The document discusses several topics related to heat and temperature, including: 1. It defines temperature as a measure of the average kinetic energy of atoms and molecules in a gas or substance, with higher temperatures corresponding to faster molecular motion. 2. It describes different devices that can be used to measure temperature, such as mercury thermometers, gas thermometers, pyrometers, and electrical resistance thermometers. 3. It explains concepts such as heat capacity, specific heat capacity, calorimetry, latent heat, phase changes, conduction, convection, radiation, and Newton's Law of Cooling.

2.  Calorimetry

3. The atoms and molecules in
a gas are in constant motion.
Temperature is a measure of
the speed with which they
move. (More exactly it is a
measure of their average
kinetic energy.) The higher
the temperature, the faster
the molecules move.

4. Measurement Of temperature:-
Temperature can be measured by the following devices:-
Mercury Thermometer Ideal Gas Thermometer
Pyrometer Electrical Resistance Thermometer

6. PV = nRT (Macroscopic Form)
Basically says that the state of a gas is also dependent on the
number of particles in the sample of gas. So, by adding a term
for the number of moles of particles and proportionality
constant “R” to the combined gas law, we get Ideal Gas Law.
“n” is the number of moles of the gas.
“R” the Universal Gas Constant is the same for all gases.

7. The heat capacity C of an object is the heat energy needed
to raise its temperature by 1 kelvin (or 1 degree celsius).
When different substances undergo the same temperature
change they can store or release different amounts of heat.
Something with high heat capacity heats up slower and
cools down faster.
Heat Capacity = Q / T
Q – thermal energy (J)
ΔT – temperature change (K)

8. Defined as the amount of thermal energy required to produce
unit temperature rise in unit mass of the material.Unit mass is
normally 1kg, and unit temperature rise is normally 1K
Specific Heat Capacity = Q / (m T)
Unit:-J kg-1 K-1,where m is the mass of the material

11. Calorimetry means measurement of heat.When a body at
higher temperature is brought in contact with another body at
lower temperature, the heat lost by the hot body is equal to the
heat gained by the colder body, provided no heat is allowed to
escape to the surroundings. A device in which heat
measurement can be made is called a calorimeter.

12. The change of state from solid to liquid is called melting and
from liquid to solid is called fusion. The temperature at which
the solid and the liquid states of the substance in thermal
equilibrium with each other is called its melting point.
The melting point of a substance at standard atomspheric
pressure is called its normal melting point.

13. Some important terms
The change of state from liquid to vapour (or gas) is called
vaporisation.
The temperature at which the liquid and the vapour states of
the substance coexist is called its boiling point.
The boiling point of a substance at standard atmospheric
pressure is called its normal boiling point.
The change from solid state to vapour state without passing
through the liquid state is called sublimation, and the
substance is said to sublime.

14. The amount of heat per unit mass transferred during change of
state of the substance is called latent heat of the substance for
the process.
Q=mL
Where,
Q is the heat required,
m is the mass of the substance
L is known as latent heat
Its SI unit is J kg–1.
The latent heat for a solidliquid state change is called the
latent heat of fusion (Lf), and that for a liquid-gas state
change is called the latent heat of vaporisation (Lv).

16. Conduction is the mechanism of transfer of heat between two
adjacent parts of a body because of their temperature
difference. Gases are poor thermal conductors while liquids
have conductivities intermediate between solids and gases.
Heat conduction may be described quantitatively as the time
rate of heat flow in a material for a given temperature
difference.

18. Convection is a mode of heat transfer by actual
motion of matter. It is possible only in fluids. Convection can
be natural or forced. In natural convection, gravity plays an
important part. Convection involves bulk transportof different
parts of the fluid. In forced convection, material is forced to
move by a pump or by some other physical means.

19. Conduction and convection require some Material as a
transport medium. These modes Of heat transfer cannot
operate between bodies Separated by a distance in vacuum.
But the Earth does receive heat from the sun across a Huge
distance and we quickly feel the warmth Of the fire nearby
even though air conducts Poorly and before convection can set
in. The Third mechanism for heat transfer needs no
Medium; it is called radiation and the energy So radiated by
electromagnetic waves is called Radiant energy.
The electromagnetic radiation emitted by a body by virtue of
its temperature like the radiation by a red hot iron or light from
a filament lamp is called thermal radiation.

20. Newton’s Law of Cooling says that the rate of cooling of a
body is proportional to the
excess temperature of the body over the surroundings:
T(t) = TA + (TH-TA) e-kt
where
T(t) = Temperature at time t
TA = Ambient temperature (temp of surroundings)
TH = Temperature of hot object at time 0
k = positive constant
t = time
.