsoring emission reduction projects
locally, the economic benefits of deploying an equivalent emissions
reduction scheme in the developing world for a fraction of the cost is
what drives the international trade in ‘carbon offsets’.
• Carbon offsetting is the process by which a successful emissions
reduction is produced in one geographical location and claimed by
another.
For example, a hydro electricity generation plant established in
South America with the financial assistance of the Japanese
government displaces the more polluting local oil & coal fired power
stations, thereby creating a sizable carbon emissions reduction.
In return for providing the financial assistance, (without which the
project would not have occurred), and allowing the international
transfer of technology to support the plant, the Japanese
government may claim the carbon emission reduction for their home
country, thereby offsetting their national carbon reduction
commitments.
In return, the developing nation develops sustainable resources,
retains first world technology & benefits from a cleaner domestic
environment.

38. Carbon Credits
• Carbon Credits are measured in units of
certified emission reductions (CERs). Each CER
is equivalent to one tonne of carbon dioxide
reduction.
• India has emerged as a world leader in
reduction of greenhouse gases by adopting
Clean Development Mechanisms (CDMs) in the
past two years.
• Developed countries that have exceeded the
levels can either cut down emissions, or borrow
or buy carbon credits from developing countries.

39. Role of UNFCCC
• Only projects that carry the seal of approval from the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change, (UNFCCC), can truly claim to have had their
emissions reduction impact verified. The two types of
carbon credits created by UNFCCC approved projects
are CERs and ERUs. This is the legacy of the Kyoto
Protocol.
• Receiving UNFCCC approval for emissions reduction
projects in order to yield carbon credits is a complex
procedure. At both national and international levels,
approvals, validations & verifications must be received.
This system separates the opportunist voluntary carbon
projects from the true business of developing
sustainability whilst reducing pollution in the developing
world.

40. IS A CARBON CREDIT ALWAYS
CARBON DIOXIDE?
Carbon credits are not always made up of purely carbon dioxide;
there are six Greenhouse Gasses, (GHGs), classified by the
UNFCCC as directly responsible for accelerating Global Warming.
Carbon Dioxide, (CO2), is used as the base to measure all the other
GHGs. The term ‘tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent’, or t-CO2e,
is used to represent the impact of a particular atmospheric pollutant,
based on the equivalent tonnes of CO2 the emission would
represent. Below, the six gasses are shown with the tones of CO2
equivalent they represent.
Green House Gas
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Methane (CH4)
Nitrous oxide (N2O)
Perfluorocarbons (PFCs)
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6)

41. Cap-and-trade
• Carbon trading comes in two forms: mandated and
voluntary. In a mandated carbon trading scheme, often
called cap-and-trade, countries or firms are forced to
reduce their GHG emissions to a certain level. In a
voluntary carbon market, countries, firms, or individuals
offset their emissions without legal necessity.
• The idea of cap-and-trade is based on the fact that
greenhouse gas emissions are a global problem, not a
local one. Scientifically, it does not matter whether our
greenhouse gas emissions comes from New York or
Jakarta. The effect on global climate is the same.
Therefore, cap-and-trade’s main goal is be to reduce
overall emissions with little regard for their origin.

42. Emissions Trading
• Emissions trading (or cap and trade) is an administrative approach
used to control pollution by providing economic incentives for
achieving reductions in the emissions of pollutants. In such a plan, a
central authority (usually a government agency) sets a limit or cap
on the amount of a pollutant that can be emitted. Companies or
other groups that emit the pollutant are given credits or allowances
which represent the right to emit a specific amount. The total
amount of credits cannot exceed the cap, limiting total emissions to
that level. Companies that pollute beyond their allowances must buy
credits from those who pollute less than their allowances. This
transfer is referred to as a trade. In effect, the buyer is being fined
for polluting, while the seller is being rewarded for having reduced
emissions. The more firms that need to buy credits, the higher the
price of credits becomes -- which makes reducing emissions cost-
effective in comparison.
• The overall goal of an emissions trading plan is to reduce pollution.
In some cases, the cap may be lowered over time. In other systems
a portion of all traded credits must be retired, causing a net
reduction in emissions each time a trade occurs. In many cap and
trade systems, organizations which do not pollute may also buy
credits. Environmental groups that purchase and retire pollution
credits reduce emissions and raise the price of the remaining credits
as per the law of demand.

43. Emission Trading Scheme
(EU ETS)
• In January 2005 the European Union
Greenhouse Gas Emission Trading Scheme (EU
ETS) commenced operation as the largest multi-
country, multi-sector Greenhouse Gas emission
trading scheme world-wide.
• Launched in January 2005, the EU ETS is the
world’s largest company level ‘cap-and-trade’
system for trading in emissions of carbon
dioxide (CO2) and has quickly become the main
driving force behind the expansion of the
emerging global carbon market.

44. Emission Trading Scheme
• A key aspect of the EU ETS is that it allows companies
to use credits from the Kyoto Protocol’s project-based
mechanisms - the CDM and JI - to help them comply
with their obligations under the system. This means the
EU ETS not only provides a cost-effective means for EU-
based industries to cut their emissions but is also
channeling considerable business
• Allowances traded in the EU ETS will not be printed but
held in accounts in electronic registries set up by
Member States. All of these registries will be overseen
by a Central Administrator at EU level who, through the
Community independent transaction log, will check each
transaction for any irregularities. In this way, the
registries system keep track of the ownership of
allowances in the same way as a banking system keeps
track of the ownership of money.
• In India MCX and NCDEX are the two exchanges
authorized to trade carbon credits.

45. Emerging carbon market: what’s it worth?
Lawmakers, such as the previous Secretary of State for
the Environment, Rt Hon. David Miliband MP, passed
legislation to cut 60% of CO2 emissions in the United
Kingdom by the year 2050.
“…If all industrialized countries took on
emission-reduction commitments of 60-
80%, purchased half of their reductions in
the developing world, with each credit
valued at $10, the global market would be
worth $100bn per year...” [United
Nations]

46. CDM Project Cycle

47. Carbon Credits – The Indian
Scenario
• SAIL identifies 71 projects for carbon credits - Amid rising threat
of global warming, country's leading steel producer SAIL has
identified over 71 potential projects for availing carbon credits.
• SAIL has already registered one project--LD gas recovery from
Steel Melting Shop-II for power generation at Rourkela Steel Plant--
for carbon credit.
• Carbon credit is issued by Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)
Executive Board for emission and reductions achieved by CDM
projects and verified under the rules of Kyoto Protocol.
• SAIL has taken up a Rs 16-crore project to stop the use of
approximately 268 million tons of carbon tetrachloride (cleaning
solvent) for electrical machines and oxygen plant at its Bokaro,
Durgapur, Rourkela, Bhillai and other steel plants.
• To ensure a clean environment in and around its plants and mines,
the company said it has reduced air emissions by 4.7 percent to 2.2
kg per ton of crude steel in 2007-08. It has improved solid waste
utilisation of up to 78.7 percent, reduced water consumption by 8
percent and planted about 2.6 lakh trees.

48. Carbon Credits – The Indian
Scenario
• "There is a growing awareness among steel, cement and
power companies about carbon credits. They are
increasingly working on projects to avail carbon credits,
which are widely traded commodity in the world now,"
Vandana Bharati, an analyst with Delhi-based SMC
Brokerage firm, said.
• Total 295 Indian companies are registered with CDM for
carbon credits. The country is the second largest seller
of carbon credits in the global market, with 6 percent
share in 2007.
Source: The Economic Times - May 26, 2008

49. References
• www.unfccc.de