1. Despite our rational nature, our ability to reason well is ofte.docx

1. Despite our rational nature, our ability to reason well is often
affected by psychological biases that interfere with the
formation of good arguments. Identify three such biases and
explain how they negatively impact our ability to reason.
2. The advent of social media has changed the norms and modes
of public discourse. In at least 200 words, explain the
importance of (a) evaluating and fact-checking individual
claims, (b) the benefits and negatives of instantaneous mass
communication, and (c) the need for civility in online
interactions.
3. Identify the fallacy: “Bob is trustworthy because he says so,
and we can trust what Bob says because he’s trustworthy.”
Fallacy of composition
Begging the question
Genetic falacy
Appeal to authority
Ad hominem
4. Identify the fallacy: “All banks have money. All rivers have
banks. Therefore, all rivers have money.”

Equivocation
Ad hominem
Slippery slope
Appeal to ignorance
False cause
5. Identify the fallacy: “You shouldn’t trust Bob. His best friend
is a racist.”
Appeal to popularity
Appeal to ignorance
Appeal to tradition
Two wrongs make a right
Guilt by association
6. Identify the fallacy: “Republicans are extremists who believe
that government is fundamentally evil.”
False dilemma

Fallacy of composition
Straw man
Ad hominem
Begging the question
7. Identify the fallacy: “You should buy Pepsi because Taylor
Swift said so.”
Appeal to authority
False dilemma
Equivocation
Appeal to pity
Fallacy of division
8. Identify two techniques that are often used to slant the news.
9. Compare and contrast “old media” with “new media."

10. Define rationalization and explain how it is it sometimes
applied.
11. What is a “defense mechanism,” in the context of poor
reasoning?
12. What is good news-reporting supposed to look like?
Study Guide Chapters 4-6
Chapter 4
1. Business writing Basics
2. 3 x 3 writing process phase one
3. Scheduling the process- worrying and planning, writing,
revising, proofreading
4. Recursive nature
5. Online collaboration tools
6. Three typical audiences
7. The “you” view
8. Bias free language
9. Levels of diction
10. Ethical responsibilities (five areas)
Chapter 5
1. Formal versus informal research methods
2. Stage two of the 3 x 3 process

3. Types of outlines
4. Direct versus indirect patterns of communicating
5. How long should sentences be?
6. What is the comprehension rate?
7. Dangling versus misplaces modifiers
8. Three types of paragraphs
Chapter 6
1. Third state of the 3 x 3 process
2. Kiss formula
3. Fillers
4. Lead-ins
5. Redundancies
6. Compound prepositions
7. Trite phrases
8. Enduring rapid comprehension, numbered or bulleted lists,
headings, graphic techniques
9. Gunning fog index
10. Flesch-Kincaid readability index
11. Proofreading-spelling, grammar, punctuation and names and
numbers
12. Proofreading marks
Chapter 6
Revising Business Messages
1
Topics in This Chapter

©2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
Ch. 6, Slide ‹#›
Revising Tips
Designing Documents for Readability
How to Proofread Documents
Proofreading Marks for Digital and Hard-Copy Documents
How to Evaluate a Business Message
Eliminate flabby expressions.
Revising Tips
WordyConciseat this point in timenowdue to the fact
thatbecausein very few casesseldomdespite the fact
thatalthoughfeel free toplease

3
8
Limit long lead-ins (unnecessary introductory words).
Revising Tips
WordyConciseThis is to inform you that Monday is a
holiday.Monday is a holiday.I am writing this letter because
Professor John Donnellan suggested that your organization was
hiring.Professor John Donnellan suggested that your
organization was hiring.
4
8
Drop unnecessary opening fillers (there is/are and it is/was
beginnings).
Revising Tips
WordyConciseThere are over 50 visitors who commented on her
blog.Over 50 visitors commented on her blog.There was an

unused computer in the back office.An unused computer was in
the back office.It is certainly an inspiring sequence of
events.The sequence of events is certainly inspiring.
5
8
Replace redundancies (expressions that repeat meaning or
include unnecessary words).
Revising Tips
RedundantConciseexact sameexact or samepast historypast or
historyserious dangerdangernew innovationnew or innovationmy
personal opinionmy opinion
6
8

Purge empty words.
In the case of General Motors, the car company was
reorganized.
We are aware of the fact that many managers need assistance.
When it arrived, I deposited your check immediately.
(Obviously, the check arrived.)
Revising Tips
Keep it simple by avoiding indirect and pompous language.
Revising Tips
Wordy and UnclearClearIt would not be inadvisable for you to
affix your signature at this point in time.You should sign
now.Here are implements that are necessary for the job to be
completed in a satisfactory manner.Here are tools to do the job
satisfactorily.
8
8
Dump trite “business” phrases (worn-out expressions).
Revising Tips

TriteImprovedpursuant to your requestas you requestedplease do
not hesitate topleasethank you in advancethank youenclosed
please findenclosed
9
8
Drop clichés (expressions that have become exhausted by
overuse), such as
easier said than done
first and foremost
think outside the box
shoot from the hip
Revising Tips
Drop slang (informal words with arbitrary and extravagantly
changed meanings that quickly go out of fashion), such as
in the pipeline
down the totem pole
blowing the budget

getting burned
Revising Tips
Unbury verbs that are needlessly converted to wordy noun
expressions.
Revising Tips
Buried VerbsUnburied Verbsgive consideration toconsiderreach
a conclusion thatconcludecreate a reduction inreducemake a
decision aboutdecidetake actionact
12
8
Control exuberance (use of intensifiers such as definitely, quite,
completely, extremely, really, and totally) to sound
businesslike.
Revising Tips
Excessive ExuberanceBusinesslikeWe actually are very sure
they do not totally agree with our decision.We are sure they do

not agree with our decision.
13
8
Enhance white space by
Adding headings
Including bulleted or numbered lists
Using short sentences
Writing short paragraph
Setting effective margins
Use 1 to 1 ½-inch margins.
How to set margins

Aligns text at left margin and creates a ragged-right margin
Result
Setting for Ragged-Right Margins
Ragged-right margins provide more white space and improve
readability.
Choose appropriate typefaces.
Consider sans serif for headings, signs, and material that does
not require continuous reading (for example, Arial).
Consider serif for body font (for example, Times New Roman).
Notice that serif typefaces have small features at the ends of
strokes.
Use 10- to 12-point font for most body text.
For special effects consider:
CAPITALIZATION
SMALL CAPS
Boldface
Italic

Underline
Use vertical lists or enumerated items within sentences to
improve comprehension.
Use a numbered list for items that represent a sequence or
reflect a numbering system; use bullets otherwise.
Use enumerated items such as (a) and (b) within a sentence.
Make the lists and enumerated items parallel.
Use parallel construction by expressing similar ideas in
balanced, matching constructions.
Not ParallelParallelThe task force recommends buying a
software license, creating software usage policies, and the
benefits of the software should be demonstrated.
The task force recommends buying a software license, creating
software usage policies, and demonstrating the benefits of the
software.

20
8
Use numbered lists to show a sequence:
During the hiring process, follow these steps:
Examine the application.
Interview the applicant.
Check the applicant’s references.
Use bulleted lists to highlight without necessarily showing a
sequence.
Consumers expect the following information at product Web
sites:
Price
Quality
Performance
Availability

Add headings for quick comprehension:
The company needs to focus attention in three key areas:
Attracting applicants. We need to analyze where and how we
advertise for applicants. Specifically, online job boards …
Interviewing applicants. We should consider adding simulated
customer encounters to the process. Simulated …
Checking references. We should consider contacting all
references, not just former employers. Currently, the …
Types of headings to consider
Main headings
Subheadings
Category headings

What to Watch for in Proofreading
25
8
Proofreading
Names and Numbers
Format
Spelling
Grammar
Punctuation

For reading messages on screen
Use the down arrow to reveal one line at a time.
Read from a printed copy, to be safer.
In general
Look for typos, misspellings, and easily confused words.
Study the document for inconsistencies and ambiguous
expressions.
Look for factual errors.
How to Proofread Routine Documents
26
8

Print a copy, preferably double-spaced.
Set it aside and take a breather.
Allow adequate time for careful proofing.
Expect errors and congratulate yourself when you find them.
Read the message at least twice – once for meaning and once for
grammar and mechanics.
Reduce your reading speed and focus on individual words.
How to Proofread Complex Documents
27
8
Use Microsoft Word to Help You With Readability and With
Proofreading
The higher the score, the easier it is to understand the
document.
Source: Microsoft
The Flesh-Kincaid Grade Level rates text on a U.S. school grade
level.
Comprehension decreases as sentence length increases.

Revised Digital Document Using Strikethrough and Color
Basic Proofreading Marks
Delete
Capitalize
Lowercase (don’t capitalize)
Transpose
Close up
Basic Proofreading Marks
Insert
Insert space
Insert punctuation
Insert period
Start paragraph

Marked Copy of Printed Document
32
Revised Copy of Printed Document

33
Evaluating a Business Message
How successful will this communication be?
Does the message say what you want it to say?
Did you encourage feedback so that you will know its success?
End

Chapter 4
Planning Business
Messages
1
2
Defining Business Writing
Guffey’s 3-x-3 Writing Process
How to Analyze, Anticipate, and Adapt
Reader Benefits and the “You” View
The Team Writing Process

Legal and Ethical Responsibilities
What Business Writing Is
Purposeful - it conveys information and solves problems
Persuasive - its goal is to make the audience accept the message
Economical – it’s concise and doesn’t waste the reader’s time
Reader-Oriented - it focuses on the receiver, not the sender

Guffey’s 3-x-3 Writing Process
The steps may be rearranged, abbreviated, or repeated.
Prewriting
Analyze
Anticipate
Writing
Research
Compose
Revising
Edit
Proofread
Adapt

Organize
Evaluate
Scheduling the Writing Process
Estimated Time Writers Should Spend on Each Phase of the
Writing Process
Time You Should Spend in Each Phase of the Writing Process
Prewriting (Thinking and Planning) Writing (Organizing
and Composing) Revising (45% Revising and 5%
Proofreading) 25 25 50
Components of the First Phase

of the Writing Process
Analyzing the task includes
Identifying the purpose
Selecting the best channel
Anticipating the audience includes
Visualizing primary readers
Visualizing secondary readers
Colleagues
Superiors and decision makers
Customers and general audiences
Three Major Audiences to Envision When Determining What to
Write

7
8
How important is the message?
How much feedback is required?
How fast is feedback needed?
Is a permanent record necessary?
Questions to Ask When Selecting the
Best Channel for a Message
E-Mail?
Letter?
Instant Message?
8
8

How much can be spent?
How formal is the message?
How sensitive or confidential is the message?
Questions to Ask When Selecting the
Best Channel for a Message
Memo?
Voice Mail?
9
8
Describes the extent to which a channel or medium recreates or
represents all the information available in the original message
Specifies that a richer medium, such as face-to-face
conversation, permits more interactivity and feedback
Media Richness Theory
Specifies that a leaner medium, such as a report or proposal,

presents a flat, one-dimensional message
Specifies that richer media enable the sender to provide more
verbal and visual cues and allow the sender to tailor the
message
Choosing Communication Channels
Many businesses now help customers with live chat, which
requires customer representatives to be able to write clear,
concise, conversational, and correct responses.
The Internet Has Increased the Need for Solid Writing Skills
Eight Adaptive Techniques to Create a Positive Tone in a
Message
Spotlight audience benefits.
For example, the warranty starts working for you immediately

Cultivate the “you” view.
For example, your account is now open
1
2
14
8
Message
Be conversational but professional.
For example, your report was well written, not your report was
totally awesome
Express thoughts positively.
For example, you will be happy to, not you won’t be sorry that
3
4

15
8
Message
Be courteous.
For example, please complete the report, not you must complete
the report!
Strive for bias-free language, avoiding gender, race, age, and
disability biases.
For example, office workers, not office girls
5
6
16
8
Message
Use plain language and familiar words.
For example, salary not remuneration

Employ precise, vigorous words.
For example, fax me, not contact me
7
8
17
8
Sender-Focused
We are requiring all staffers to complete these forms in
compliance with company policy.
Because we need more space for our new inventory, we are
having a two-for-one sale.
Receiver-Focused
Please complete these forms so that you will be eligible for
health and dental benefits.
This two-for-one sale enables you to buy a year’s supply of
paper, but pay only for six months’ worth.
Developing Reader Benefits and
the “You” View
“I” and “We” View

We take pleasure in announcing an agreement we made with HP
to allow us to offer discounted printers in the student store.
“You” View
An agreement with HP allows you and other students to buy
discounted printers at your student store.
the “You” View
“I” and “We” View
We are issuing a refund.
I have a few questions on which I would like feedback.
“You” View
You will receive a refund.
Because your feedback is important, please answer a few
questions.
the “You” View
Negative Expression
You overlooked
You state that
You failed to
You claim that
You are wrong
Hidden Message

You are careless.
I don’t believe you.
You are careless.
It is probably untrue.
I am right.
Negative Expressions and
Their Hidden Messages
Writers are sometimes unaware of the hidden messages they
send with their words.
Negative Expression
You do not understand.
Your delay
You forgot to
Hidden Message
You are not very bright.
You are at fault.
Besides being inefficient, you are stupid and careless.
Negative Expressions and
Their Hidden Messages
Writers are sometimes unaware of the hidden messages they
send with their words.

When projects are larger than one person can handle
When projects have short deadlines
When projects require the expertise or consensus of many
people
Team Writing Is Often
Necessary for Project Work
Three Phases for
the Team Writing Process
Phase 3 Revising Team members work together to synthesize,
but one person may do the final proofreading.
Phase 1 Prewriting Team members work closely to
determine purpose, audience, content, and organization.
Phase 2 Writing Team members work separately.

When communicating investment information, avoid misleading
information, exaggeration, and half truths.
When communicating safety information, warn consumers of
risks in clear, simple language.
Adapting to Legal and Ethical Responsibilities
When communicating marketing information, avoid statements
that falsely advertise prices, performance capability, quality, or
other product characteristics.
When communicating human resources information
Avoid subjective statements in evaluating employees; describe
job-related specifics objectively.
Avoid promissory statements in writing job ads, application
forms, and offer letters.

Assume that everything is copyrighted.
Understand that Internet items are NOT in the public domain.
Observe fair use restrictions.
©
Four-Factor Test to Assess Fair Use
$
©
Purpose and character of the use
Is the item to be used for profit or nonprofit?
Is the information necessary for the public good?
Amount and substantiality of portion used

Is the amount to be copied a small portion of a large work or a
substantial portion of a small work?
Effect on the potential market for or value of the copyrighted
work
Does the fair-use copying interfere with the author’s potential
profit from the original?
Nature of copyrighted work
By John S. Donnellan
How to Ensure Fair Use
Question
Ask for permission to borrow!
Answer
How can you always be safe?

End
Chapter 5
Organizing and
Writing Business
Messages
1
2
Research Methods

Ways to Organize and Group Ideas
The Direct and Indirect Patterns
How to Create Effective Sentences
How to Create Effective Paragraphs
Accessing information electronically on the Internet and in
databases
Searching manually in books, articles, and other secondary
sources
Investigating primary sources, such as interviews and surveys
Experimenting scientifically with control groups
Types of Formal Research Methods
Looking in the company files

Talking with your boss
Interviewing the target audience
Conducting an informal survey
Brainstorming for ideas
Developing a cluster diagram
Types of Informal Research
Methods and Idea Generation
Use Cluster Diagrams to Generate, Organize, and Classify Ideas
Gifts and
premiums
Paid gym
membership
Financial
incentives
Peer
mentors
Smoking-
cessation
programs
Seminars
and
workshops
Improving
employee
health

Guest
speakers
Flex time
for workouts
New menu
in cafeteria
Analyze the ideas generated in the original cluster diagram.
Cross out ideas that are obviously irrelevant; simplify and
clarify.
Add new ideas that seem appropriate.
Study the ideas for similarities.
Tips for Organizing Ideas
in a Cluster Diagram
Group similar ideas into classifications.
Prepare an outline if the organization seems clear.
Make subcluster circles around each classification for further
visualization.
Tips for Organizing Ideas

in a Cluster Diagram
Methods for Organizing Ideas
Listing
Outlining
The Alphanumeric Outline
The Decimal Outline

Define the main topic (purpose of message) in the title.
Divide the main topic into major components or classifications
(preferably three to five); if necessary, combine small
components into one larger category.
Break each major component into subpoints.
Tips for Making Outlines
Avoid putting a single item under a major component; if you
have only one subpoint, integrate it with the main item above it
or reorganize.
Try to make each component exclusive (no overlapping).
Use details, illustrations, and evidence to support subpoints.
Tips for Making Outlines
Methods for Grouping Ideas Into Patterns

The direct pattern for receptive audiences
The indirect pattern for unreceptive audiences
For Receptive Audiences, Use the Direct Pattern to Group Ideas
For Unreceptive Audiences, Use the Indirect Pattern to Group
Ideas
Recognize phrases and clauses.
Clauses have subjects and verbs; phrases do not.
Independent clauses are complete; dependent clauses are not.
Phrases and dependent clauses cannot function as sentences.
Creating Effective Sentences

16
8
Recognize phrases and clauses.
Independent clause: They were eating pizza
Dependent clause: that they want
Phrase: to return for a refund
17
8
Avoid fragments (incomplete sentences).
Fragment: E-mail seems boring. When compared with Twitter.
Revision: E-mail seems boring when compared with Twitter.

Avoid run-ons (a sentence with two independent clauses –
without a coordinating conjunction or a semicolon).
Run-on: He posts updates hourly he’s always connected.
Revision: He posts updates hourly; he’s always connected.
Revision: He posts updates hourly. He’s always connected.
Avoid comma splices (joining two independent clauses without
using a coordinating conjunction).
Splice: Her BlackBerry is part of her, she can’t live without it.
Revision: Her BlackBerry is part of her; she can’t live without
it.
Revision: Her BlackBerry is part of her. She can’t live without
it.
Use short sentences.
Sentences under 20 words are most readable.
Sentence LengthComprehension Rate8 words100%15
words90%19 words80%28 words50%

21
8
Emphasize the most important ideas by using vivid words.
GeneralVividOne business uses personal selling
techniques.Avon uses face-to-face selling techniques.The
skyscraper is very tall.The Empire State Building is 102 stories
tall.
22
8
Emphasize the main idea by labeling it.
UnlabeledLabeledExplore the possibility of leasing a site, but
also hire a consultant.Explore the possibility of leasing a site;
but, most important, hire a consultant.Include a copy of the

sales receipt with the defective item you’re returning.It’s
essential you include a copy of the sales receipt with the
defective item you’re returning.
23
8
Emphasize the most important idea by placing it first or last in a
sentence.
UnemphaticEmphaticAll production and administrative
personnel will meet on May 23, at which time we will announce
a new plan of salary incentives.On May 23 all personnel will
meet to learn about salary incentives.
24
8

Emphasize the most important idea by placing it in a simple
sentence or in an independent clause.
UnemphaticEmphaticAlthough you are the first trainee that we
have hired for this program, we have interviewed many
candidates and expect to expand the program in the future.You
are the first trainee that we have hired for this program.
25
8
Emphasize the most important idea by making sure it is the
subject of the sentence.
UnemphaticEmphaticThe report was written by Courtney. (De-
emphasizes Courtney; emphasizes the report)Courtney wrote the
report. (Emphasizes Courtney)
26
8

Use active-voice verbs for most sentences.
Example of an active-voice expression: We lost money.
Use passive-voice verbs to de-emphasize the performer or to be
tactful.
Example of a passive-voice expression: Money was lost (by
us).
27
8
Use Active Voice for
Directness, Vigor, and Clarity
Direct and Clear in Active VoiceIndirect and Less Clear in
Passive VoiceThe manager completed performance reviews for
all employees.Performance reviews were completed for all
employees by the manager.Evelyn initiated a customer service
blog last year.A customer service blog was initiated last
year.IBM will accept applications after January 1.Applications
will be accepted after January 1 by IBM.

28
8
Use Passive Voice to Be Tactful or to Emphasize the Action
Rather Than the Doer
Less Tactful or Effective in Active VoiceMore Tactful or
Effective in Passive VoiceWe cannot grant you credit.Credit
cannot be granted.The CEO made a huge error in projecting
profits.A huge error was made in projecting profits.I launched a
successful fitness program for our company last year.A
successful fitness program was launched for our company last
year.
29
8
Avoid misplaced modifiers by keeping phrases close to the
words they describe.

Not ThisBut ThisAn autopsy revealed the cause of death to be
strangulation by the coroner.An autopsy by the coroner revealed
the cause of death to be strangulation.Sam bought a used
computer from the salesperson with a faulty mouse.Sam bought
a used computer with a faulty mouse from the salesperson.
30
8
Avoid dangling modifiers (a word or phrase that modifies a
word not clearly stated in the sentence).
Not ThisBut ThisWalking down the street, our sign is easy to
see.Walking down the street, people can easily see our
sign.When six years old, my family moved to Pittsburgh.When I
was six years old, my family moved to Pittsburgh.
31
8

To create effective paragraphs, discuss only one topic in a
paragraph.
Drafting Effective Paragraphs
¶
Group similar ideas together.
Arrange paragraphs in one of these plans.
¶
Direct Plan
Main sentence followed by supporting sentences (best for
defining, classifying, illustrating, and describing ideas)
Pivoting Plan
Limiting sentences, main sentence, supporting sentences (for

comparing and contrasting)
Indirect Plan
Supporting sentences, main sentence (good for describing
causes followed by effects)
To build coherence, link ideas with one of these devices.
¶
Sustain the key idea
Repeat a key expression or use a similar one throughout a
paragraph.
Dovetail sentences

Connect the beginning of each new sentence with a word from
the end of the previous sentence.
Use a pronoun
Use a pronoun in one sentence to refer to a noun in the previous
sentence.
Sustain the key idea by repeating or rephrasing it.
For example, Our philosophy holds that every customer is really
a guest. All new employees to our theme parks learn to treat
guests as VIPs. Employees never tell these VIPs what they can
or cannot do.
Techniques for Building Coherence
Dovetail sentences by connecting the beginning of each new
sentence with a word from the end of the previous sentence.
For example, New hosts and hostesses learn about the theme

park and its facilities. These facilities include telephones, food
services, bathrooms, and attractions.
Use a pronoun in one sentence to link to its antecedent.
For example, All new park employees receive a two-week
orientation. They learn that every staffer has a vital role in
preparing for the show.
To further build coherence, use transitional expressions.
Techniques for Building CoherenceTo Add or StrengthenTo
Show Cause and EffectTo Suggest
Contrastadditionallyconsequentlyby contrastagainas a
resultconverselyalsofor this reasonon the
contrarylikewisethereforeon the other
hand
To further build coherence, use transitional expressions.

Techniques for Building CoherenceTo Show Time or OrderTo
ClarifyTo Contradictafterfor exampleactuallybeforein other
wordshoweverearlierfor instanceinsteadfinallyI meanrather
By John S. Donnellan
Compose short paragraphs.
Paragraphs with eight or fewer printed lines are most readable –
and will reduce the chances your audience will fall asleep!
End

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