MUHAMMAD AKBAR ZAHIDI - international research journal for quality in education

GOD IS. E-ISSN:
International Research Journal for Quality in
Education
An International Peer Reviewed Monthly Journal dealing with all aspects of Quality Education
Volume No. 1(2), Pages 1-30, August (2014)
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CONTENTS
Research Papers:
1. The Relationship between Stress Factors and MBA Students’ Academic Performance: Evidence from
Private Universities in Malaysia
- Mustapha Siti Maziha, Kaur Kamaljeet and Nik Salleh Nik Mohamad Zaki
1-4
2. Failure Factors of Physical Education Students in teaching Graduate Programme at Institute of
Teacher Education
- Muhammad Akbar Zahidi and Syed Kamaruzaman Syed Ali
5-11
3. Pública 14: A Report of a Fieldtrip as an Educational Strategy of Integrating the International
Dimension into the Goals of Higher Education
- Moura Anabela, Magalhães Carla and Gama Manuel
12-17
4. A Study on Constructing Indicators of Life Skills for Older Adult in Taiwan from the Perspectives of
Lifelong Learning
- Lin Li-Hui
18-22
5. A review of lights and shadows of Polish educational integration
- Beata Borowska-Beszta
23-30

International Research Journal for Quality in Education Vol. 1(2) August (2014)
The Relationship between Stress Factors and MBA Students’
Academic Performance: Evidence from Private Universities
in Malaysia
Mustapha Siti Maziha1*, Kaur Kamaljeet1 and Nik Salleh Nik Mohamad Zaki2
1. Infrastructure University Kuala Lumpur, MALAYSIA
2. Multimedia University, MALAYSIA
*maziha@iukl.edu.my
1
Abstract
Full time Master in Business Administration (MBA)
students in universities face all kinds of pressures to
maintain optimal performance in a challenging
academic environment. Stress can have an impact on
their ability to complete their Master’s degree and
graduate. A significant number of university students
fail to get an acceptable level of academic
achievement which causes withdrawal or dismissal15.
Different stressors can all pose their own treat to a
student’s academic performance. The purpose of this
study is to detect if there is a correlation between the
stress that MBA students perceive that they are under
and their Grade Point Average (GPA). Perceived
stress was measured using the Perceived Stress Scale,
developed by Cohen and Mermeistein in 1983 and
GPA by the grades obtained in that semester. The
students were also asked to rank in order of
importance a list of possible stress factors. We
hypothesize that there would be a negative correlation
between the amount of stress perceived by the students
and the students’ GPA.
Therefore, a higher score on the Perceived Stress
Scale resulting in a higher level of stress, the
correlated GPA should be lower during that specific
semester. The study showed that some of possible
sources of stress contributed more to students’
perceived stress. The implication of the findings is to
offer better information to educators and
administrators on how stress manifests itself on MBA
students and its effect on students’ academic
performance. Programs aimed at helping students to
reduce their level of stress will help reduce academic
failures or withdrawals.
Keywords: Stress factors, MBA students, private
universities, Malaysia.
Introduction
University students face many challenges in pursuit of
* Author for Correspondence
academic excellence. Awareness of factors associated with
academic performance in university students is useful in
helping students to maintain optimal performance in a
stressful academic environment. Stress is defined as
physiological non-specific reaction to external and internal
demands22. Stress has also been described as a relationship
between an individual and his or her environment that is
perceived as dangerous and evaluated as beyond what he or
she can deal with13. Thus, an individual’s perception and
reaction to an event causes stress, not an event itself.
Research shows that findings relating to perceived stress
among university students are inconclusive. Many studies
have been carried out to look at the relationship between
stress factors and university students’ experience and the
effects of stress on GPA. Hatcher and Prus10 called the
stress factors that are associated to university students as
academic situational constraints. The results of studies on
correlation between the score on the perceived stress scale
and GPA have been inconsistent. However, the hypothesis
for this study is that there would be a negative correlation
between the amount of stress perceived by the students and
the students’ GPA. Therefore, a higher score on the
Perceived Stress Scale resulting in a higher level of stress,
the correlated GPA should be lower during that specific
semester.
Review of Literature
Many researchers like Gall, Evans and Bellerose8 and
Mallinckrodt14 have studied academic stress and found that
college-related stress has been an important factor in
college student adjustment. Academic stress was found to
be negatively related to academic performance among
traditional undergraduates17,20. Struthers, Perry and
Menec23 found that freshmen in particular are affected by
academic stress, so do inner-city high school students9.
Different stressors can all pose their own treats to a
student’s academic performance. A significant number of
university students fail to get an acceptable level of
academic achievement which causes withdrawal or
dismissal15. According to Rocha-Singh19, time constraints,
financial strain, academic workload and interpersonal
difficulties with faculty, peers and significant others
contribute to stress for college students. Findings from past
studies show that stress experienced by university students
results in negative outcomes.

2
There are many factors that could cause stress and
influence a student’s academic performance and thus his or
her GPA. However, what a student perceives as stressful
may not be as stressful for another student. A stressor on its
own may not be as harmful as when combined. A
combination of stressors may have a greater effect on a
student’s academic performance. The study also aims to
discover what possible sources of stress that contributed
more to students’ perceived stress.
The MBA program serves as a medium that facilitates
enhancement of leadership qualities and shaping of
versatile future managers. Students entering into this
professional education will face difficulties that will
challenge their perseverance as the pressure to achieve
good grades and get a degree is very high12. Students
pursuing an MBA will require support to overcome
obstacles so they can achieve the desired academic
performance. Over the years, there have been numerous
studies that have looked at the correlation of different stress
factors that university students experience and the effects of
stress on their overall achievements and mental health.
However, there has not been much research that deals with
the full time MBA students and the implications related to
stress they experience.
Thus, it is timely that a study is undertaken to investigate
the relationship between stress factors and academic
performance of students pursuing an MBA. The findings
from the study would benefit various departments in
universities that deal with the planning and conducting of
required programs for the students to help them cope with
stress-related factors. In consequence, this will help them to
reduce their stress and gain better academic performance.
Methodology
Sample: The hypotheses were tested using a convenience
sample of 171 MBA students (35% male, 65% female)
attending 2 private universities in the Klang Valley,
Malaysia. All participants were full time students with an
average of 20 hours of work spent at university attending
tutorials and performing other academic tasks.
The sample was representative of a typical MBA program
to the extent that it did not represent any one single
demographic group (e.g. gender, age groups etc.)
extensively. The data collection took place during students’
second semester and participants completed a written
questionnaire in their classrooms.
Measures: The participants’ perceived stress was evaluated
using the scale developed by Cohen et al5. It is a fourteen
item scale that requires participants to answer questions
pertaining to them during the second semester. The scale is
a measure of the degree to which situations in one’s life are
appraised as stressful. Participants responded to each item
using a five-point Likert-type scale from 1 (never) to 5
(very often). The scale has been proven to be a reliable tool
to measure only the amount of stress, independent of other
constructs like depression. The reported coefficient alpha
for this scale is .78. The scale produces a single score
where a higher score indicates a higher level of perceived
stress. Items 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10 & 13 were reversed coded5.
Academic performance: A self-report item where
participants were asked: “Please indicate your current
cumulative grade point average” was used. Self-reported
GPA measures are often utilized in educational research6,11.
Demographic Data: The participants were asked to
provide details about themselves for extraneous variables.
They reported data about gender, age, race, semester,
number of credit hours taken and GPA.
Stress Factors Survey: The participants were asked to
rank their top five stress factors that could have affected
their GPA.
Statistical Treatment: Descriptive statistics were utilized.
Pearson correlations were computed to assess the
relationship between variables. Data were analyzed using
SPSS.
Findings
The Descriptive Statistics table shows that the mean score
for the participants’ perceived stress is 32.8 with a wide
dispersion as the SD is 6.23. This indicates that there is a
wide range of stress level among students. The mean for
the participants’ GPA is 3.3482. The standard deviation for
GPA is below 1.0 indicating the dispersion as rather small.
Descriptive Statistics
Mean Std. Deviation N
Total Score 31.80 6.230 171
GPA 3.3482 0.20470 171
Based on the Correlations table, the correlation coefficient
is -.727. This value of r suggests a strong negative linear
correlation since the value is negative and close to -1. Since
the above value of r suggests a strong negative linear
correlation, the data points should be clustered closely
about a negatively sloping line. This is consistent with the
scatterplot graph obtained below.
Correlations
Total Score GPA
Total Score Pearson Correlation 1 -.727**
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 171 171
GPA Pearson Correlation -.727** 1
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 171 171
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

3
The results of the correlation proved that there is a
significant relationship between the stress that students
perceive that they are under and their Grade Point Average
(GPA), p<0.01.
The hypothesis is that there would be a negative correlation
between the amount of stress perceived by the students and
the students’ GPA. The scatter plot shows that the higher
score on the Perceived Stress Scale resulted in a higher
level of stress and therefore the correlated GPA was lower
during that specific semester.
Relationship between perceived stress and GPA
The data from the Stress Factors Survey yielded the
following results. There are academic stressors as well as
psychological stressors which affect the academic
performance of students. In academic stressors, 19.6% of
the students ranked the course load as having the highest
impact on their academic performance. 16% of the students
ranked not getting enough sleep as the second stressor and
social activities as the third stressor (14.95). The fourth
stressor was lack of exercise. Interestingly, 9.5% reported
getting too much sleep as a stressor. There was also stress
due to financial constraint (8.1%).
Conclusion
The findings of the study indicated that MBA students
clearly experience stress and it has affected their academic
performance. The findings from study confirm the
hypothesis that MBA students’ academic stress is inversely
correlated to academic performance. Course workload, lack
of sleep and social activities were reported to be the top
three factors contributing to students’ stress. Interestingly,
getting too much sleep has been found to be the fifth
stressor. This may be due to coping mechanism of some
students where they resort to sleeping when the pressure is
too much for them. However, by oversleeping, the students
reported that they become more stressed.
If university personnel are to effectively promote the
adjustment of these students to an academic environment,
they need to be aware of the types of stressors that are most
common to university students and the effects of those
stressors on outcomes such as academic performance.
Besides academic performance, evidence from past
research shows that stress experienced by college students
relates to outcomes such as anxiety and depression1,18,
hopelessness and suicide ideation3,4, decision-making
ability16 and attrition7.
MBA students could benefit from strategies to reduce
stress. The implication of the findings is to offer better
information to educators and administrators on how stress
manifests itself on university post graduate students and its
effect on students’ academic performance. Programs aimed
at helping students to reduce their level of stress will help
reduce academic failures or withdrawals.
Limitation
The convenience nature of the sample (MBA students in
two private universities in Malaysia) requires replication of
this study in other university environments prior to
generalizing these results to all student populations.
Factors contributing to stress

4
References
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predictors of depression, American Journal of Community
Psychology, 15(4), 789-813 (1987)
2. Aldwin C. and Revenson T. A., Does coping help? A re-examination
of the relation between coping and mental health,
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(1987)
3. Bonner R. L. and Rich A. R., Toward a predictive model of
suicidal ideation and behavior: Some preliminary data in college
students, Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 17(1), 50-63
(1987)
4. Bonner R. L. and Rich A. R., A prospective investigation of
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and Life-Threatening Behavior, 18(3), 245-258 (1988)
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sample of the United States, In Spacapan S. and Oskamp S., Eds.,
The social psychology of health: Claremont Symposium on
applied social psychology, Newbury Park, CA, Sage (1988)
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interview study of the long-term effects of a college study skills
course: Traces and self-report measures, Paper presented at the
Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research
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7. Cope R. G. and Hannah W., Revolving College Doors: The
Causes and Consequences of Dropping Out, Stopping Out and
Transferring, New York, Wiley Interscience (1975)
8. Gall T. L., Evans D. R. and Bellerose S., Transition to first-year
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performance of urban, low-income, Mexican–American
adolescents, Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 28(2), 259–282
(1999)
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constraints: Out of class circumstances that inhibit college student
development, Educational & Psychological Measurement, 51(4),
953963 (1991)
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sex, GPA and cognitive/semantic consistency, Paper presented at
the Annual Meeting of the Eastern States Speech Communication
Association, Pittsburgh, PA, April 27–30 (1995)
12. Hirsch J. K. and Ellis J. B., Differences in life stress and
reasons for living among college suicide ideators and non-
Ideators, College Student Journal, 30, 377-384 (1996)
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Coping, New York, Springer Publishing (1984)
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intention: Comparison of black and white students, Journal of
College Student Development, 29(1), 60–64 (1988)
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Students, San Francisco, Jossey-Bass (1991)
16. Priester Michael and Clum George A., Perceived problem-solving
ability as a predictor of depression, hopelessness and
suicide ideation in college population, Journal of Counselling
Psychology, 40(1), 79-85 (1993)
17. Pritchard M. E. and Wilson G. S., Using emotional and social
factors to predict student success, Journal of College Student
Development, 44(1), 18–28 (2003)
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Stress, anxiety, depression and physical illness in college
students, The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 155(3), 321-330
(1994)
19. Rocha-Singh Indra A., Perceived stress among graduate
students: Development and validation of the graduate stress
inventory, Educational and Psychological Measurement, 54(3),
714-727 (1994)
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college students: Assessment and counseling, In Lent R. W., ed.,
Handbook of Counseling Psychology, 2nd edition, John Wiley
and Sons, Inc, Hoboken, NJ, 485–511 (1992)
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Personal Journal, 58, December, 851-854 (1979)
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examination of the relationship among academic stress, coping,
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(Received 01st July 2014, accepted 19th July 2014)

Failure Factors of Physical Education Students in teaching
Graduate Programme at Institute of Teacher Education
Muhammad Akbar Zahidi¹ and Syed Kamaruzaman Syed Ali²*
Faculty of Education, University of Malaya, MALAYSIA
*syed@um.edu.my
5
Abstract
This study was about the failure factors of physical
education students in teaching graduate programme
(TGP) at institute of teacher education (ITE). Thus,
this study identified the factors of failure from
personal problems, lecturer, facility, syllabus and
school factors. Furthermore, this study used a mixed
mode method such as semi-structural interview and
questionnaires. To answer the interview instrument, a
total of 12 TGP students were selected from maximum
variation method based on six different zones. Then,
to answer the questionnaires, this research involved
40 TGP students at random.
Next, descriptive statistics of SPSS 21.0 software was
used to analyze the factors in five domains. The
findings of the study indicated that the domain of
syllabus factors contributed to the cause of the failure
at the highest level. However, the finding of the
lecturer communication was the highest among the
items. Therefore, failure was causing some effects
such as feeling sad, frustrated and stressed out to deal
with colleagues and family members.
Keywords: Physical Education Students, Teaching
Graduate Program (TGP), Institute of Teacher Education
(ITE).
Introduction
Teaching Graduate Program (TGP) offered to in service
teachers who are under the Ministry of Education to uphold
their teaching profession as contained in the Education
Development Plan Blueprint 2013-2025 to ensure that all
teachers have qualifications at least at the undergraduate
level5. TGP goals were to raise the level of educational
qualification of Postgraduate Diploma in Education
Services (PDES) as well as to produce quality graduates,
including in the field of physical education in terms of
mastery knowledge, skills and competencies of
professionalism in line with the National Education
Philosophy and Education Teachers Philosophy1. So, this
program was very important to increase the number of
graduate teachers in primary schools over 60% from the
total before 2015. The goal line with the government
transformation programme launched a new offer for all
teachers to improve service quality and increase profile of
professionalism in their careers3.
Therefore, ITE has offered a total of 13,213 students for
TGP at ITE in June 2011, including the option or field of
physical education. However, the results of first semester
of that year showed a total of 140 TGP students failed the
examination4. After repetitions of examinations were
carried out, a total of 23 TGP students (30%) still failed
and stopped. A total number of students who failed in this
TGP was very large compared to the number of pre-service
students in Bachelor of Teaching which was only five
people in 2011, even though both groups of the students
were to follow the same curriculum structure6. Further,
Halim6 found that 40 TGP students of physical education
options failed in some courses until 2013 and now they still
continue their studies. Therefore, this research will identify
the level of failure based on five domains in the TGP.
The failure of TGP students in physical education at ITE
was due to several factors. Based on previous studies, some
preliminary findings showed that there were a few reasons
contributing to the factors such as personal problems,
lecturers, facilities, syllabus and schools. According to
Sulan2, through the failure of off-campus students at a local
university, personal factors were a major cause and showed
76% respondents failed to finish their studies. This was
because the students were in employment services. Besides,
their ages were different from full time students and some
of them were over 40 years old. Furthermore, some of them
suffered from health problems but age was not a
determinant of reaching a success. Then, students should be
wise in choosing option or field offered for the distance
education.
Accordingly, the family was decisive to ensure a success to
TGP students. This was because most of them were already
married and have to juggle between family and education.
Thus, sacrifice of time on weekends was a psychological
toll that must be borne by the TGP students. Besides, one
of the failures was due to the extra costs or fees. They had
to pay the fees by themselves to get extra knowledge. TGP
students had to be wise to choose their fields at the
university and if not, they were getting some difficulties to
follow the syllabus. Thus, encouragement from families
and friends was very important for the students to be
driving to succeed.
Moreover, according to Jamaluddin3, the cause of the
distance education students’ failure was due to lecturers.
The results showed that the absence of an attitude of
respect was causing the failure. Adult students deserve to

6
get a different learning approach from teenage students.
Therefore, lecturers should respect adult learners through
more effective discretion. Lecturers cannot be arbitrary
resolute in delivering teaching and learning. Thus, teaching
techniques need to be changed and require an
understanding with a different approach to teach the
students. Effective knowledge and techniques of
communication caused the students do not understand what
was being taught.
Further, a study from Rauzah and Muhammad4 showed that
convenience factor for adult learners was not giving
satisfaction. Distance education students had to use
facilities on weekends which were used by the previous
full-time students. Besides, the other facilities factors such
as ITE’s toilets were not clean, tables and chairs were not
enough, lack of an LCD projector, no internet connection,
difficult to get the internet password and the lecture rooms
were not clean5. All of these factors led to disruption of the
adult learning.
Next, Halim6 showed that syllabus factor for learning
distance was too difficult and far on their level of
knowledge. This led students to take additional classes to
understand the syllabus in their studies. Syllabus was quite
difficult, lack of practical learning and study period was too
long. These factors resulted for the students not to continue
their studies.
In addition, school factors were also involved in the failure
of TGP distance students. This was due to lack of moral
support at their workplaces. According to Jamaluddin3,
students who were in employment services needed
encouragement and support by the administration of their
organizations. Therefore, TGP students should not be
burdened with too much work to bother their emotions.
Administrators in the organization should understand that
performing various tasks in the same time required
cooperation between each other. In conclusion, all adult
students through distance education require motivation and
circumstances surrounding need to understand their
situations.
Methodology
Research Design: In this study, the method used was
quantitative and qualitative. This study used a descriptive
design of description and narration. It used to describe an
understanding of the failure factors of physical education
students in TGP at ITE.
Sampling: To answer the interview instrument, a total of
12 student teachers were selected through maximum
variation based on six different zones. Meanwhile, to
answer the questionnaires, it was involving 40 students of
TGP students randomly.
Instrument: The main instruments in this study were a set
of interview and a questionnaire developed for identifying
the main factors that caused the failure of physical
education students in TGP at ITE. Interview instrument
was developed through the findings of previous studies
based on the objectives and research questions. Next,
researchers built a set of questionnaires based on the
findings from the interview. The questionnaire statements
consisted of two parts which were Part A and Part B.
Part A contained profile of the respondents while Part B
contained five main components which included personal
factors, lecturer, facility, syllabus and school that
contributed to the failures among the students. Further, the
last aspect contained a few steps and suggestions from
respondents to overcome these problems. The instruments
used were developed by the researchers based on an
interview pilot study that conducted towards 20
respondents in the Klang Valley one month before the
actual research conducted. Accordingly, the questionnaire
was constructed based on the findings from the pilot study.
Validity and Reliability
Furthermore, researchers used content validity to assess the
validity of the questionnaire in this study. Based on a list of
scores given by a panel of three experts, the Cronbach
Alpha for the questionnaire instrument was 0.790 to 0.8.19.
In conclusion, the Cronbach Alpha in content validity of
this study was 0.806.
Then, the researchers used "test-retest" to test the reliability
level of expression in the instrument. The instrument was
evaluated twice on the same sample group of 20 persons
and analyzed through Pearson correlation to determine the
strength of relationship. The results of this pilot study
showed the reliability coefficient was 0.839. Thus, the
validity and reliability in this study was acceptable and
suitable to be used.
Data Analysis and Findings
Table 1 showed that 35.0% of respondents were male and
65.0% of the respondents were female. In terms of age,
55.0% of students were 31 to 40 years old and 45.0% of the
students were aged between 41 to 50 years old. Based on
the categories of teaching experience, a total of 20.0% of
the respondents were between 2 and 10 years. In addition, a
total of 75.0% of the respondents were between 11 to 20
years. Meanwhile, a total of 5.0% of the respondents were
between 21 to 30 years. For the original option category, a
total of 40.0% of respondents were comprised of music
education option.
However, only 20.0% of respondents were composed of
science option. Next, the students’ option/ field category
showed a total of 10.0% of TGP respondents consisted of
Mathematics, TESL, Physical Education and Islamic
Education options. Furthermore, the category of option or
field chosen showed a total of 100.0% of the respondents
chose physical education.

Table 1
Profile of Survey Respondents by Gender, Age, Experience and Original Option/ Fields Offered at ITE
Profile of Respondents N %
Gender
Male 14 35.0
Female 26 65.0
TOTAL 40 100.0
7
Age
26 – 30 years old 0 0
31 – 40 years old 22 55.0
41 – 50 years old 18 45.0
51 years old and above 0 0
TOTAL 40 100.0
Experience
2 – 10 years 8 20.0
11 – 20 years 30 75.0
21 – 30 years 2 5.0
Over 31 years 0 0
TOTAL 40 100.0
Original Option/ Field
Mathematics 4 10.0
TESL 4 10.0
Physical Education 8 20.0
Science Education 8 20.0
Music Education 16 40.0
TOTAL 40 100.0
Option/ Field Chosen
Physical Education 40 100.0
TOTAL 40 100.0
Table 2
Personal Factors
Not Related Related
S.N. Item SNR N
(%)
NT N
(%)
QR N
(%)
R N
(%)
SR N
(%)
Mean Standard
Deviation
Level
1 Health problems 14 (35) 14 (35) 2 (5) 10 (25) 0 (0) 2.84 1.208 Average
2 Option / field of study offered 2 (5) 4 (10) 2 (5) 16 (40) 16 (40) 3.19 .961 Average
3 Family encouragement 6 (15) 6 (15) 4 (10) 4 (10) 20 (50) 2.95 1.069 Average
4 Sacrifice of time on weekends 4 (10) 12 (30) 4 (10) 8 (20) 12 (30) 3.05 1.181 Average
5 Tuition fees 16 (40) 12 (30) 2 (5) 6 (15) 4 (10) 3.25 1.033 Average
6 Difficulty field in TGP 8 (20) 4 (10) 0 (0) 10 (25) 18 (45) 3.32 1.010 Average
7 Friend encouragement 4 (10) 8 (20) 4 (10) 6 (15) 18 (45) 2.95 1.069 Average
Overall Mean 3.08 1.076 Average
SNR ÷ Strongly Not Related; NR ÷ Not Related; QR ÷ Quite Related; R ÷ Related; SR ÷ Strongly Related
Table 2 showed that the personal factors contributing to the
failure factors of physical education students in TGP at ITE
with an overall mean with M = 3:08, SD = 1.076 on
average level. The study found that the difficulty factor in
TGP field was a major factor in the failure with M = 3:32,
SD = 1.010 on average. The findings were in line with an
interview. The views and perceptions of the respondent
ware as follows:
Indeed ... I’m interested with my option of field chosen.. besides, I like P.E. but it is very difficult for me to study because I
have to use my physical.. but, learning in the institute changed everything.. sometimes, I'm enjoying learning P.E. but I’m too
old to learn P.E. physically ...and the problem is, I don’t get any support in terms of moral from anyone and I have some
health problems. We really want to get good lecturers in ITE. I hope I can get a better future after finishing this study even
though I have to pay tuition fees by myself to get knowledge.
(INF1/North/14.2.2014)

8
However, the factor of health problems was the least
important factor with M = 2.84, SD = 1.208 on average
level. The findings were in line with the interviews. The
views and perceptions of the respondents were as follows:
...our seniors in the ITE are not helping us so much.. I cannot remember so many points in the class maybe because of my
age. Besides, my health is sometimes disrupted as well. I really hope that some young teachers can help me in my study. I
can do all assignments given by written but it is difficult for me to use my physical at the field. Sometimes my lecturers just
teach us without knowing that we are older than them and our ages caused we could not able to remember so much things in
our studies… but, sometimes we are ashamed to admit that we do not know anything in front of the class.
(INF2/Middle/22.2.2014)
Table 3
Lecturer Factors
Not Related Related
S.N. Item SNR N
(%)
NT N
(%)
QR N
(%)
R N
(%)
SR N
(%)
Mean Standard
Deviation
Level
1 Attitude of respect 2 (5) 2 (5) 4 (10) 8 (20) 24 (60) 2.96 1.216 Average
2 Lecturers service 2 (5) 0 (0) 2 (5) 12
(30)
24 (60) 3.07 1.151 Average
3 Lecturer assertive 2 (5) 4 (10) 6 (15) 8 (20) 18 (45) 2.96 1.179 Average
4 Teaching methods 2 (5) 2 (5) 4 (10) 6 (15) 26 (65) 3.12 1.127 Average
5 Lecturer attraction 4 (10) 4 (10) 2 (5) 8 (20) 22 (55) 3.29 1.007 Average
6 Teaching aids 0 (0) 4 (10) 4 (10) 8 (20) 24 (60) 2.84 1.146 Average
7 Lecturer’s
communication
0 (0) 0 (0) 2 (5) 14
(35)
24 (60) 4.96 1.216 High
8 Lecturer’s knowledge 0 (0) 2 (5) 4 (10) 14
(35)
20 (50) 4.07 1.151 High
Table 3 showed that the lecturer factors contributing to the
with an overall mean with M = 3.40 and SD = 1.149 on
average level. The study found that the factor of
communication with the lecturer was the highest factor
contributing to the failure of students with M = 4.96, SD =
1.216 at a high level. The findings were in line with the
interviews. The views and perceptions of the respondents
were as follows:
My communication with lecturers is not too good because I am older than them.. sometimes I felt just a little bit hurt with
their words.. but sometimes I'm ok with them.. but actually, I have no problem with a few single lecturers. Even their
teachings are very poor but I am still respecting my lecturers. I know my lecturers well and they are still my lecturers till the
ends even some of them seem do not like me. But as students, we have follow their instructions.. some lecturers are very kind
depend on situation and time…but, I am not too disappointed with my destiny to have lectures like this. We have to accept it
right... but, there are lecturers who do not respect me as a student. We're too old, please treat us like boys. That’s why we
feel very difficult to communicate with these lecturers.. P.E is not an easy field to study via distance learning..
(INF1/East/25.2.2014)
However, the factor of teaching aids was the least
important factor with M = 2.84, SD = 1.146. The findings
were in line with the interviews. The views and perceptions
of the respondents were as follows:
... we are not teens anymore.. this means that lecturers have to teach using teaching aids... sometimes they did not bring any
teaching aids, that is why it was difficult for us to understand. Sometimes we are thinking that what the lecturer is doing in
front of the class.. we do not understand anything.. My perception is, our lecturers may be tired in teaching on weekends..
that is why they teach us without using any tools...
(INF2/Sarawak/8.3.2014)

Table 4
Facility Factors
Not Related Related
9
S.N. Item SNR N
(%)
NT N
(%)
QR N
(%)
R N
(%)
SR N
(%)
Mean Standard
Deviation
Level
1 Toilet cleanliness 14 (35) 12 (30) 4 (10) 6 (15) 4 (10) 3.24 .867 Average
2 Number of tables and
chairs
12 (30) 4 (10) 10 (25) 8 (20) 6 (15)
3.25 .905
Average
3 LCD projector 4 (10) 4 (10) 14 (35) 12 (30) 10 (25) 3.31 .972 Average
4 Internet network 2 (5) 6 (15) 10 (25) 12 (30) 10 (25) 3.39 .972 Average
5 Internet password 6 (15) 8 (20) 8 (20) 12 (30) 6 (15) 3.15 1.386 Average
6 Classroom hygiene 4 (10) 8 (20) 10 (25) 6 (15) 12 (30) 3.20 1.105 Average
Overall Mean 3.26 .951 Average
Table 4 showed that the facility factors contributing to the
average level. The study found that internet connection was
the most relevant factor in contributing to this failure with
M = 3:39, SD = 0.972 on average level. The findings were
in line with the interviews. The views and perceptions of
the respondents were as follows:
…to me internet in the ITE is fine but sometimes the line sever is quite slow. It is because most of us always use apps in the
ITE. We have to admit that without the internet, we cannot study with peace. Internet is one of the facilities, but the problem
is we're not being allowed to use the middle time of study. Our lecturers always bothering our minds and said it’s ok without
using the internet... instead we are poor and not able to buy broadband.. we rarely use the internet during the class period..
if not, lecturers will get angry..
(INF2/South/18.2.2014)
However, internet password was the least important factor
with M = 3:15, SD = 1,386 on average level. The findings
..ITE’s facilities can be considered 80% completed but there were 20% did not work properly. For example, some of us do
not even know about the internet passwords in the ITE. Overdrive.. who know the passwords but sometimes the server is
really cannot be connected. ITE administrators have to know that there are many TGP students using the internet network at
a given time. That is why the server is so slow..
(INF1/North/12.2.2014)
Table 5
Syllabus Factors
Not Related Related
S.N. Item SNR N
(%)
NT N
(%)
QR N
(%)
R N
(%)
SR N
(%)
Mean Standard
Deviation
Level
1 Syllabus
appropriateness
2 (5) 0 (0) 0 (0) 16 (40) 22 (55) 4.67 .971 High
2 Level difficulty 0 (0) 0 (0) 2 (5) 14 (35) 24 (60) 4.61 .904 High
3 Theory learning 0 (0) 2 (5) 2 (5) 14 (35) 22 (55) 4.33 .959 High
4 Practical learning 0 (0) 2 (5) 4 (10) 8 (20) 26 (65) 3.61 .942 Average
5 Learning period 2 (5) 2 (5) 2 (5) 6 (15) 28 (70) 3.38 1.039 Average
Overall Mean 4.12 .975 High
Table 5 showed that the syllabus factors contributing to the
with an overall mean with M = 4:12, SD = 0.975 on high
level. The study found that TGP syllabus suitability was the
most relevant factor contributing to this failure with M =
4.67, SD = 0.971 at a high level. The findings were in line
with the interviews. The views and perceptions of the
respondents were as follows:

…chapters in the syllabus are actually give a burden.. this syllabus had been provided by ITE itself.. so, the syllabus of the
institute is not suitable for us because we already come with our age and we are not like full-time students. I am telling you
sir that studying at the institute is really giving a burden and very difficult. I think Ministry of Education should look up and
make a new syllabus for our program. As I said before, we are not robots, we are educators.. besides, there are so many
works to do in our studies.
(INF1/South/16.2.2014)
10
However, learning period was the least important factor
with M = 3:38, SD = 1.039 on average level. The findings
..I think two years are enough for us to study in this program to avoid our minds get in dizziness. This is just my opinion.
Some of TGP syllabus contents are not suitable for us. Therefore, Ministry of Education should reduce the amount of
syllabus and at the same time reduce our study’s period. This is because we are experienced teacher. We do not need to
learn more and we already had learnt some of the topics in the syllabus.
(INF1/South/26.2.2014)
Table 6
School Factors
Not Related Related
S.N. Item SNR N
(%)
NT N
(%)
QR N
(%)
R N
(%)
SR N
(%)
Mean Standard
Deviation
Level
1 Administrator
encouragement
0 (0) 2 (5) 4 (10) 8 (20) 26 (65) 3.15 .932 Average
2 Burden of work 0 (0) 0 (0) 2 (5) 14 (35) 24 (60) 4.23 1.078 High
3 School program the on
weekends
0 (0) 2 (5) 2 (5) 14 (35) 22 (55) 3.25 1.016 Average
4 Importance of official
duties
2 (5) 0 (0) 0 (0) 16 (40) 22 (55) 3.18
1.159
Average
Table 6 showed that the school factors contributing to the
average level. The study found that burden of work was the
most relevant factor in contributing to this failure with M =
4:23, SD = 1.078 at a high level. The findings were in line
with the interviews. The views and perceptions of the
respondents were as follows:
…my school gives a lot of assignments to me… then, I have a lot of work to do including my study’s assignments. Actually,
school administrators already had known that we are learning in TGP, but they still burdened us with ridiculous works. We
are so tired to bear all these works including school works. Now, we are working like a machine.
(INF1/Sabah/8.2.2014)
However, encouragement from administrators was the least
important factor with M = 3:15, SD = 0.932 on average
level. The findings were in line with the interviews. The
views and perceptions of the respondents were as follows:
...there is no support from my administrators. I am really hoping that they can understand my situation in ITE. My lecturers
give a lot of assignment to be accomplished. Sometimes, school programs on weekends require a lot of manpower. So, we
need to go to school and not to attend TGP classes.
(INF1/North/16.2.2014)
Discussion and Implications
In general, the impact on physical education students in
TGP who failed in some courses was at a low level.
However, the study also found that there were some
impacts on the students who failed such as promotion of
graduation effects, depression, low of self-esteem, salary
increments and so on. Table 3 provided an overview that
the lecturers’ communication factor showed the highest
level in contributing to the failure of the students. It
indicated that lecturers’ communication was very important
for the distance learning process. There were five factors of
the key themes arising from the study such as personal
factors, lecturer factors, facility factors, syllabus factors and
school factors.
Personal: Generally, researchers found that all students
showed their determination to pursue a teaching bachelor

11
although some limitations were faced. The limitation
factors included their time, finance, distance between the
ITE and home and health problems. However, all of the
constraints need to be faced by the students sake for their
future. This was proved by their presence to every single
class on weekends. TGP students reported that they also
got a full support and encouragement from families and
colleagues in their schools.
Lecturer: Besides, TGP students’ relationships with all
lecturers were quite good except for some particular
lecturers. TGP students reported that some of them were
afraid to deal with arrogant lectures. This was because
some ITE lecturers refused to tolerate with TGP students
who had personal problems which could not be avoided.
Due to that, some of the students were lacking motivation
and encouragement because their lecturers seem to
underestimate their abilities as ITE students.
Facility: Although the internet server at the institute was
limited, the students reported that it was not a major
problem because they used their own broadband. Besides,
they understood that there were too many students using it.
In addition, students also reported that they had to sacrifice
their own money to buy sports equipment costing more
than RM1000 to ensure their studies were running
smoothly.
Syllabus: Besides, students reported that they had to learn
a high level syllabus which is beyond their abilities.
Meanwhile, TGP students only had a short interaction
session with only five meetings per semester. In other
words, students felt that this mode of program was not
suitable for TGP students and the syllabus should be
improved. It was because duration of assignments given
was very short and they did not have time to complete them
in a time given. To overcome this problem, the students are
willing to pursue an additional private tuition with a
qualified partner in the sports field. It is indicating that the
students have high aspirations to succeed and they are
willing to sacrifice their time, energy and money to achieve
their ambitions.
School: Schools including teachers and colleagues are
generally given a full support and encouragement to the
students who are in the program. In fact, some of them are
granted exemption from attending school activities on the
weekend if they have classes. This means their schools are
always provided high supports to improve their knowledge
and thus, help to enhance the overall professionalism.
Conclusion
The findings showed that the failure factors of physical
education students in TGP at ITE were caused by an
imbalance assessment system in which the weightage was
100% based on exam-oriented. Next, most of them stated
that they still have to perform coursework, although the
weighted scores were not counted in the final examination.
Besides, the number of face to face interaction with
lecturers is limited and they felt that the course work marks
should be considered to help them to improve the exam
scores. This causes them to feel so disappointed even they
were doing the course work as best as possible.
In addition, they also have intrinsic assignments as a
schools teacher, to perform preparatory teaching and
learning as well as additional duties to another. At the same
time, they also need to divide their time and concentrate on
the task as a TGP student. Following the failure, the
students felt very sad, frustrated and stressed out to deal
with colleagues and family members. Despite their desires
to continue their studies to the degree level are still high,
some of them are desperate and reluctant to pursue again
because of their ages and afraid to face the failure again.
References
1. Sulaiman Fatimah, The concept of teaching through e-learning,
Journal of Distance Education, 8(12), 18-27 (2012)
2. Sulan Ibrahim, Lecturers teaching approaches and methods of
distance education, Journal of Management Education, 8(3), 54-
66 (2010)
3. Jamaluddin Khalid, Satisfaction of students through distance
education, Journal of Distance Education, 2(13), 34-41 (2011)
4. Rauzah N. A. M. A and Muhammad A. Z., Strengths and
weaknesses of distance learning, Journal of Educational
Administration and Management, 5(8), 32-43 (2013)
5. Rosli Kamaruddin, Failure of distance education students in
physical education, Journal of Physical Education, 9(2), 23-38
(2013)
6. Halim Siti Hasanah, Self-learning techniques in distance
students, Journal of Management Education, 2(8), 21-29 (2013).
(Received 27th June 2014, accepted 15th July 2014)

Pública 14: A Report of a Fieldtrip as an Educational Strategy of
Integrating the International Dimension into the Goals of
Higher Education
Moura Anabela1, Magalhães Carla2 and Gama Manuel1,2
1. Art Education, Viana do Castelo Polytechnic, PORTUGAL
2. Communication and Society Research Centre, Minho University, PORTUGAL
*amoura@ese.ipvc.pt
12
Abstract
The importance of cultural activities in general
(including creative industries) is increasingly being
recognized in Portugal not only for its cultural and
human value, but also for the contribution it makes to
local, regional and national economies. However, one
of the issues facing Portuguese cultural policy
makers, educators and researchers, especially at local
and regional levels, is the scarcity of information and
quality data available that allows them to make
decisions that are based on evidence and are relevant
to local and regional economic, cultural policy and
practice. There is little cultural data on the northern
region of Alto Minho, specifically, on Viana do
Castelo. Part of the above mentioned legacy will be
the provision of further opportunities for specialist
training and practice for these cultural sector
professionals, as well as contact with current
international practice.
This presentation evolved from the belief of three
members of the staff of a BA Degree Course on Art
and Culture Management (ACM), at Escola Superior
de Educação, Viana do Castelo Polytechnic (ESE-IPVC),
Portugal. They believe that using a field trip
as an educational strategy could help to encourage
the development of an enduring network of
professionally minded cultural practitioners in the
region of Alto Minho who support each other, their
continuing professional development and their region.
But they also were aware that the field trip in itself,
would not be likely to reach this aim, unless it is part
of a programme of discussion on personal experience
and on the observed context. This presentation intends
to be a contribution of three members of staff of ESE-IPVC
and reports the main findings of a field trip visit
to ‘Pública 14’ in Madrid, during January 2014. It
describes how such international event worked for
them as a rich laboratory for exploring a variety of
cultural management issues and a measure of
intellectual dialogue and development not just for this
Polytechnic and its Art and Cultural Management BA
and MA students but also for wider society.
Keywords: Field Trip, Qualitative Research, Higher
Education, internationalization, Arts Management.
Introduction
As teacher trainers and researchers in the sector of Art and
Cultural Management, we have been concerned with the
professional training in a social moment which is
characterized by a growing internationalization, involving
larger numbers of people integrating European partnerships
- something that is foreseen under the new Council of
Europe support frameworks for higher education and
culture funding through 2020. One of the most urgent needs
in terms of training cultural managers has to do with the
methods and strategies used in assessing the levels of
experience, understanding and knowledge that our students
should have regarding the arts and cultural sector on priori
basis for determining relevant curriculum content, with the
aims of contributing to the:
• production of knowledge about the relationship between
art and culture;
• improvements in the quality of arts management;
• development of a critical perspective on art and culture.
Aware that future developments in culture are always
dependent on European fiscal and national funding
dynamics as well as political agendas, these developments
are dependent to economic and financial adjustment to
which Portugal is currently being subjected. Considering
the new Community Support Framework, all in all, the
period from 2014 to 2020 will demand much more from
culture through civil society initiatives, than from the
cultural policies of EU states and their funding initiatives. It
is worthwhile to remind that, regarding Portuguese
situation, between 2014 and 2020, the aims of the new
approaches included in the EU support plan were:
- to promote and research which findings can help to
clearly identify the contribution of culture to the
Portuguese economic competitiveness and
internationalization;
- to train specialists intrinsically related with diverse
scientific areas such as Science, Arts, Heritage,
Communications, Sociology, Anthropology, amongst

13
others and promote employment, territorial cohesion
and development and
- to find more adequate financial instruments and the
best articulation between different ways of getting
funding in order to promote investment.
This leads to the question, that in light of diminishing
financial resources, how can a visit to Pública 14 work as a
laboratory for exploring a variety of issues in the arts and
cultural management sector and become a measure of
internationalizing professional development through
intellectual dialogue and development?
Background of the Field Trip
In the first decade of twenty-first century, the Fundación
Contemporânea (Contemporary Foundation) was created in
Spain, which is a platform for meeting, discussion and
debate for professionals in the cultural and creative sector.
It aims to contribute to the development of culture in the
professionals in the cultural sector, through practice-based
activities intended to (i) foster professional abilities; (ii)
create management tools; (iii) boost networking and
internationalization and (iv) support cultural entrepreneurs.
The creation in 2009 of the Observatoire of Culture
(Observatorio de la Cultura de la Fundación
Contemporánea, 2009) and the beginning of International
Meetings on Cultural Management, by Fundación
Contemporánea (2011), generically called „Pública‟
(Public), were two important initiatives of this Foundation,
amongst others, that sees itself as a space of discussion,
data collection and analysis regarding cultural sector, with
a publication of a report every semester.
The first edition of „Pública‟ was held on January 27th and
28th 2011 and it involved a roundtable moderated entitled
"The Profession of the Cultural Manager"1. In the
introduction of that roundtable, the former director of the
Master in Cultural Management at the University of
Barcelona reminded the participants that despite the
accepted view that cultural management can no longer be
considered as an emerging profession, the truth was that it
is not yet considered as a balanced and mature practice.
Three other studies were presented by Spanish researchers
of other regions and they revealed that most of the cultural
managers in the sector were women. They all had higher
education qualifications in this sector and at least ten years
of experience5. The main findings of these presentations
regarding training and practice for cultural managers were
that dialogue and constant articulation among practitioners
and researchers was fundamental for a successful level of
production of knowledge on the one hand and on the other
hand the implementation of good practices of their
professions on a daily base.
The planning of Pública 12, which brought together
directors and heads of public and private institutions in the
cultural sector, as well as other professional sectors directly
or indirectly related to the cultural sector and academics,
was structured into six themes: 1) New cultural projects; 2)
Experiences; 3) Management Tools; 4) Cultural Policy; 5)
Financing of projects and 6) Internationalisation9.
More than twenty papers were presented at the Circulo de
Bellas Artes in Madrid on January 26th and 27th 2012. The
presentation of Carme Sais6, president of the Professional
Cultural Management Association of Catalunya is
mentioned here for two reasons. First, as she represents an
association that was created in 1993, with over 750
members in 2012 and secondly, because her presentation
on the “Guide to the Best Practices in Cultural
Management”3, gave recognition and dignity to the cultural
managers profession and expanded technical, legal and
ethical knowledge regarding cultural management. The
Guide begins by introducing an operational definition of
cultural management, stressing the importance of
professional development for the artistic and cultural sector
and the integration of the sector into a social, territorial and
economic strategy. Secondly, it sets out some competencies
considered as fundamental for managers when performing
tasks in their profession, namely effectiveness, efficiency,
criteria, knowledge and flexibility.
Pública 1310,11 presented another guide entitled “Guía para
la Evaluación de las Culturales Politicas Locales"6, written
by the Spanish Federation of Municipalities and Provinces.
Despite the importance and relevance of this document on
cultural policies, this guide was subject to adaptations and
it will be used in the Portuguese project entitled, “Políticas
Culturais: o Papel Central do Poder Local II 2014-2020”
(or Cultural Policy: The Central Role of Local Government
II 2014-2020), which is being developed by a group of
national researchers who decided to reflect on the
contributions by José Tasat and the other participants in the
roundtable moderated by Rubén Caravaca11.
The paper presented by the Coordinator of Management
and Academic Coordination of the National University of
Tres de Febrero in Argentina, José Tasat, has once again
encouraged academics to develop research and extension
projects that can contribute to qualify the cultural
management sector, but also to place culture at the center
of political discourse. The presentation which was
moderated by the president of the State Federation of
Cultural Managers, Rubén Caravaca, was important
because it allowed for the discussion of new business
models, especially those based on collaborative processes
in which citizenship is in the center of interventions and
that allow the creation of alternatives to traditional forms of
management based on economic models.
Pública 14 - ENCUENTROS INTERNACIONALES DE
GESTIÓN CULTURAL, with 20 countries participating,
incidentally did not include Portugal. For this reason a
small team of three teachers (Moura, Magalhães and Gama)
at Escola Superior de Educação, Viana do Castelo

14
Polytechnic (ESEVC), Northern Portugal, decided to create
its own inclusion by attending it. The main aims of the visit
were the following:
(i) to collect data from this field trip to "Pública 14";
(ii) to analyze and interpret the collected data;
(iii) to disseminate its findings and present a report.
Methodology
Fieldwork is a fundamental qualitative research method
that higher education teachers need to address in their
courses as a means of surveying, observing, describing,
interpreting and mapping the different problems of their
own scientific areas. Polytechnics in Portugal and more
specifically, the Colleges that make up Polytechnics, are in
a strong position to shape a culture in research
development, particularly in the field of Arts and Cultural
Management, as the rules prohibiting these schools from
providing masters courses have changed and they are now
encouraged to form partnerships with other institutions that
allow the strengthening of such programmes.
In 2007, ESEVC began to run the first undergraduate
course in Portugal, in Arts and Cultural Management. After
decades of cultural, social and political isolation (until
1974) and a brief historical moment of "revolutionary" and
downstream cultural production, Portugal has made an
effort to put itself on par with the core countries with
regard to the production and distribution of culture and arts
(examples of which are the Serralves Museum and the Casa
da Música in Porto), despite all financial constraints. Thus,
in the field of artistic and cultural management, research in
educational sciences can play a crucial role in terms of the
development of reflective thinking, not only about
educational experiences and perspectives of artistic and
cultural management in cultural institutions of formal,
informal and non-formal education, but also in terms of
questions about production, distribution and access to
artistic goods and services.
Field trip as a research strategy is recognized as an
important tool at ESEVC, with a long tradition in terms of
Education and Research. Consequently, a field trip visit to
Madrid was funded, on January 30th and 31st 2014,
because it was considered as an important investment on
the professional training of the BA staff. The success of the
outputs of such field trip, as Almeida (1988) states would
depend not only on good planning, but also on how the
participants would perceive it, not only as a privileged
space for developing closer relationships with other people
and understanding their contexts, but also as an opportunity
for professionalizing learning, cognition and staff
motivation.
The field trip method17 is used in many modules of the BA
curriculum such as the optional courses in Education
Resources for Museums, or Sociology and Anthropology of
Culture, Contemporary History I and II, Research Methods
I, II and III, Professional Practice I and II, among others, in
which students learn how to collect data which can be
appropriate to solve specific problems or to locate some
needed resources.
Data Analysis
Pública 14 promoted the encounter, discussion and
collaboration between public and private cultural
management professionals, institutions, organizations and
enterprises. The fourth edition included more than sixty
different activities. All of those papers provided the debate
and discussion of issues related to multi-disciplinary teams
and topics such as cultural policies, sustainable
development, cultural tourism, cultural marketing, funding
projects, support for farmers and entrepreneurs and creating
public and digital culture. It was focused on the theme of
internationalization and many of their workshops and
roundtables were made by professionals from institutions
such as Tate in London, ARCHIP and DOX Center for
Contemporary Art in Prague, the Czech Philharmonic or
the Museo Universitario del Chopo, Mexico, promoting the
debate on cultural policies, sharing stories of success and
management tools and also exploring opportunities for
collaboration between countries.
Again, concerns about the training of cultural managers
were under discussion, this year aiming to point out that
there has been a great development in the
professionalization of cultural managers. But it also noted
the existence of many cultural organizations, both public
and private, which do not invest enough in the training of
their employees. Enrique Villaba18, director of the Master's
degree in Cultural Management from Universidad Carlos
III de Madrid, believes that the pedagogical formation of a
cultural manager should generally include the following
characteristics: be professionally recognized; be general,
theoretical, practical and vocational; be flexible and cutting
edge; have cultural requirements and be professionally
relevant.
Culture has been one of the fields most affected by the
crisis and one of the biggest problems of the cultural sector,
is its financing. For the creative and cultural sector
industries present at this conference, there are two obvious
difficulties: 1) for organizations and public entities, funding
programming and maintenance of infrastructures and 2) for
the private cultural sector, the difficulty in securing
financing, which conditions their existence. All sources of
funding were negatively affected, in whole or in part, by
the global and European economic and financial crisis. For
a cultural institution to create and realize a project or direct
it with success is therefore very complicated; however,
these difficulties often can increase the sagacity and talent
of cultural managers but should not be a justification of
their existence.

15
In the European models of financing the cultural and
creative sector, the State subsidizes and manages 80% of
the country's culture. The opposite tradition is represented
by the United States, which is characterized by limiting the
role of the State, placing the cultural policies of stimulating
culture in local scale and individual action13. In this sense,
an example presented at Pública 14, was given by one of
the institutions that seems to have adapted to the crisis
through the reformulation of their management policies: the
Teatro Real, National Theatre Opera of Madrid. Madrid's
Opera made these changes in 2007 when the Spanish
Ministry of Culture left the control of Teatro Real, giving it
autonomy, allowing a professional management without
political interference. In terms of funding, the General
Director of this organism, Ignacio García-Belenguer said
that they opted for an intermediate solution between the
American model, in which 90% of funding is private (70%
from private donations, 20% from ticket offices and 10%
from the State) and the European in which 80% of the
funding is public (10% from private donations, 10% from
ticket offices and 80% from the State)12.
The Director of Teatro Real stated that their financial goal
is to reach the 30-30-30 model where the public, the private
and the financing from the clients have the same weight. To
execute the new model of the Teatro Real, it was necessary
for the development of a conscience in civil society that
aimed to promote their participation in cultural fields and in
this particular case, in the Opera. Cultural and artistic
production is addressed to the public and therefore it is this
public that justifies the cultural production. Their presence
is a strong indicator of satisfaction and can be a strong
component of funding. The example of the Madrid Opera is
remarkable in the way that sought to regain and expand its
audience, counting on the public as one of their sources of
funding.
But even in countries where private investment takes
precedence over the Government, as is the case of the
United States, the State does not cease to fulfill an
important role in the regulation of this investment, as well
as maintaining a presence in the direct funding of artistic
and cultural activities, fulfilling a mission to fix economic
and social inequalities. In most European countries, such as
Spain or Portugal, the cultural funding is essentially public
with an important role exercised by municipalities.
However, in Portugal, the revenue that the government
intended for culture tends to be insufficient or poorly
distributed.
As opposed to the previous successful example and
following the presentation of the round table entitled, "Out
of the crisis strengthened. Experience the Royal Theatre",
by Gregorio Marañon, Ignácio García-Belenguer Y Joan
Matabosch at Pública 14, some cultural managers spoke
about their difficulties in terms of fund raising, especially
the small cultural organization‟s managers or emergent
managers of artistic projects. Those for whom there is not
enough public funding and private funding is scarce, their
difficulties are related to the fact that they compete with
large cultural organizations or public institutions without
economic power for the same resources, promoting an
unbalanced competition.
The creation of cultural projects has forced the viability of
its execution that depends not only of the quality and
originality of the project but, above all, their ability to be
financed. The ability to grasp funding can therefore be
considered a survival activity. Now, therefore, the current
trend is to measure the merit of a certain work by the
cultural producer‟s talent in grasping resources which in
most cases means to suit to the objectives of companies
(potential sponsors) to carry out the project and not for the
intrinsic qualities of its creation. In the case of great and
renowned museums, which are also having financial
problems for the maintenance of their spaces and
collections, they have chosen exhibitions that attract a
larger audience but their first and foremost interest is to
sponsors. Facing these problems and taking into account
the situation of recession and scarcity of public resources, it
is necessary to use greater assiduity in developing other
funding sources that so far have not been thoroughly used.
It becomes necessary to find networks of partnerships and
cooperation within and outside the countries.
Discussion
Examining these empirical and qualitative contributions to
the develop of the BA and MA curriculum and its delivery,
it demonstrates how this visit could work as a laboratory
for exploring a variety of cultural management issues and
become a measure of intellectual dialogue and reflection
for professional development, not just for the Viana do
Castelo Polytechnic and its Art and Cultural Management
BA and MA students and teachers, which in turn, impact
the wider society. It has provided knowledge about a wide
range of international examples and their case contributions
that included the description and interpretation of practices,
insights and suggestions for improvement. It made clear
that the same visit would be very different in a digital base
support because it lacks the necessary direct contact,
experience and interaction amongst organizations,
institutions, professionals, students and teachers.
The field trip to Pública 14 was successful not only because
it revealed a number of key issues and provided insight and
actions for addressing problems such as the promotion of
national and international networks, affecting the future of
art and cultural management specifically in Portugal and in
Europe. It also enabled collaborative input by these groups
of teachers, whose working together on this event,
improved creativity and engagement. As cooperation,
creativity and motivation to learn from each other are some
of the aspects that need to be emphasized more here and are
crucial for the collaborative development of networks and
partnerships.

16
It is significant that the teachers learn from other models
and examples how to share risks and successes and how to
ensure sustainability and consolidation. In this regard,
Lourdes Fernández (Director of Off Limits) stated that
cooperation between organizations is crucial as it allows,
among other things, the opportunity to "create jointly; share
enthusiasm and spirit of mutual aid; create appointments
and common responsibilities"7. But she also warned that a
successful cooperation needs organizations to "give part of
the power, maintain a shared leadership, trust and respect,
because people and common projects are above individual
projects".
Taking into account that the networks of collaboration are,
first of all, networks of people, it seems clear that these
collaborations, as Lourdes Fernández defends, will lead to a
strengthened cultural sector through the possibility of
expanding new knowledge; enhancing individual skills;
consolidating the position of participants and the entities
that they represent and achieving a wider scope through
project results, which constitutes an element of strength
that becomes legitimized in the negotiations with local
authorities and potential financial partners. A clear outcome
from the debate of all presentations is that the conscious
way to the viability of the cultural and artistic sector
involves actions for the strengthening of organizations as a
strategy of development and sustainability of the cultural
sector, boosting capital, experiences and resources of
different origins.
Focusing on the analysis of the data collected during and
after this field trip, it is possible to recognize the evaluative
power of experiential field trips as a teaching/learning
strategy with implications for the training process. It
represents a valuable form of cultural knowledge and
assists in the understanding of contemporary, international
trends in the cultural management sector, as well as
providing insight into the different issues represented in the
diversity of projects at Pública 14.
With all this in mind, the proposal is made that in future for
supporting field trip research; the Higher Institutions can
reach numerous benefits – cultural, educational, social and
economic – that ultimately help generate a more sustainable
and innovative workforce and more creative communities.
Another important conclusion is that Higher Education
Institutions are the right places for creating and
encouraging a research culture and they can play an
important role at the local, regional, national and
international level, combining an active and interactive
attitude between students and teachers and community
cultural resources internationally. It is believed that there is
ample and sufficient research-based evidence about current
issues and concerns in the training and professionalization
of cultural managers since the inaugural year of the
International Meetings Cultural Management in Spain.
The field notes collected during this year‟s international
Conference in Madrid, show evidence of one of the biggest
problems of the cultural sector: its financing. From the
various testimonies shared in Pública 14, what stands out is
the observation of Rubén Caravaca4, a founding member of
the Fabricantes de Ideas, another space for the promotion of
cultural diversity who stated, “the crisis also generated
interesting projects carried out with almost no money. But
if we could get funding, imagine what we could do.”
Finally, this field trip proved to be an educational strategy
with potential to enrich art and cultural management
professional training contexts and will facilitate not only
some curriculum aims of our BA Course at Viana do
Castelo, but also future contacts with international
organizations, such as the Associació de Professionals de la
Gestió Cultural de Catalunya, with internship purposes for
recent graduate students of our BA. Therefore, it is
expected that at a time when the educational offer in
Portugal is being reviewed and the specific provision in the
cultural sector is still scarce and disjointed, this report will
be useful for improving practice through a deep analysis of
the significant national and international practices to be
encouraged and supported by this program representing
Portugal in the next Pública 15.
References
1. Agustí L., Sintesis de la mesa de debate “De Profisión Gestor
Cultural”, Disponível em http://www.fundacioncontemporanea.
com/pdf/Informe_Mesa_Debate_De_profesion_Gestor_Cultural.p
df. Consultado a 28 de abril de 2014 (2011)
2. Almeida A., Visitas de Estudo. Concepções e eficácia na
aprendizagem, Lisboa, Livros Horizonte, 23-128 (1988)
3. Canadell G. and Sais C., Guía de buenas prácticas de la gestión
cultural. Disponível em http://www.gestorcultural.org/images/
noticies/noticia1199516279.pdf Documento consultado a 28 de
abril de 2014 (2011)
4. Caravaca R., Cultura para nosotros. Replica al modelo cultural
hegemónico: público/institucional – privado/mercantil, In Pública
14, Madrid, Fundación Contemporánea, 30 de janeiro (2014)
5. Carreño Tino, Caminos cruzados: El perfil actual del gestor
cultural em Catalunya, Disponível em http://www.
fundacioncontemporanea.com/pdf/Publica11._De_profesion_gest
or_cultural._Tino_Carreno.pdf Consultado a 28 de abril de 2014
(2011)
6. Federación Española de Municipios y Provincias, Guía para la
evaluación de las políticas culturales locales, Disponível em
http://www.femp.es/files/566-762- archivo/Gu%C3%ADa_
indicadores%20final.pdf Documento consultado a 28 de abril de
2014 (2009)
7. Fernández L., Redes y Plataformas profesionales: algunas
pistas, In Pública 14, Madrid, Fundación Contemporánea, 31 de
janeiro (2014)

17
8. Fundación Contemporánea, Pública 11, Disponível em
http://www.fundacioncontemporanea.com/asi-fue-publica-11/
Consultado a 28 de abril de 2014 (2011)
9. Fundación Contemporánea, Pública 12 | Encuentros
Profesionales de Gestión Cultural, Disponível em http://www.
fundacioncontemporanea.com/asi-fue-publica-12/programa/.
Consultado a 28 de abril de 2014 (2012)
10. Fundación Contemporánea, Pública 13 | Encuentros
Internacionales de Gestión Cultural, Disponível em
http://www.fundacioncontemporanea.com/publica-13/programa/
Documento consultado a 28 de abril de 2014 (2013a)
11. Fundación Contemporánea, Pública 13 | Ponentes, Disponível
em http://www.fundacioncontemporanea.com/publica-13/
ponentes/Documento consultado a 28 de abril de 2014 (2013b)
12. García-Belenguer I., Salir fortalecidos de la crisis, La
experiencia del Teatro Real, In Pública 14, Madrid, Fundación
Contemporánea, 31 de janeiro (2014)
13. Moreira E., La Gestión Cultural: herramienta para la
democratización de los consumos naturales, Buenos Aires,
Longseller (2003)
14. Moura A., Educação Cívica, Artes e Formação de
Professores, In Moura A., Coquet E., orgs. Diálogos com a Arte –
revista de arte, cultura e educação, Braga, Ed. Centro de Estudos
da Criança, CIEC-UMinho (2010)
15. Observatorio de la Cultura de la Fundación Contemporánea,
Panel de expertos. Barómetro anual, Analisis de los resultados.
Disponível http://www.fundacioncontemporanea.com/img/2010
0705_111345.pdf Consultado a 28 de abril de 2014 (2009)
16. Sais C., Buenas prácticas en la gestión cultural, Disponível
em http://www.fundacioncontemporanea.com/pdf/Presentacio_
Carme_Sais_Publica_12_26.01.2012__Modo_de_compatibilidad
_.pdf, Consultado a 28 de abril de 2014 (2012)
17. Varela de Freitas L., Visitas de Estudo –breve relato de uma
experiência pessoal, In Fontes P., org., Cadernos Encontro O
Museu, a Escola e a Comunidade, Braga, CESC-IEC, 48 (1997)
18. Villaba E., Formacion & titulación universitária en Gestión
Cultual, In g+c revista de gestión y cultura, nº 5, 40-44, Granada,
Área de Trabajo, S. L. (2010).
(Received 21st June 2014, accepted 18th July 2014)

A Study on Constructing Indicators of Life Skills for Older
Adult in Taiwan from the Perspectives of Lifelong Learning
Lin Li-Hui
Department of Adult and Continuing Education, National Chung Cheng University, TAIWAN
elaine5826058@gmail.com
Life
Skil
ls
18
Abstract
The world is experiencing population ageing at a
dramatic rate. According to the statistics released by
the Ministry of Interior (2014), by the end of January
2014, the population in Taiwan aged 65 and above
has attained to 2,704,605 which constitute 11.57% of
the national population. Since the percentage of older
adult is growing dramatically, how to promote life
quality of older adult has become a hot issue all over
the world.
The notion of life skills relates to the diverse
knowledge, skills, values and attitudes that together
enable people to achieve their personal goals,
function effectively in their social environment and
enhance their quality of life. To say it further, the
importance of life skills is widely acknowledged as
central to the everyday survival, health and well-being
of older adult.
Keywords: Older adult, life skills, indicator, lifelong
learning.
Introduction
According to the statistics released by the Ministry of
Interior8, by the end of January 2014, the population in
Taiwan aged 65 and above has attained to 2,704,605 which
constitute 11.57% of the national population. By 2025 the
elderly population is estimated to increase to 4,900,000, or
20.69% of the total population. This rapid percentile
growth in the elderly population means that older adult will
form a significant segment of Taiwan’s future society and
that improvement to their quality of life will be a high
priority for government policymakers.
UNESCO’s promotion of “Education for All” through its
evaluation reports incorporates a concept of life skills that
has not been emphasized by academia until recent years. In
general, “life skills” refers to any knowledge, skills, values
and talents which can help children, youth and adults
achieve their goals, contribute to their society and improve
the quality of life. More specifically, life skills are the keys
to survival, health and happiness in daily life13. Hence, the
value of this research is confirmed by UNESCO’s
recommendation that developed as well as developing
countries should embrace this issue.
An ageing society is characterized by an increasing
population of older adults who need to acquire new life
skills. But what should they learn and how should they
acquire these skills? Leon County Schools7 indicates that
well-designed life skills training courses can help teachers
meet the needs of older adult. Powney, Lowden and Hall11
also find that these learners can acquire such skills more
efficiently if courses are designed on the basis of life skills
indicators. All told, the necessity of establishing the life
skills indicators of older adult becomes clear.
Research purposes
Since 1970 UNESCO, out of concern for the ageing society,
has been an advocate of the principle of lifelong learning.
Scholars also believe that involvement in lifelong learning
can help older adult enjoy a more pleasant life and better
contribute to their society6. These older adult usually pay
considerable attention to their health; relations with friends,
spouses, children and grandchildren and career
achievements. New knowledge or skills can help them
achieve a high quality of life during their senior years.
This study aims to establish indicators of life skills for
older adults based on the perspective of life-long learning.
In its publications Learning: The Treasure Within and
Nurturing the Treasure: Vision and Strategy 2002-2007,
UNESCO outlines five basic aspects of lifelong learning
that are especially necessary for society: “learning to live
together”, “learning to know”, “learning to do”, “learning
to be” and “learning to change”. This paper is based on the
framework as shown in figure 1.
Learning to live together
Learning to know Learning to be
Learning to do Learning to change
Figure 1: Aspects of life skills

19
Life skills involve at least three major aspects: attitude,
knowledge and skills10. Attitude refers to one’s motivation
to acquire, utilize and develop life skills. Knowledge puts
an emphasis on the knowledge of “how to do things” which
can help individuals make correct decisions. Finally, skills
depend on attitude and knowledge and enable one to obtain
the abilities or skills involved in “learning to do” and
“learning to know”. The United Nations Children’s Fund
also takes a similar stand believing that life skills can help
individuals put their knowledge and attitude/value into
practice—in other words, facilitate the process of learning
to do13.
Following the definition given by the United Nations and
the line of work done by Bailey and Deen1 and
others2,4,5,9,10, this paper defines life skills as the attitude,
knowledge and skills including “learning to live together”,
“learning to know”, “learning to do”, “learning to be” and
“learning to change.” Older adult should acquire these in
order to cope with the challenges of an ageing and
changing society. It is a complex and multifaceted
philosophy. Scott12 proposes we learn different skills at
different stages of life (adolescence, adulthood and old age).
This paper adopts Scott’s theoretical framework to study
the aspects of life skills that are necessary for older adult.
The philosophy of lifelong learning has gained increasing
worldwide popularity. Powney et al11 distinguished
between two kinds of life skills: those which enrich a
person’s life and those which should form the basis of the
compulsory courses in lifelong learning. Based on these
scholars’ views and interpretations, we have concluded that
certain skills are necessary for the elders as part of lifelong
learning as shown in table 1.
Table 1
Aspects of life skills for older adult under the concept of
lifelong learning
Lifelong Learning Life skills for older adult
Learning to live together  Family responsibility
 Interpersonal abilities
Learning to know  Literacy
 Consumer skills
Learning to do  Career development
 Health maintenance
Learning to be  Self-development
 Citizenship skills
Learning to change  Resource utilization
 Leisure management
Life skills the elderly need thus include:
1. Family Responsibility: The ability to manage
housework, marriage and children’s education.
2. Interpersonal ability: The ability to interact with
neighbors, get along with others, be open-minded and
communicate well.
3. Literacy: The ability to read, write and do simple
mathematics.
4. Consumer skills: The ability to manage personal finance,
to make purchases and to understand the consumer
economy.
5. Career development: The ability to apply for jobs, to
manage one’s career management and to seek
post-retirement employment.
6. Health maintenance: The ability to choose a healthy
lifestyle, to locate medical information and to maintain
health.
7. Self-development: The ability to make decisions, to be
responsible, to analyze and solve problems, to know the
purpose of life and individual development and to engage
in critical thinking and understanding.
8. Citizenship skills: The ability to understand the rights
and obligation of citizens and to fulfill one’s
responsibilities as a citizen.
9. Resource-utilization: The ability to make use of
community resources, to know how to obtain services and
to use resources efficiently.
10. Leisure management: The ability to manage leisure
life, to use facilities and to involve oneself in leisure
activities.
Research Methods
The research design involves several steps. First, a
thorough literature review was conducted with a goal of
constructing our theoretical framework. Second, a number
of focus group discussions were organized in northern,
central and southern areas of Taiwan. Afterwards, a
questionnaire based on the Delphi Technique was
formulated in order to distinguish among main indicators,
sub-indicators and reference indicators.
Using the Delphi Technique, a questionnaire on life skill
indictors for older adult was designed in light of scholarly
literature and focus group discussion and subjected to three
rounds of reviews. The questionnaire contained an
introduction, instructions, personal information and the
essence of the life skills. The input from round 1 was
attached to rounds 2 and 3 as the reference data for the
Delphi Technique experts. The data gathered from these
questionnaires gave us a picture of life skills indicators for
older adult.
Data Analysis
Analysis of the questionnaires was carried out by SPSS

20
which measured percentage, frequency analysis, mode,
mean and standard deviation to examine whether the results
were significant. The questionnaire studied two aspects: the
suitability and significance of the indicators. Percentage
measure was adopted to evaluate the suitability of the
indicators in round 1 and the Likert 5-Point Scale for round
2 and 3. In round 1, the indicator was defined as
appropriate if it achieved more than 80% of suitability. For
rounds 2 and 3, if the mode and mean point of an indicator
was more than 3 and 3.5 respectively and the SD <1, this
indicated that all experts reached a consensus on the
indicators. In terms of the study of the significance of
indicators, the Likert 5-Point Scale was carried out during
all three rounds of review. Equally, if the mode and mean
point of an indicator were more than 3 and 3.5 respectively
and the SD <1, all experts were deemed to have reached a
consensus on the indicators.
During three focus group discussions, we established a core
concept which was developed into the Delphi Technique
questionnaire. From this data we concluded that in addition
to the above-mentioned five life skills for the older adult,
the complete lifelong learning process should also
incorporate “learning to self-care.”
Round 1 of the questionnaire covered six aspects: learning
to live together, learning to know, learning to do, learning
to be, learning to change and learning to self-care. This
questionnaire included 13 dimensions (“learning to change”
had three dimensions while the others had two dimensions)
and 68 indicators.
As the experts reviewed the results from round 1, round 2
was modified to have 6 aspects, 13 dimensions and 64
indicators. Finally, after the results from round 2 were
reviewed, round 3 was revised to have 6 aspects, 13
dimensions and 61 indicators. The measures of frequency
analysis, percentage, mean and standard deviation were
employed in the analysis of the significance of these
indicators.
Conclusion
This research aims to establish life skill indicators for older
adults from the perspectives of lifelong learning. Also
studied were the aspects and indicators of life skills for the
older adults and the significance of these indicators. The
conclusions are as follows:
(1) Life skills for older adult should include six aspects
and thirteen dimensions: Life skills should include 6
aspects—learning to live together, learning to know,
learning to do, learning to be, learning to change and
learning to self-care and 13 dimensions.
i). Learning to live together including two dimensions:
(A) the ability to understand others and
(B) the ability to manage interpersonal relations.
ii). Learning to know including two dimensions:
(A) the ability to solve problems and practice skills and
(B) the ability to enhance learning ability.
iii). Learning to do including two dimensions:
(A) the ability to develop a role after retirement and
(B) the ability to live independently.
iv). Learning to be including two dimensions:
(A) the ability to purse self development and
(B) the ability to participate in social activities.
v). Learning to change including three dimensions:
(A) the abilities to adapt,
(B) the ability to make use of resources and
(C) the ability to use information technology.
vi). Learning to self-care including two dimensions:
(A) the ability to maintain health and
(B) the ability to care for oneself.
(2) The sixty-one indicators for the skills:
i). The ability to understand others (5 indicators)
ii). The ability to manage interpersonal relations (4
indicators)
iii). The ability to solve problems and practice skills (4
indicators)
iv). The ability to enhance learning (6 indicators)
v). The ability to develop a role after retirement (3
indicators)
vi). The ability to live independently (8 indicators)
vii). The ability to pursue self-development (5 indicators)
viii). The ability to fulfill responsibilities as a citizen and
become involved in society (4 indicators)
ix). The ability to adapt (7 indicators)
x). The ability to make use of resources (4 indicators)
xi). The ability to use information technology (3 indicators)
xii). The ability to maintain health (4 indicators)
xiii). The ability to care for oneself (4 indicators)
(3) The significance of these indicators: The 61 indicators
have the Mean score on the Likert 5-Point Scale of between
3.50 and 4.83. This shows that the indicators range from
significant to highly significant. Following are the
explanation of the indicators that had the highest Mean
score.

21
i). The ability to understand others: to develop a social life
(Mean score is 4.62)
ii). The ability to manage interpersonal relations: to live
together with one’s spouse (Mean score is 4.54)
iii). The ability to solve problems and practice skills: to
solve problems in daily life (Mean score is 4.83)
iv). The ability to enhance learning: to engage in lifelong
learning (Mean score is 4.31)
v). The ability of role development: to develop a role after
retirement (Mean score is 4.50)
vi). The ability to live independently: to take care of daily
life needs (Mean score is 4.83)
vii). The ability to pursue in self-development: to enhance
one’s personal value (Mean score is 4.23)
viii). The ability to fulfill one’s responsibilities as a citizen
and become involved in society: to engage in public affairs
and be aware of the rights and obligations of citizenship
ix). The ability to adapt: to adapt to old age (Mean score is
4.69)
x). The ability to make use of resources: to consult on, be
aware of and use the rights of older adult (Mean score is
4.46)
xi). The ability to use information technology: to collect,
choose and use information and to be able to operate new
technology such as mobile phones and computers. (Mean
score is 4.31)
xii). The ability to maintain health: to manage one’s health
xiii). The ability to care for oneself: to be aware of self
health conditions (Mean score is 4.69)
Suggestions
This research has included six aspects, thirteen dimensions
and sixty-one indicators with the regard to the life skills of
older adult and is aimed at facilitating the enhancement of
their quality of life and personal values. However, several
variables such as age, economic condition and social status
should be also taken into account when applying these
indicators. Therefore, we suggest that they be considered as
an assessment to study the needs of disadvantaged older
adult. As for the older adult in general, they should be seen
as a reference for the management of lifelong learning and
education institutions for older adult.
(1) To emphases the value of lifelong learning and
encourage older adult involvement in learning: We
propose three approaches to encourage older adult’s
involvement in lifelong learning:
i). By detailing the advantages of lifelong learning and the
successful experience of other learners, we can encourage
their involvement in lifelong learning. We should also
design the learning material based upon individual needs.
ii). Older adult learn more readily through familiar media
(for example, neighborhood sound trucks). The announcer
should also use friendly language.
iii). The utilization of community resources can deepen the
concept of lifelong learning through the establishment of
learning centers. These can provide many convenient
learning opportunities and would recruit a greater variety of
older learners.
(2) Life skills indicators for the older adult as a future
reference for educational institutions: In round 3 of the
questionnaire, experts identified sixty one indicators as
either significant or highly significant. Based on this
finding, we propose the following principles for
educational institutions dealing with senior learners.
i). While arranging courses, institutions should take into
account the thirteen dimensions which had an
higher-than-Mean score: namely the ability to develop a
social life; live together with one’s spouse; solve problems
in daily life; engage in lifelong learning; develop a role
after retirement; take care of their needs in daily life;
enhance their personal value; engage in public affairs;
adapt to old age; consult with others; be aware of and use
the rights of older adult; collect, choose and use
information, as well as be able to operate new technology
such as mobile phones and computers; manage one’s health;
and take care of oneself.
ii). Brochures detailing information about practical life
skills for seniors should be provided as a reference to all
public sectors responsible for older education.
iii). A promotional video could be produced to promote the
six aspects of life skills and a new image for seniors.
(3) The strengthening of older adult’s ability to solve
problems, practice their skills and live independently:
This research has found the most significant dimensions to
be role development after retirement and the ability to live
independently (the Mean score was 4.83). Thus, we
conclude that these two dimensions are of most importance
in helping senior citizens adapt to old age:
i). Older adult should develop the ability to care for
themselves through lifelong learning, involvement in
society and open-mindedness to new ideas in the ageing
society.

22
ii). By participating in lifelong learning, older adult can
learn to live independently, improve their lives, better
manage their careers and take care of their daily life.
References
1. Bailey S. J. and Deen M. Y., Development of a web-based
evaluation system: a tool for measuring life skills in youth and
family programs, Family Relations, 51, 138-147 (2002)
2. Brooks D. K. Jr., A life skills taxonomy: defining elements of
effective functioning with the use of the Delphi technique,
unpublished doctoral dissertation, The University of Georgia
(1984)
3. European Commission, European Report on Quality Indicators
of Lifelong Learning, Brussels, author (2002)
4. Gazda G. M., Childers W. C. and Brooks D. K., Foundations of
counseling and services, New York, McGraw-Hill (1987)
5. Hamburg B. A., Life-skills training: preventive interventions
for young adolescents, (ERIC Document Reproduction Service
No. ED323018) (1990)
6. Henry N. J., A qualitative study about perceptions of lifestyle
and life satisfaction among older adults, unpublished doctoral
dissertation, Syracuse University (1989)
7. Leon County Schools, Life skills curriculum for senior adult
learners, (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED361116)
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MUHAMMAD AKBAR ZAHIDI - international research journal for quality in education

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