Pharmacology is the branch of pharmaceutical sciences which is concerned with the study of drug or medication action, where a drug can be broadly defined as any man-made, natural, or endogenous molecule which exerts a biochemical or physiological effect on the cell, tissue, organ, or organism

1. PHARMACOLOGY
AND DRUG
ADMINISTRATION
PRESENTED BY : DR. PALLAVI

3. TERMS AND DEFINITION
• DRUG
A drug defined as any substance or group of substance, which affect living tissue.
Or
It is defined as any substance used to prevent, diagnose or treat disease or to
prevent pregnancy.
• PHARMACOLOGY
It is the study of the actions and effects of drugs on living systems and their
therapeutic use.

4. PHARMACOKINETICS
It deals with the absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion of drugs.
TOXICOLOGY
It is the science of poisons. It includes the origin, chemical properties, toxic
actions etc.
POSOLOGY
It is the science of dosage. It deals with the amount of drug necessary to produce
a desired physiological, therapeutic, or prophylactic effect.
MINIMUM DOSE
The minimum dose is considered the smallest dose of drug that that produce the
therapeutic effect.

5. MAXIMUM DOSE
The maximum dose is considered the large dose of drug that can be safely
administered.
TOXIC DOSE
The toxic dose of a drug is considered the amount of drug that will produce noxious or
harmful effect.
LETHAL DOSE “LD50”
The lethal dose of a drug is the amount of substance that will cause death
SINGLE DOSE
It is the amount of that substance to be taken at one time.
DAILY DOSE
The daily dose of a drug is the amount of that substance to be taken in a 24 hour period.

6. MAINTAINCE DOSE
The maintenance dose of a drug is the amount of that substance taken to maintain or
continue a desired therapeutic effect.

7. Greek Word
Pharmacon Logos
Drug Science
Science of drugs- dealing with the study of Desirable and Undesirable
effects.
PHARMACOLOGY

8. Pharmacology is the study of drugs and their actions on the
body

9. What is PHARMACOLOGY ?
Pharmacology
Pharmacokinetics Pharmacodynamics
What the body does to drug What the drug does to body
Pharmacotherapeutics Pharmacy
The study of the use of drugs Preparing suitable dosage forms
Toxicology

10. It is the science of:
• Identification
• Selection
• Preservation
• Standardization
• Compounding, and
• Dispensing of medicinal substances
PHARMACY

11. “ Drug is any substance or product that is used or is intended to be used
to modify physiological systems or pathological states for the benefit of
the recipient .”
DRUG

12. NOMNECLATURE
• CHEMICAL NAME: provided by chemist{ ingredients based}
• GENRIC NAME: manufacture name { company based}
• OFFICIAL NAME: FDA {food drug administration}
• TRADE NAME: brand name

13. Chemical Name 1,4 benzodiazepine analog
Generic Name Alprazolam
Official Name Alprazolam, USP
Brand Name Alprax®
DRUG NAMES

14. • Mineral
• Animal
• Plant
• Synthetic
• Micro-organisms
• Drugs produced by genetic
engineering
• Liquid paraffin, magnesium sulfate, etc
• Insulin, Thyroid, etc.
• Morphine, Quinine etc
• Aspirin, Sulfonamides, etc.
• Penicillin & other antibiotics.
• Human insulin, human growth, hormone etc.
THE NATURE AND SOURCES OF DRUGS

15. Chemistry
Animal Pharmacology
Animal Toxicity (Short / Long term)
Studies in Humans
Drug Authorities
Market
Synthesis & Purification
Formulation
DRUG DEVELOPMENT PROCESS

16. Tablets
Capsule
Injection
Infusion
Solution
Suspension
Cream
Aerosol
DRUG DOSAGE FORMS

17. ROUTES OF DRUG ADMINISTRATION
1. Oral
2. Sublingual
3. Rectal
Enteral Parenteral
(injectable)
1. Intravenous
2. Intramuscular
3. Subcutaneous
Topical
1. Intranasal
2. Inhalation
3. Intravaginal
How the drug is given

18. • The study of what the body does to the drug
• It is the study of absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion
(ADME) of drugs
• “Fate of drug”
PHARMACOKINETICS

19. • Absorption
How the drug is moved into blood stream from the site of administration ?
• Distribution
How much drug is moved to various body tissues / organs ? Depends on blood flow through tissue
• Metabolism
How the drug is altered – broken down ?
• Excretion
How much of the drug is removed from the body ?
PHARMACOKINETICS

20. PHARMACOKINETICS : EFFECT OF DRUG ON BODY
• THERAPUTIC EFFECT
• LOCAL & SYSTEMIC EFFECT
• ADVERSE EFFECT
• SIDE EFFECT
• OR OTHERS EFFECT

21. THERAPUTIC EFFECT
• It is the effect which is desired. Therapeutic effect r the medication
desired & intentional effect.
• These effects vary with the nature of the medication, the length of time
the client has received.
• These effects also vary with the client physical conditions & interaction
with the other day.

22. LOCAL & SYSTEMIC EFFECT
• Local effect “ of drugs r expected when they applied topical
region on the skin or mucous membrane.
• Systemic effect “ must be absorbed in the blood stream.
They produced the systemic desired effect in the various
system of the parts of body.

23. ADVERSE EFFECTS
• ADVERSE EFFECTS “is any effect other than the
therapeutic effect. So e adverse effects r minor while some r
vary serious to health, for e.g. PCM= liver toxicity
• SIDE EFFECTS “minor adverse effects. These r the minor
adverse effect which r absorbed due to administration of
drug. It can be treated by nsg interventions. For e.g.
amoxicillin= nausea, vomiting.

24. ALLERGIC REACTION
• When the client body reacts towards drug of
recognized as a foreign body then the
effects are shown known as allergic effect.
• Effect on urinary system
• oliguria., anuria , hematuria, albumin urea

25. Effects on CVS
• Arrhythmia, HR=72b/m
• Rhythm= lub ,dup
• Hypotension
• Hypertension
• Effects on CNS system
• Tremors {involuntary movemnts}
• Insomnia
• Headache
• dizziness

26. Effects on GI
• Mucosal irritation, constipation, diarrhea.
• SYNERGIC EFFECTS” , “A combination of
2 drugs can some types cause an effect
that is greater than the sum of the
individual effect of each drug.
•

27. • Pharmacokinetics: The movement of drugs that is the appearance and disappearance in the
body.
• Molecular pharmacology: Study of the intraction of drugs such as DNA, RNA, enzymes.
•
• Chemotherapy: Treatment that destroy microorganism, paracytes, or malignant cells.
•
• Toxicology: Study of the harmful effect of drugs and chemicals. A toxicologist is also
interested in finding proper antidotes to harmful effect of drugs.
•
• Chemical Name: Is the chemical formula of the drug shows the structure of the drug.
•
• Generic Name / Official Name: Is a very less complicated name that is recognized as
identifying the drug for legal and scientific purposes. There is only one generic name for each
drug.
•
• Brand Name / Trade Name / Proprietary Name: Is a private property of an individual drug
manufacture.

28. • The study of what the drug does to the body
• It is the quantitative study of the biological and therapeutic effects of drugs.
PHARMACODYNAMICS

29. USE OF DRUGS
• To maintain health
• To reserve a disease process
• To relieve symptoms
• To prevent disease
• To prevent pregnancy.

30. • PHARMAKOKINETICS: body action on drug
• PHARMACODYNAMICS: drug action on body.

31. Factors affecting drug response
• Pharmacological
– Dose & Route of administration
– Duration of treatment
– Time of administration
– Drug interaction
• Individual
– Age & Weight
– Gender
– Diet
– Tolerance
– -

32. Indication & Contraindication
• Indication:
A clinical circumstance indicating that the use of
a particular intervention would be appropriate
• Contraindication:
Any condition which renders a particular line of
treatment improper or undesirable.

33. What does the term adverse reaction refer to?
A. A life-threatening response to a drug
B. A drug-induced allergy
C. A harmful, noxious, unintended & undesirable response to a drug
D. An unpredictable response to a drug
Adverse drug reaction

34. Adverse drug reactions
 Side effect
 Toxicity – overdose
 Allergic reaction
 Physical dependence
 Carcinogenic effect

35. FORMS OF DRUGS
Solid

36. Solid dosage forms
1. Powders
2. Granules
3. Tablets
4. Capsules
5. Modified release dosage forms
(Tablet/Capsul)
6. Lozenges ( torches)
Semi-solid dosage forms
1. Ointments
2. Creams
3. Liniments
4. Suppository
5. Gel/ jelly
6. Paste
7. Poultices
8. Aerosols
9. Transdermal Drug delivery system
Liquid dosage formsNon–sterile
1. Syrup
2. Solution
3. Tincture
4. Suspension
5. Emulsion
6. Lotion
7. Elixir
8. Draughts
9. Enemas
10.Gargles
Sterile dosage forms
1. Injectables
2. Intravenous bolus dosage
3. Drops ( Eye & Ear)
11. Linctus
12. Lotions
13. Mixture

37. Solid form
• Caplet : shape like a capsule and coated for easy swallowing
• Capsule: powdered, liquid or oily drug enclosed in a gelatin shell
• Pills: tablet containing one or more drugs shaped into ovoid or oblong form
• Tablet: powdered dose compressed into hard disk.
• LOZENGES: flat, Round form containing drug, flavoring sugar, or dissolves in mouth.
• SUPPOSITORY: solid dose form mixed with gelatin for insertion in the body cavity,
melts at body temperature , releasing the drug for absorption
Suppositories

38. LIQUID FORM
• INJECTIONS: Liquid drugs in the ampoule or vial for IM, IV, SC , ID use
• DROPS: liquid drug for instillation in eyes, ears, nose
• SYURP: drug dissolved in conc. sugar solution
• SUSPENSION: finely divided drug particles in a liquid medium.
• LOTION: drug in liquid suspension used externally on the skin
• TINCTURE: water or alcohol drug solution
• EMULSION: mixture of two liquids uniformly dispersed throughout each other

39. SEMI SOLID FORM
• OINTMENT: preparation made for external use usually containing one or more drugs
• PASTE: thick and stiff preparation absorbed through skin more slowly than ointment
• CREAM: a non greasy semi solid prepration used on the skin.
Ointment
Pastes
Creams

40. CLASSIFICATION OF DRUGS BY
ACTIONS
PAGE NO. 460,NEERAJA SETHI

41. PHARMACOLOGY

42. CLASSES OF DRUGS
• Analgasic
• Mild analgasics
• Norcuticpotent
• Non-steridol anti-inflammatory drug
(NSAIDs)
• Prostate glands: Hormone like
substances that synthesis pain
receptors.

43. ANASTHETIC
General
Local
Spinal
Epidural
Dural blocks

44. ANTIBIOTIC / ANTIVIRAL
Bacterio static drugs and bacterisideldry (kill the
bacteria) it inhibit to grow (stops) - Antifunguls,
antitrnurcules, antivirus, cephalosporin - (Bacterie sidle)
they kill, srythromycin (bacterio static) asitromycin,
penicillin (bacterio cidal), quilones (bacterie sidle) eg:
Ciprofloxcin, sulfomaides, sulpha drugs (bacterie sidal),
tetracyclin for plage (bacterio static).

45. ANTICOAGULANTS & ANTIPLATES
DRUG
prevent coagulation (clotting) of blood heparin is a
nature anticoagulant produces by liver cells. Other
anticoagulant produces warfarin (aspirin, coumadin,
dicumorol) are manufacture. Tissue type plasminogen
activator (tpA) is actually dissolve the clot.

46. ANTIPLATELETS DRUGS
Reduce the tendenes of platlets to stick together. eg:
aspirin.
ANTICONVULSANT
Prevents or reduces the frequency of convulsion.
The various types of epilepsy.

47. ANTIDEPRESSION
Feels symptoms of depression. They can elevate mood,
increase physical activity, and mental awareness, to
improve apitide and sleep. Many antidepressants are
also mild cedatives.
Drugs include:
tricylics (TCA) eg: Pamelor, amitriptyline, nortriptyline.
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI)
Monoamine oxidec inhibitor (MAOI)

48. ANTIDIABETICS
2 types Type I, Type II.
Type I: Insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM).
Must receive injection of insulin. Insulin was obtained
from animals (pork, beef) now much purer insulin is
produced called rDNA (Humulin N). in younger age
Juvenile diabetes.
Type II: Non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus
(NIDDM). Are given oral antidiabetic drugs.

49. Antidiabetic drugs
sulfonylureas eg: Glucotrol XL (glipizide).
Biguanides eg: metformin (Glucofag)
Alphaglucozidase inhibitor eg: acarbose (precose)
Thiazolidirediones eg: troglitrozone (Risulina)
Meglitinides eg: Prandin
An insulin pump is a device strapped to the patient
waist that periodically deliveries the desired amount of

50. RESPIRATORY DRUG
Bronchodilators
Steriod drugs
Seditives and hypnotics
Stimulants
Minor tranquilizers are benzodiazitine
Major tranquilizers are phenothiazine

52. STORAGE AND CARE OF DRUGS
• All the drugs should be labeled properly, neatly and gently.
• The labeled should contain the name of drug, composition, strength and dose
• There should be separate cupboard for storing drugs
• There should be separate cupboard for storing poisonous drugs & should be under
lock and key.
• There should be separate compartments for storing different forms of drugs i.e.
tablets, mixtures, lotions, injections, drops etc.
• All the drugs should be kept alphabetically.
• A record should be maintained for accounts of drugs.
• A seprate record should be maintained for poisonus drugs to prevent their theft and
misuse.
• Emergency drugs should be kept in easy reach.
• .

53. • The expire date should be checked at regular intervals and replaced from the central
store.
• The drugs which get destroyed at room temperature e.g. vaccines, antibiotics, serum
etc should be stored in refrigerator.
• The oily medicine should be stored in water proof cover to prevent soiling.
• Do not take the medicine from the bottle or container which have illegible level.

54. Five R’s
Right
Medicine
Right
Dose
Right
Time
Right
Route
Right
patient

55. RIGHTS OF DRUG ADMINISTRATION
• Right drug
• Right dose
• Right patient
• Right route
• Right preparations
• Right times
• Right handling
• Right storage
• Right expiry of date
• Right discard
• Right administration

56. • Right explanation
• Right documentation
• Right order
• Right patient chart
• Right universal precaution

57. Abbreviations
Abbrev. Meaning Latin (or New Latin) origin
a.c. Before meals ante cibum
q.o.d Every other day quaque otra die
a.m. Morning ante meridiem
b.i.d. (or bid) Twice a day/daily bis in die
gtt. Drop(s) gutta(e)
h. Hour hora
h.s. At bedtime hora somni
o.d. Right eye oculus dexter
o.s. Left eye oculus sinister
o.u. Both eyes oculus uterque
p.c. After food post cibum
p.m. Afternoon post meridiem
p.o. or po Orally per os
p.r. or pr Rectally per rectum

58. p.r.n. as needed pro re nata
q. every quaque
q.2.h. Every two hours quaque secunda hora
q.4.h. Every four hours quaque quarta hora
q.6.h. Every six hours quaque sexta hora
q.8.h. Every eight hours quaque octava hora
q.d. or qd Every day/daily quaque die
q.i.d Four times a day quater in die
q.h. Every hour, hourly quaque hora
q.s. A sufficient quantity quantum sufficiat
Rx or ℞ prescription recipe
Sig. or S. directions signa
Stat. Immediately, with no delay statim
t.i.d. or tid Three times a day ter in die
u.d. As directed ut dictum

59. Routes for Medication.
Term What it means?
Buccal Between cheek and gum
Sublingual Under the tongue
Topical On skin
Oral (p.o) Per Oral
Transdermal Patch form
Intra Aural In Ears
Intra Ocular In eyes
Intra Nasal In nose
IM (Intra Muscular) Injection in muscle
IV (Intra Venous) Injection in vein
Subcutaneous Injection in fatty tissue
GI Gastro Intestinal
NG Naso Gastric

60. Route of Drug Administration
By Abubakar salisu fago.

61. ADMINISTRAION OF MEDICATION
• The administration of medication is a chief responsibility of the nurse. The practice of
administering medication involves providing the patient with a substance prescribed and
intended for the diagnosis treatment, or prevention of a medical illness or condition.
• Drugs are introduced into the body by several routes

62. • They may be taken by mouth (orally); given by injection into a vein (intravenously), into a
muscle (intramuscularly), into the space around the spinal cord (intrathecally), or beneath the
skin (subcutaneously); placed under the tongue (sublingually); inserted in the rectum (rectally)
or vagina (vaginally); instilled in the eye (by the ocular route); sprayed into the nose and
absorbed through the nasal membranes (nasally); breathed into the lungs, usually through the
mouth (by inhalation); applied to the skin (cutaneously) for a local (topical) or bodywide
(systemic) effect; or delivered through the skin by a patch (transdermally) for a systemic effect.
Each route has specific purposes, advantages, and disadvantage.

63. Important factors which govern the choice of route of drug administration are
a. Physical and chemical properties of drugs ( solid/liquide/gas/stability/PH / irritancy
b. Site of desire action- localized and approachable and generalized and nonapproacheable
c. Rate and extent of drug absorption
d. Effect of digestive juice and first pass metabolism of drugs
e. Rapidity at which response is desired
f. Accuracy of dose required
g. Condition of patients

64. ROUTES OF DRUG ADMINISTRATION
1. Oral
2. Sublingual
3. Rectal
Enteral Parenteral
(injectable)
1. Intravenous
2. Intramuscular
3. Subcutaneous
Topical
1. Intranasal
2. Inhalation
3. Intravaginal
How the drug is given

66. ENTERAL
ORAL
RECTAL
BUCCAL
SUBLINGUAL

67. II. Routes of Drug
Administration
- Determined primarily by the properties
of the drug
2 MAJOR ROUTES OF DRUG
ADMINISTRATION
1. Enteral
2. Parenteral

68. ENTERAL routes
A. ORAL
B. SUBLINGUAL
C. RECTAL

69. Routes of Drug
Administration
• 1. ENTERAL
A. ORAL
- most common route of administration
- Most variable
- most complicated pathway
- Cheapest
- Non - invasive
[NOTE: most drugs are absorbed in the GIT & encounter
the liver before they are distributed into the general
circulation]

70. Oral Dosage Forms
• Common dose forms for oral administration
– tablets
– capsules
– liquids
– solutions
– suspensions
– syrups
– elixirs

71. Routes of Drug
AdAministration
• 1. Enteral
B. SUBLINGUAL
- Placement under the tongue
- Allows the drug to diffuse into the capillaries & therefore to enter the systemic
circulation
Advantage: the drug bypasses the intestine & liver & thus avoids 1st pass metabolism

72. SUBLINGUAL ROUTE
ADVANTAGES
• ECONOMICAL
• QUICK TERMINATION
• FIRST-PASS AVOIDED
• DRUG ABSORPTION IS QUICK
DISADVANTAGES
• UNPALATABLE & BITTER DRUGS
• IRRITATION OF ORAL MUCOSA
• LARGE QUANTITIES NOT GIVEN
• FEW DRUGS ARE ABSORBED
73

73. BUCCAL ROUTE
• Buccal
administration is
where the dosage
form is placed
between gums and
inner lining of the
cheek (buccal
pouch)
– absorbed by
buccal mucosa

74. BUCCAL ROUTE
ADVANTAGES
– Avoid first pass effect
– Rapid absorption
– Drug stability
DISADVANTAGES
– Inconvenience
– advantages lost if swallowed
– Small dose limit

75. Routes of Drug
Administration
1. Enteral
c. Rectal
- Useful if the drug induces vomiting if given orally or if the patient is already
vomiting
- Drainage of the rectal region bypasses the portal circulation
- Similar to the sublingual route, it prevents the destruction of the drug by
intestinal enzymes or by the low pH in the stomach
[note: commonly used to administer anti – emetic ] By Suppository or Enema

76. RECTAL ROUTE
ADVANTAGES
 USED IN CHILDREN
 LITTLE OR NO FIRST PASS EFFECT
 USED IN
VOMITING/UNCONSCIOUS
 HIGHER CONCENTRATIONS RAPIDLY ACHIEVED
DISADVANTAGES
 INCONVENIENT
 ABSORPTION IS SLOW AND ERRATIC
 IRRITATION OR INFLAMMATION OF RECTAL MUCOSA
CAN OCCUR
77

77. PARENTERAL routes
SC / subcutaneous
IM / intramuscular
IV / intravascular

78. SYSTEMIC-PARENTERAL
79
 INJECTABLES
I. INTRAVENOUS
II. INTRAMUSCULAR
III. SUBCUTANEOUS
IV. INTRA-ARTERIAL
V. INTRA-ARTICULAR
VI. INTRATHECAL
VII. INTRADERMAL
 INHALATION - Absorption through the lungs

80. Routes of Drug Administration
2. Parenteral
a. IV / intravascular
- IV injection is the most
common parenteral route
- For drugs which are not absorbed orally
- Bypasses the liver
- Permits a rapid effect and a maximal degree of
control over the circulating levels of the drug
- Can introduce bacterial contamination at the site
- Can cause hemolysis

81. INTRAVENOUS
ADVANTAGES
• BIOAVAILABILITY 100%
• DESIRED BLOOD
CONCENTRATIONS ACHIEVED
• LARGE QUANTITIES
• VOMITING & DIARRHEA
• EMERGENCY SITUATIONS
• FIRST PASS AVOIDED
• GASTRIC MANUPALATION
AVOIDED
DISADVANTAGES
• IRRITATION & CELLULITIS
• THROMBOPHELEBITIS
• REPEATED INJECTIONS NOT ALWAYS
FEASIBLE
• LESS SAFE
• TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE REQUIRED
• DANGER OF INFECTION
• EXPENSIVE
• LESS CONVENIENT AND PAINFUL
82

82. Routes of Drug Administration
2. Parenteral
b. IM / intramuscular
drug administerd aqueous sol’n
specialized depot preparations

83. INTRAMUSULAR ROUTE
ADVANTAGES
• ABSORPTION
REASONABLY UNIFORM
• RAPID ONSET OF ACTION
• MILD IRRITANTS CAN BE
GIVEN
• FIRST PASS AVOIDED
• GASTRIC FACTORS CAN BE
AVOIDED
DISADVANTAGES
• ONLY UPTO 10ML DRUG GIVEN
• LOCAL PAIN AND ABCESS
• EXPENSIVE
• INFECTION
• NERVE DAMAGE
84

84. Routes of Drug Administration
2. Parenteral
c. SC / subcutaneous
- This route of
administration like IM
requires absorption &
somewhat slower than
the IV route

85. SUBCUTANEOUS
• Injected under the skin.
• Absorption is slow, so action is prolonged.
IMPLANT :a tablet or porous capsule is inserted
into the loose tissues by incision of the skin,
which is then stiched up.
example : certain hormonal drugs

86. INTRA-ARTERIAL
• Rarely used
• Anticancer drugs are given for localized effects
• Drugs used for diagnosis of peripheral vascular
diseases

87. INTRA-ARTICULAR
• injections of
antibiotics and
corticosteroids are
administered in
inflammed joined
cavities by experts.
example:
hydrocortisone in
rheumatoid arthritis

88. INTRADERMAL
• drug is given within skin layers
(dermis)
• Painful
• Mainly used for testing sensitivity to
drugs.
e.g. penicillin, ATS (anti tetanus
serum)
INOCULATION :administration of
vaccine (like small pox vaccine )

89. Topical Routes of Administration
• Topical administration is the application of a drug directly to the
surface of the skin
• Includes administration of drugs to any mucous membrane
– eye – vagina
– nose – urethra
– ears – colon
– lungs

90. Topical Dosage Forms
Dose forms for topical administration include:
• Skin:
– creams
– ointments
– lotions
– gels
– transdermal patches
– disks
• Eye or ear:
– solutions
– suspensions
– ointments
• Nose and lungs:
– sprays and powders

91. Routes of Drug Administration
3. Others
a. Inhalation
- Provides a rapid delivery
of a drug across a large
surface area of the
mucus membranes of
the respiratory and the
pulmonary epithelium
- Effect is as rapid as IV
injection
- For gaseous drugs

92. Routes of Drug Administration
3. Others
b. Intranasal
- Through the nose
eg. : desmopressin, salmon
calcitonin, cocaine

93. Routes of Drug Administration
. Others
c. Intrathecal, intraventricular
- Introducing drugs directly into the
cerebrospinal fluid / CSF
Eg., amphotericin B

94. Routes of Drug Administration
• 3. Others
d. Topical
- Is used when a local effect of a drug
is required
- Eg., clotrimazole, atropine

95. Routes of Drug Administration
3. Others
e. Transdermal
- This route of administration
achieves systemic effects by
application of drugs to the skin,
usually by using a transdermal
patch.
- Rate of absorption varies markedly
- Eg., nitroglycerin

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