Disaster Mitigation
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DISASTER
PREPAREDNESS
Lt Col. K.C.MONNAPPA
MA Social Work (Delhi University)
Dip Sustainable Development
CEU Hungary

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Chapter 1
Disasters
What Is A Disaster?
The United Nations defines disasters as “…the occurrence of a sudden or major
misfortune which disrupts the basic fabric and normal functioning of a society (or
community).
The Webster’s Dictionary, defines disaster as “ any event that overwhelms existing
resources to deal with the event…”
In essence it is a situation / event or series of events which gives rise to casualties and /
or damage or loss of property, infrastructure, essential services or means of livelihood or a
scale that is beyond the normal capacity of the affected community to cope with unaided.
(Manual on Disaster Management in India).
Disasters: The Indian Context
India, a land characterized by unique geo - climatic conditions is particularly
vulnerable to Natural disasters. Also of late, it has seen the rise of man - made disasters as
well. Disasters occur with unfailing regularity and despite better preparedness to meet all
such contingencies, the economic and social costs on account of losses caused by natural
disasters continue to mount year after year. The list of hazard type is very long. Many occur
infrequently or impact a very small population. Other hazards, such as severe snowstorms,
often occur in areas that are prepared to deal with them and seldom become disasters.
However from the perspective of the disaster victim it is not particularly useful to
distinguish between minor and major disasters. Some disasters are now of limited interest to
the International community. These include avalanches, fogs, frost, hail, lightening,
snowstorms and tornadoes. The international interest is less for these hazards because their
impacts affect relatively few people and the countries in which they normally occur have
sufficient resources and systems in place to respond without external assistance.
There are several hazards types for which there is widespread concern. They can be
categorized as follows:-
 Sudden onset hazards. (Geological and climatic hazards) such as earthquakes,
tsunamis, floods, tropical storms, volcanic eruptions, landslides, etc.
 Slow onset hazards. (Environment hazards) such as drought, famine,
environmental degradation, desertification, deforestation, pest infestation etc.
 Industrial/Technological hazards. System failures, accidents, spillages,
explosions, fires, etc.

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 Epidemics. Water and/or food borne diseases, communicable diseases,
vector borne diseases, complications from wounds, etc.
Disasters may be natural or caused by human actions, may occur in any season of the
year and may cover a limited or a wide-ranging geographic area. The following are some
examples of the wide range of events that may reach disaster proportions:
 Earthquake
 Flood
 Act of terrorism (e.g., bombing)
 Civil disturbance (e.g., riot)
 Hazardous materials incident
 Tropical cyclones
 Drought
 Landslides
 Forest fires
 Avalanches
 Pest infestations
It is pertinent to mention that whatever the cause, disasters have several key elements
in common:
 The event is relatively unexpected, with little or no prior warning or opportunity to
prepare.
 Available personnel and emergency services may not be available during the initial
stages of a disaster because of demands for their services.
 Lives, health and the environment are endangered.
Disaster Threats in India
India is plagued by a variety of Disasters at any given time. The potential threat of
different types of disasters varies across the country. Floods could be ravaging the fertile
plains of Assam in the East while Gujarat and Rajasthan could be reeling under the
influence of drought. A cold wave could be gripping the Northern parts of the country while
the Southern states could be enjoying a relatively warm and pleasant climate. Add to this,
the calamitous cyclone that unleashes itself in the coastal areas of the country and the
earthquakes that frequent the states located in the Himalayas. The Gujarat earthquake and
the Orissa cyclones are a case in point, which highlights the calamity and impact of such an
event on an unsuspecting population. Man made disasters such as ‘Acts of terrorism’
(Bombay Bomb blasts), Civil disturbance (Gujarat riots), Hazardous Materials Accidents
(Bhopal Gas Tragedy) have contributed its share in making India a land of ‘Myriad
Hazards’ – both manmade and natural.

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Phases Of Disaster
Disasters can be viewed as a series of phases on a time continuum. There are basically
two types of disasters – Rapid onset disasters and Slow onset disasters. Identifying and
understanding phases in these disasters helps to describe disaster related needs and to
conceptualize appropriate Disaster Management activities.
Rapid Onset Disasters
The phases discussed below correspond to the time sequence following the occurrence
of a Rapid Onset disaster. The phases are:-
 The Relief phase. It is the period immediately following the occurrence of a
sudden disaster (or the late discovery of a neglected/deteriorated slow-onset
situation) when exceptional measures have to be taken to search and find the
survivors as well as their basic needs for shelter, water, food and medical care.
 Rehabilitation phase. This phase involves the operations and decisions taken
after disaster with a view to restore a stricken community to its former living
conditions, while encouraging and facilitating the necessary adjustments to the
changes caused by disasters.
 Reconstruction phase. This involves the action taken to re-establish a
community after a period of rehabilitation subsequent to a disaster. Actions
would include construction of permanent housing, full restoration of all services
and complete resumption of the pre-disaster state.
 Mitigation phase. It is the collective term used to encompass all actions taken
prior to the occurrence of a disaster (pre-disaster measures) including
preparedness and long-term risk reduction measures.
 Preparedness phase. It consists of activities designed to minimize loss and
damage, organize the temporary removal of people and property from a
threatened location and facilitate timely and effective rescue, relief and
rehabilitation.
Slow Onset Disasters
The sequence of a disaster continuum for slow onset disasters is similar in
framework to that as in Rapid Onset disasters but has important distinctions. The terms and
definitions discussed below amplify those additions and modifications:-
 Early warning phase. It is the process of monitoring the situations in
communities and areas known to be vulnerable to slow onset disasters. For
example, famine early warning may be reflected in such indicators as drought,
livestock sales or changes in economic conditions. The purpose of early warning

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is to enable remedial measures to be initiated and to provide more timely and
effective relief including through disaster preparedness actions.
 Emergency relief phase. It is the period during which extraordinary measures
have to be taken. Special emergency procedures and authorities may be applied
to support human needs, sustain livelihoods and protect property to avoid the
onset of disasters. This phase can encompass pre-disaster, disaster alert, disaster
relief and recovery periods. An emergency phase may be quite extensive, as in
slow onset disaster such as famine. It can also be relatively short lived, as after
an earthquake.
 Rehabilitation phase. It is the phase where action is taken after a slow onset
disaster where attention is given to the issues of resettlement or returnee
programmes, particularly to people who have been displaced for reasons arising
out of conflict or economic collapse.
Risk Assessment and Disaster Management
Assessment is the process of determining the impact of a disaster on a society. The first
priority is to establish the needs for immediate emergency measures to save and sustain the
lives of survivors. The second priority is to identify the possibilities for facilitating and
expediting recovery and development. Assessment is an interdisciplinary process
undertaken in phases and involving on the spot surveys and the collation, evaluation and
interpretation of information from various sources. The surveys concern both direct and
indirect losses as well as the short/long term effects. Assessment involves determining not
only what has happened and what assistance might be needed, but also defines objectives
and how relevant assistance can actually be provided to the victims. Some assessments are
specifically conducted as damage assessments. They include the preparation of specific,
quantified estimates of physical damage resulting from a disaster. The damage assessment
may also include recommendations concerning the repair, reconstruction or replacement of
structures, and equipment, as well as the restoration of economic activities.
Objectives of Assessment
The first step of a post – disaster assessment is to determine when an emergency
exists. Next, it is pertinent to define the actions and resources needed to reduce immediate
threats to health and safety and to pre-empt future serious problems. A frequent problem of
assessment is to assume that all property losses or survival needs must be replaced or
furnished from outside sources only. Instead the assessment must also identify the local
response capacity, including organizational, medical and logistical resources. The
assessment must help decide how best to use existing resources for relief. It must also
identify the priorities of the affected people themselves. Another problem is that people
making the assessment who are not from the disaster area may have a difficult time
distinguishing chronic needs from problems created by the disaster. Knowledge of base line
data is essential to identify the “ starting point” for post – disaster needs.

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If the results of the assessment are to contribute to the design of a disaster response
program, then the response agency must know the policies of the government with regard to
emergency assistance. These policies will affect the estimate for the additional support
required from national and international sources for relief.
Evolving Objectives of Assessment
Warning phase
 Determine extent to which affected populations are taking measures to protect lives
and facilities from expected hazard impact
 Activate arrangements in the preparedness plan regarding the implementation of
assessment.
Emergency phase
 Confirm the reported emergency and estimate the overall magnitude of the damage
 Identify, characterize and quantify “populations at risk” in the disaster.
 Help to define and prioritize the actions and resources needed to reduce immediate
risks.
 Identify local response capacity, including organizational, medical and logistic
resources
 Help anticipate future serious problems
 Help manage and control the immediate response
Rehabilitation phase
 Identify the priorities of the affected people
 Identify the policies of the government with regard to post – disaster assistance
 Estimate the additional support required from national and international sources for
relief and recovery
 Monitor the outcome and effectiveness of continuing relief and rehabilitation
measures
Recovery phase
 Determine the damage to economically significant resources and its implications for
development policy
 Assess the impact of the disaster on current development programs
 Identify new development opportunities created by the disaster

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The Assessment Process
Assessment must be carefully planned and managed. A sequence of activities is
involved and each must be planned in detail. The following activities typically constitute the
assessment process:
 Identify information needs and sources of reliable data
 Collect data
 Analyze and interpret data
 Report conclusions, forecasts and alternatives to appropriate planner and decision
makers
As the response actions begin to influence events, assessments become part of the
monitoring and control loop, allowing those involved in monitoring outcomes and
attempting to correct the response. It becomes part of a continuing process of assessment,
review, and correction by which those managing the operation begin to restore the
framework for survival and recovery.
Assessment for Different Disaster Types
The design and execution of assessments are very different for sudden onset disasters
versus the slow onset. For sudden onset, there are typically many different needs in many
locations involving casualty management, support for local rescue efforts and recovery of
lifeline services during the first two days of an emergency. Initially the needs change from
hour to hour often resulting in confusion. In fact, some activities need to be done so quickly
that action has to precede detailed assessments, using strategies determined during
preparedness planning on the basis of emergencies. For displaced persons and famine
emergencies the lead times are sometimes long and donors may be unwilling to commit
large amounts of assistance in response to ambiguous information. The initial priority needs,
which should be assessed, include immunizations, emergency water supply, nutritional
monitoring, bulk food logistics and registration systems. Early geographical assessments of
the size of the populations at risk are vital. These prolonged emergencies may last for
months, and often for years. This allows for detailed analysis of the assessment system’s
performance and the opportunity to adapt them as requirements change.
Assessment Data and its Use
Assessment provides support for emergency decision makers. Assessment is
conducted for a specific user or group of users who are making decisions about emergency
resource allocation and response strategies in what may be a fast changing environment.
There are three aspects involved in the assessment process: picture building; situation
assessment and response planning. Usually we start by building up a picture of where people
are, what condition they are in, what services are still available, and what resources have
survived. The situation assessment involves the identification of operational priorities. The
situation itself is usually fast changing and disorganized, this leads to the need to be able to

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forecast how the situation is likely to develop. The assessment data needs to be structured to
help with the following:
 Recognition and assessment of situations requiring decisions
 Formation of the operational strategies
 Objectives and needs
 Potential alternatives generated
 Analysis of the alternatives: evaluate their impact
 Interpretation and selection: compared by evaluating impacts
The last process of decision-making is the response planning. This includes the
detailed assignment and scheduling of resources (people, equipment, and supplies) to meet
specific relief objectives. To view things in the right perspective, in order to be able to
formulate a workable response and preparedness solution, it is essential to have an
OVERVIEW of the types of disasters that strikes the country frequently. Some of the most
commonly occurring disasters are as follows:-
 Earthquakes
 Floods
 Hazardous Materials Accidents
 Tropical Cyclones
 Drought
 Civil Disturbance
 Terrorist Attacks
As is evident, assessment whether pre, during or post disaster, is a time consuming
and an arduous task requiring a vast investment in terms of time, money and manpower (not
necessarily in that order). The field of disaster management and mitigation is yet to receive
the importance it deserves in India. The matter further gets complicated, as the people
involved in the process of assessment and preparedness plans do not necessarily happen to
belong to the same place. It is imperative to involve the local community during the
assessment phase before measures and plans to counter disasters are formulated. Later in the
book we shall see how a community can organise itself to be prepared to deal with some of
the frequently occurring disasters that the community may be vulnerable to, by utlising local
resources and manpower.

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Chapter 2
Overview of frequently Occurring Disasters
Earthquakes
Earthquakes are a shaking or trembling of the earth, caused by underground volcanic
forces or by breaking and shifting of rock beneath the surface. It may seem something of a
revelation that the plates of the earth’s crust are in slow but constant motion and
innumerable earthquakes are registered around the world on seismographs everyday. These
tremors are generally very small in intensity to cause any harm / damage. However when the
magnitude is more than 6.0 on the Richter scale, it is both noticeable and devastating
wherein they assume apocalyptic proportions hitting densely populated areas on account of
the suddenness of their shock and their mass destructive potential.
Earthquake Hazards in India
Earthquakes continue to be one of nature’s most devastating furies known to mankind
since time immemorial. India has a very long history of earthquake occurrences. About 50
per cent of the total area is vulnerable to seismic damage of buildings in varying degrees.
The most vulnerable areas according to the present seismic zone map of India are in
Himalayan and Sub Himalayan regions, Kutch and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Depending on varying degrees of seismicity, the entire country can be divided into the
following seismic regions:
 Kashmir and Western Himalayas - This region covers the states of Jammu and
Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and sub- mountainous regions of Punjab.
 Central Himalayas – This region includes the mountain and sub- mountain
regions of UP and the sub-mountainous parts of Punjab.
 North- East India – This region comprises the whole of Indian Territory to the
East of North Bengal.
 Indo-Gangetic Basin and Rajasthan- This region comprises of Rajasthan, plains
of Punjab, Haryana, UP and Bengal.
 Cambay and Rann of Kutch.
 Peninsular India including the islands of Lakshadweep.
 The Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Causal Phenomenon
Slippage of crystal rock along a fault or area of strain and rebound to new alignment.

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Impact
The impact of earthquakes can be best explained with a help of a flow chart:-
Figure 2.1. Direct and Chain Effects of Earthquake
EARTHQUAKE
EFFECTS
On Ground
 Fissures
 Settlement
 Land Slides
 Liquefaction
 Earth Pressures
On Man Made
Structures
 Cracking
 Sliding
 Over Turning
 Collapse
On Water
 Waves
 Hydrodynamic
pressure
 Isunamics
(Sea Waves)
POSSIBLE CHAIN EFFECTS
LAND SLIDES DAM FAILURE ISUNAMIC ATOMIC
POWER PLANT
FAILURE
FIRE
Destruction of
settlements
Temp. Dam
across river and
its failure
Flood Flow
Destruction of
Structures
Flooding of Land
Water Contamination
Devastation by
high waves
Radiation
Hazard
Fire

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Factors Contributing to Vulnerability
Principally, the location of settlements in seismic areas. Other contributory factors
include:-
 Structures which are not resistant to ground motion.
 Dense collection of building with high occupancy.
 Lack of access to information about earthquake risks.
Earthquake Classifications
Earthquakes are classified as small, moderate, major, or great based on the Richter
scale (a measure of energy released during the quake). The Richter scale has a logarithmic
base, so each increment on the scale is multiplied by a factor that is 10 times larger than the
previous factor. (For example, an earthquake of magnitude 8.6 would not be twice as
violent as one of 4.3, but rather would be 10,000 times worse.) Although there are other
methods of determining earthquake intensity and magnitude, the Richter scale is the most
widely used method today. Earthquake classifications based on Richter scale magnitudes
are shown in the table below.
Classifications Richter Scale Magnitudes
Small 5.0-5.9
Moderate 6.0-6.9
Major 7.0-7.9
Great 8.0-8.9
Table 2.2. Earthquake Classifications
Typical Adverse Affects
The typical adverse affects due to earthquake are:-
 Physical damage. Damage or loss of structure and infrastructure. Fires, dam
failures, landslides, flooding etc may occur.
 Casualties. Often high, particularly near epicenter or in highly populated areas or
where buildings are not built to resist earthquake.
 Public health. Fracture injuries are the most widespread problem. Secondary
threats due to flooding, contaminated water supply or break down in sanitary
conditions are common causes for concern.
 Water supply. Severe problems are most likely due to damage of water system,
pollution of open wells and changes in water table.

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Possible Risk Reduction Measures
The adverse affects can to a large extent be mitigated through a series of strategic
thinking and planning, such as :-
 Hazard mapping
 Public awareness programmes and training
 Assessing and reducing structural vulnerability.
 Land use controlling or zoning, building codes.
Specific Preparedness Measures
Specific preparedness measures to reduce the overall impact due to earthquake can be
achieved through earthquake warning and preparedness programmes.
Typical Post Disaster Needs
The typical post disaster needs of the afflicted population and place would generally
encompass the following:-
 Search and Rescue efforts
 Emergency medical assistance
 Damage needs and assessment surveys
 Relief assistance
 Repair and reconstruction
 Economic recovery
Earthquake Prediction
The probability of occurrence can be determined but not the exact timing. Forecasting
is based on monitoring of seismic activity, historical incidence and observations. Although it
is still impossible to predict earthquakes accurately, scientists have been able to derive some
probabilities about future earthquakes in India. Some of the most vulnerable areas are
depicted in the map shown in Map 2.3.

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Map 2.3. Earthquake Hazard Zones
Of India

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Floods
A flood occurs any time a body of water rises to cover what is usually dry land.
Floods have many causes, including heavy rain, spring snowmelt, hurricanes and coastal
storms and dam or levee failure. When flooding occurs, affected areas may sustain damage
to structures and personal property, as well as severe damage to the environment in the form
of soil erosion and deforestation and damage to utilities and transportation systems. Flash
floods, for which there is little or no warning, cause great risk to humans and animals. Land
along rivers and streams, lakeshores and coastlines are particularly susceptible to flooding.
Under some conditions, however, even inland that are not normally threatened by flooding,
may also be immersed.
Floods :Indian Context
The country receives an annual precipitation of 400 million – hectare meters. Of
the annual rainfall, 75% is received during four months of monsoon (June – September) and
as a result, almost all the rivers carry heavy discharge during this period. The flood hazard is
compounded by the problems of sediment deposition, drainage congestion and
synchronization of river floods with sea tides in the coastal plains. The area vulnerable to
floods is 40 million - hectare and the average area affected by floods annually are about 8
million hectares. The average annual total damage to crops, houses and public utilities
during the period 1953 –1995 was about Rs.9720 million.
Causes of floods
Flooding conditions may occur due to:
 Rivers in spate
 Snowmelt
 Storm surges
 Short intense storms causing flash floods
Flooding in rivers is mainly caused by :
 Inadequate capacity within the banks of the river to contain high flows
 River bank erosion and silting of riverbeds
 Landslides leading to obstruction of flow and change in the river course
 Synchronization of flood in the main and tributary rivers
 Flow retardation due to tidal and backwater effects
 Poor natural drainage
 Cyclone and heavy rainfall

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Flood Prone Areas in India:
Figure 2.4.
Flood Disaster Management in India:
The various measures adopted for flood mitigation may be categorized into two
groups:
 Structural
 Non- structural
The general approach is aimed at preventing floodwaters from reaching the potential
damage centres, as a result of which a large number of embankments have come up along
the various flood prone rivers. The main thrust of the flood protection program undertaken
in the country so far in the form of structural measures may be grouped into the following:
 Dams and Reservoirs
 Embankments, flood walls, sea wall
 Natural detention basin
 Channel improvement
 Diversion of floodwaters
For effective functioning of all the physical measures taken, it is necessary that pre-
and post- monsoon checks must be made and special repairs must be carried out prior to
flood period.
The non-structural measures, on the other hand, aim at modifying the susceptibility to
flood damage as well as modifying the loss burden. The various non- structural measures
being implemented in the country are:

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1. Modifying the susceptibility to flood damages through:
 Flood plain management
 Flood proofing including disaster preparedness and response planning
 Flood forecasting and Warning
2. Modifying the flood loss burden through:
 Disaster Relief
 Flood fighting including Public Health Measures and Public education, (one
of the aims this book)
General Characteristics
The general characteristics associated with floods are:-
 Flash Floods. Accelerated runoff, dam failure, breakup of ice jam
 River Floods. Slow buildup, usually seasonal in river systems
 Coastal Floods. Associated with tropical cyclones, tsunami waves, storm surges.
Factors affecting degree of danger usually are: depth of water, duration, velocity,
rate of rise, frequency of occurrence and seasonality.
Flood Classifications
Floods are measured according to the heights the waters reach. Their magnitude is
based on the chances that water flow will equal or exceed a certain level on a recurring
basis.
Flood Prediction
Satellite technology combined with river forecast centers and hydrologic service
enable meteorologists to predict flood occurrence and severity with reasonable accuracy and
provide warnings to those in high-risk areas. On average, rivers overflow their normal
boundaries once every 2 years. Severe coastal flooding, however, can result in conjunction
with any hurricane or coastal storm, the track of which cannot be predicted with complete
accuracy. Clearly, the risk of damage or injury resulting from floods cannot be downplayed.
Setting up of flood forecasting and warning services is one of the most cost- effective
non- structural measures available.
The flood forecasting organization set up in Central Water Commission is presently
responsible for issuing forecasts at 157 stations, of which 132 are for water stage forecast
and 25 for inflow forecast used for optimum operation of certain major reservoirs. These
157 stations are located in the 11 flood prone states and 2 Union Territories.

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Flood forecasting methods are being constantly reviewed and further improvements
are being made with assistance from UNDP, USAID, Denmark, etc, so as to make flood
forecast more reliable and timely. The Ministry of Water Resources is reviewing flood-
forecasting methods also. Modernization involves installing automatic data collection
system by means of sensors, transmission of data by latest techniques of communication and
formulation of forecasts using computer based comprehensive models.
The final forecasts are communicated to the concerned administrative and
engineering authorities of the State and other agencies connected with flood protection and
management work, on telephone or by special messenger / availability of communication
facilities etc.
Areas likely to be affected by floods are shown in map 2.5.

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Map 2.5. Flood Hazard Map
Of India

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Tropical Cyclones
The World Meteorological Organisation defines the term ‘Tropical Cyclone’ as
weather systems in which wind speeds exceed ‘gale force’ (min 34 knots or 63 kmph)
tropical cyclones owe their genesis to the ocean and atmosphere, powered by the heat from
the sea, driven by the easterly trades and the westerly temperates, the high planetary winds
and their own fierce energy. As a result of this lethal cocktail, the ocean develops a
devastating and mammoth surge, thereby inundating vast coastal areas. Tropical cyclones
announce their arrival through devastatingly violent winds, torrential rainfall accompanied
by storm surges leading to floods and thereby contributing to large-scale devastation and
disruption to normal life.
Characteristics of Tropical Cyclones
The characteristics of Tropical cyclones are:-
 Destructive winds
 Storm surges
 Exceptionally high rainfall occurrences
Stages of Tropical Cyclones
The various stages associated with Tropical Cyclones are;-
 Formation and initial development stage
 Mature stage
 Modification or decaying stage
Causal Phenomenon
The causal phenomenon associated with floods are:-
 Mixture of heat and moisture forms a low-pressure center over oceans in tropical
latitudes where water temperatures are over 26 degrees c.
 Wind currents spin and organise around deepening low pressure over
accelerating toward the center and moving along track pushed by trade winds.
 Depression becomes a tropical cyclone when winds reach gale force or 117km
per hour
 A warm sea temperature
 High relative humidity
 Atmospheric instability
 A location of at least 4 – 5 Latitude degree from the equator

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Classification of Cyclonic Disturbances
The classification of Cyclonic disturbances (low pressure areas) is made by the
strength of the associated winds. The classification used in India is given in the following
table:
Ser
No Disturbance Wind Speed (Knots)
1. Low >17
2. Depression 17 – 27 (32 – 50 Kmph)
3. Deep Depression 28 – 33 (51 – 62 Kmph)
4. Cyclonic Storm 34 – 47 (63 – 88 Kmph)
5. Severe Cyclonic storm
with a core of Hurricane
winds
48 – 63 (89 – 118 Kmph)
Table 2.6.Classification of Cyclonic disturbances
General Characteristics
When the cyclone strikes land, high winds, exceptional rainfall and storm surges
cause damage with secondary flooding and landslides.
Predictability
Tropical cyclones can be tracked from their development but accurate landfall
forecasts are usually possible only a few hours before as unpredictable changes in course
can occur.
Factors Contributing to Vulnerability
The factors contributing to the vulnerability of the settlements/community are:-
 Settlements located in low lying coastal areas (direct impact)
 Settlements in adjacent areas (heavy rains, floods)
 Poor communications or warming systems
 Lightweight structures, older construction, poor quality masonry
 Infrastructural elements, fishing boats and maritime industries.
Typical Adverse Effects
The adverse affects associated with floods are:-

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 Physical damagestructures lost and damaged by wind force, flooding, surge and
landslides.
 Casualties and public health May be caused by flying debris, or flooding
 Contamination of water supplies May lead to viral outbreaks and malaria.
 Water supplies Ground water may be contaminated by floodwaters.
 Crops and food supplies High winds and rains can ruin standing crops, tree
plantations and food stocks.
 Communications and logistics Severe disruption is possible as wind brings
down telephone lines, antennas and satellite disks. Transport may be curtailed.
Possible Risk Reduction Measures
The possible risk reduction measures are:-
 Risk assessment and hazard mapping
 Land use control and flood plain management
 Reduction of structural vulnerability
 Improvement of vegetation cover.
Specific Preparedness Measures
The specific preparedness measures could include the following:-
 Public warning systems
 Evacuation plans
 Training and community participation
Typical Post Disaster Needs
The post disaster needs could include evacuation and emergency shelter; search and
rescue; medical assistance; water purification; reestablish logistical and communication
networks; disaster assessment; provision of seeds for planting.
Impact Assessment Tools
The common impact assessment tools used to assess damage due to floods are
damage assessment forms and aerial surveys.

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Cyclonic Prediction and Warning Centers
 Satellite pictures
 Weather/meteorological observatories at sea
 Ships at sea
….. in INDIA
 Area cyclone warning centre (ACWC’s) at Kolkatta, Chennai and Mumbai
 Cyclone warning Centres (CWC’s) at Bhuvaneshwar, Visakapatnam and
Ahmedabad.
Areas likely to be affected during a Tropical Cyclone are depicted in map 2.7.

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Map 2.7. Winds and Cyclone Hazard Map
Of India

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Drought
It is a temporary reduction in water or moisture availability significantly below the
normal or expected amount for a specific period. This condition occurs either due to
inadequacy of rainfall, or lack of irrigation facilities, under – exploitation or deficient
availability for meeting the normal crop requirement in the context of the agro – climatic
conditions prevailing in any particular area. In other words, drought can also be defined as
adverse moisture index (MI), or adverse water balance which may be attributable not only to
prolonged dry spell due to lack of sufficient rainfall but also due to such other factors as
excessive Evapo-transpiration losses, high temperature, low – soil holding capacity etc.
Droughts in India
The rainfall distribution pattern of India is generally uneven ranging from 10,000mm
at Cherapunji in the Northeast to around 200-350mm in parts of western Rajasthan and
Gujarat. However when computing the annual rainfall, it is observed that India receives a
healthy 1200mm,which is very good for a country of this size. The rainfall distribution
pattern of India is as under:-
 33% Low Rainfall Region 750mm
 35% Medium Rainfall Region 751-1125mm
 24% High Rainfall Region 1125-2000mm
 8% Very High Rainfall Region >2000mm
Due to the erratic behaviour of the rainfall and its uneven distribution throughout the
country, an average of 68% or roughly 2/3 of the country’s arable land area is susceptible to
drought. Administration authorities in states such as Bihar constantly find themselves in
paradoxical situations wherein a single district at times face both floods as well as drought in
a single season, simultaneously. This is largely due to the absence of a well-developed
network of irrigation system that could channelise the excess water that flows into the region
and utilize it in areas under the ‘Rain Shadow’ region.
Types of Droughts
Droughts could be classified as under:
 Agriculture drought, wherein the impact of drought on human activity is
influenced by a host of factors, such as the degree of advancement in the
agriculture technology and its availability e.g. an irrigation system, quality and
retention capacity of the soil, timing of the seasonal rainfall and the adaptive
capacity and behaviour of the farmer
 Meteorological drought, caused due to reduction in rainfall
 Hydrological drought, caused due to reduction in water resources

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Drought Prediction
Careful analysis of rainfall and hydrological data analyzed with influencing factors
go a long way in predicting droughts. With the advancement in modern satellite based
technology such as the GIS (Geographical Information System), droughts can be predicted
with greater accuracy and the region likely to be affected can be fore warned.
A ‘weather watch group’ is constituted in the Ministry of Agriculture, which meets
every week to take stock of the rainfall progress, its effects on the crops from sowing to
harvesting, during Khariff season.
Weekly inputs from the Indian Meteorological Department gives an early warning
about the impending drought as and when symptoms arise in this regard and the states are
warned accordingly.
The National Agricultural Drought Assessment and Management System
(NADAMS) is being developed by the Department of Space for the Department of
Agriculture and Cooperation and is primarily based on the monitoring of vegetation status
through National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) Advanced Very
High Resolution (AVHR) data. The drought assessment is based on comparative evaluation
of satellite observed green vegetation cover (both area and greenness) of district in any
specific time period.
Causal Phenomena
The causative factors for drought could be the following:
 Immediate cause. Rainfall deficit
 Possible underlying causes.
o Anthropogenic Factors leading to changes in ground surface and soil
o El Nino, a phenomenon wherein there is an incursion of warm surface
waters into the normally colder waters esp. seen off the South American
Coast, although this kind of phenomenon has been known to occur in
India too
o Higher temperatures on sea surfaces
o Increase of Carbon dioxide gases in the atmosphere
Possible Risk Reduction Measures
The possible risk reduction measures are drought and famine early warning systems
General Characteristics
The general characteristics associated with droughts are:-

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 The reduction of water or moisture availability is temporary and significant in
relation to the norm.
 Meteorological drought is the reduction in rainfall and hydrological drought is
the reduction in water resources.
 Agricultural drought is the impact of drought on human activity influenced by
various factors: the presence of irrigation systems, moisture retention capacity of
the soil, the timing of the rainfall and adaptive behaviour of the farmers.
Predictability
Periods of unusual dryness are normal in all weather systems. Rainfall and
hydrology data must be carefully analyzed with influencing factors in predicting drought,
however, advance warning is usually possible.
Factors Contributing to Vulnerability
Factors contributing to vulnerability are: -
 Location in an arid area where dry conditions are increased by drought
 Farming on marginal lands, subsistence farming
 Lack of agricultural inputs to improve yields
 Lack of seed reserves
 Areas dependent on other weather systems for water resources
 Areas of low soil moisture retention
 Lack of recognition and allocation of resources to drought hazard
Typical Adverse and Immediate Effects
The immediate typical immediate and adverse affects include:-
 Rainfall deficit leading to large scale Crop failure.
 Reduced income for farmer; reduction of spending from agricultural sector;
increase in price of staple foods, increased inflation rates, deterioration of
nutritional status, famine, illness, death, reduction of drinking water resources,
migration, breakup of communities, loss of livestock.
Specific Preparedness Measures
Development of inter- institutional response plan is one of the important steps
towards a specific preparedness plan.

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Typical Post Disaster Needs
The typical post disaster needs associated with the drought affected are measures to
maintain food security; price stabilization, food subsidies, employment creation programs,
general food distribution, supplementary feeding programs, special programs for livestock
and pastoralists, complementary water and health programs.
Impact Assessment Tools
The impact assessment tools used to measure the disaster are nutritional surveys,
socio- economic surveys, monitoring of rainfall and hydrological data, satellite imagery.
Dangerous Goods/Chemicals Disaster
Dangerous Goods/chemicals are any product that corrodes other materials, explodes or
is easily ignited, reacts strongly with water, is unstable when exposed to heat or shock, or is
otherwise toxic to humans, animals, or the environment. In India, The Manufacture,
Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemical Rules, 1989 governs the safe handling,
transport and disposal of dangerous goods/chemicals. While this may be so, accidents can
and do occur throughout the country on a regular basis. Additionally, while the risk of
exposure to radioactive materials in nuclear power facilities, mining operations and storage
facilities is strictly regulated, it remains possible for a radioactive materials incident to
occur.
Causal Phenomenon
The causal phenomenon associated with a chemical disaster are:-
 Disaster/explosion in a plant or storage facilities handling toxic substances.
 Accidents during the transportation of chemicals.
 Contamination of food or the environment by misuse of chemicals.
 Improper waste management of toxic chemicals.
 Technological system failures.
 Failures of plant safety design or components.
 Natural hazards such as fire, earthquake or landslides.
 Arson or sabotage.
Factors Contributing to Vulnerability
Factors contributing to the vulnerability of a community due to a chemical disaster
are:-

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 Persons, structures, livestock, crops and environment closest to the scene of an
accident are most vulnerable, however, large-scale releases of airborne pollutants
may spread for hundreds of kilometers.
 Lack of safety features or lack of evacuation plan.
 Unawareness by vulnerable persons of the potential danger.
Typical Adverse Effects
The typical adverse affects associated with a chemical disaster are:-
 Physical damage. Damage or destruction may occur to structures and
infrastructure. Transportation accidents damage vehicles and other objects on
impact. Industrial fires may reach high temperatures and affect large areas.
 Casualties. Many people may be killed or injured and require medical treatment.
 Environmental. Contamination of air, water supply, land and animal life may
occur. Areas may become un-inhabitable for humans and animals. Ecological
systems may be disrupted even on a global scale.
Possible Risk Reduction Measures
Development of a plan, such as the ALERT (Amateur Local Emergency Relief Teams)
local level, to assist decision makers and technical personnel to improve community
awareness of hazardous installations and aid them in preparing disaster response plans.
Specific Preparedness Measures
 Hazard mapping
 Hazardous materials identification
 Inspection of chemical plants and storage facilities
 Monitoring toxic waste disposal procedures
 Improve fire fighting capacity
 Monitoring pollution levels
 Prepare and practice evacuation plans
 Test warning sirens
Typical Post Disaster Needs
Evacuation from area; search and rescue; alternative resources of water; cleanup;
monitor environmental effects.
Impact assessment tools
APELL (Awareness and Preparedness for Emergencies at Local Level) process forms
for emergency response plan evaluation, CHEMTREC (Chemical Transportation

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Emergency Center) information systems. These tools have to be devised by the local
authorities in conjunction with the various associated departments.
Dangerous Goods/Chemicals Classifications
Dangerous Goods/Chemicals are not classified in the same way as natural hazards.
Also, Dangerous Goods/Chemicals are classified differently depending on whether they are
being stored or transported. Rules of 1989 have provided a list of 434 chemicals, which have
been declared as hazardous and toxic chemicals.
Dangerous Goods/Chemicals Accident Prediction
While there is no way to predict dangerous goods/chemical disasters, certain areas are
at some degree of risk, including those located near national highways, manufacturing,
storage or disposal facilities and nuclear power facilities. Prevention, rather than prediction
of disasters, is central to avoiding potential damage, loss, or other contamination from
hazardous materials. Also, planners while designing and establishing a new
chemical/hazardous materials industry should cater for possible risks through ‘Fault Tree
Analysis’.

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Chapter 3
Terrorism and Communal Riots
Terrorism
Of late a new category of disaster has been added into the already long list of
disasters plaguing India, namely, Terrorism. Terrorism can be defined as “ the unlawful use
of force or violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the
civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives.”
--FBI Definition
Terrorism remains one of the deadliest and most persistent threats to Indian
security. Although it can be argued that India once again holds the unique distinction of
having a variety of Flavours of Terrorism in the form of Militancy, Insurgency and
Separatism. However, for ease of understanding and better assimilation, only the subject
of Terrorism will be discussed as the character and modus operandi of the other three are
almost similar in nature to that of Terrorism.
The motives, perpetrators and methods of operation of terrorist groups in India
and the world over are evolving in ways that complicate analysis, collection of data of
their activities and to devise means of counter-Terrorist action. The rise of the new breed
of terrorist who is interested in inflicting mass death and destruction does not bode well
for the future security of Indian interests. These groups can strike at any time, anywhere,
spurred by seemingly unrelated events for which they judge innocent citizens to be
blameworthy. They have a widening global reach and a high degree of proficiency with
more sophisticated weapons and tactics.
Categories of Terrorism
There are two categories of terrorism:
 Domestic
 International.
Domestic terrorism involves groups or individuals whose activities, conducted
with or without foreign influence, are directed at elements of the Indian Government or
population.
International terrorism involves activity committed by foreign-based groups or
individuals who are either directed by countries or groups outside India or whose
activities transcend national boundaries.

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Terrorist groups generally are non-state-supported (either indigenous or
transnational), state-supported, or state-directed. Non-state supported terrorist groups are
autonomous and receive no significant support from a government. State-supported
groups generally operate independently but receive support from one or more
governments. Such support may include weapons, training, money, intelligence, or safe
havens. State-directed terrorist organizations act as agents of a government. Such groups
receive intelligence, logistics and operational support from the sponsoring government,
frequently through diplomatic missions. State-directed terrorism is potentially a deniable
and/or relatively inexpensive method of carrying out attacks against an enemy state or its
interests, such as the ‘Low Intensity Conflict’ being waged in Jammu and Kashmir and
the North – Eastern states of India by our neighbouring countries (to our immediate east
and west).
Terrorist Groups Operating in India
The greatest terrorist threat to India today comes from fundamentalist Islamic
extremist groups and to a lesser extent from the various militant factions operating in the
North East. Some of these groups, such as the Pakistani based Lashkar e Taiba, Hizbul
Mujahhidin, Harkat ul Ansar etc. in Jammu & Kashmir, National Socialist Council of
Nagaland(IM)[NSCN (IM)],United Liberation Front of Asom(ULFA) etc. in the North
East fit the traditional terrorist mould. These groups have hierarchical structures and
receive support from state sponsors. A new Islamic threat is on the rise as a result of the
activities of ad hoc terrorist groups in the Southern parts of the country. These groups are
even more dangerous in many ways than the traditional groups because they lack a well-
established organizational identity and they tend to decentralize and compartmentalize
their activities. They are capable of producing sophisticated conventional weapons, as
well as chemical and biological agents. They are also less constrained by state sponsors
or other benefactors than more traditional terrorist organizations. These new groups seek
to punish India by inflicting heavy civilian casualties. Some groups such as the Students
Islamic Movement of India (SIMI) are actively engaged in such activities. The recent
bombings of Railway stations, Churches, temples and other places with large
concentration of population in Maharastra, Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu and Karnataka
are a case in point.
Both the traditional groups and the newer, ad hoc groups have increased their
capability to attack Indian interests. The groups are well funded and some have
developed sophisticated international support networks that provide them great freedom
of movement and increase their opportunities to attack Indian interests on a global basis.
These groups are also attracting more qualified cadres with greater technical skills.
Several groups have established supporting infrastructures within India and abroad, such
as Pakistan, Bangladesh, the United States and Britain that provide financial, logistics,
operational and intelligence support. Although, there is no evidence that these groups are
centrally coordinated, it does appear that they collaborate in terrorist actions. Evidence
gathered by various Indian and International intelligence agencies, shows that leaders or
representatives of different Islamic fundamentalist groups were funded by Pakistan and

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various Persian Gulf donors to perpetuate acts of violence on innocent civilians in India.
Tactics used by Terrorists
Terrorists generally adopt by default six basic types of tactics, namely:
hijackings, kidnappings, bombings, assassinations, armed assaults and barricade-hostage
incidents. A group's objectives and organizational capabilities dictate which tactics it
uses. Terrorist organizations typically use hijackings, kidnapping and barricade-hostage
incidents when the group wishes to force the targeted party or government into
negotiations. The terrorist group frequently is able to obtain the release of prisoners or
extort money. Such incidents increase the level of risk to the terrorist organization and
require a mature planning, operations, logistics and intelligence capability to successfully
conduct the operation. On the other hand, bombings, assassinations and armed assaults
are less risky and generally require less organizational capabilities. These tactics tend to
be used to accomplish the following goals:
1. Create a climate of fear in a targeted group or nation through a sustained
campaign of violence
2. Retaliate for previous incidents or situations affecting the terrorist
organization or its causes
3. Negatively affect processes that the terrorist organization sees as against
its interests
4. Eliminate specific individuals or groups
Attaining the terrorist organization's goals depends on receiving adequate
information for planning and executing an operation.
Terrorist Goals
Terrorist groups intend their terrorist activities to have an emotional impact on the
target audience, causing it to act in a manner that furthers the group's objectives and
goals. Terrorist operations generally are categorized in terms of their associated goals.
These goals traditionally can be divided into five distinct phases:
 Recognition phase
 Coercion phase
 Intimidation phase
 Provocation phase
 Insurgency support phase
Early in their life span, terrorist groups often carry out attacks designed to gain
recognition. The objective of these attacks is national and/or international attention for
the group and its stated goals or objectives. Groups often mount such attacks, which may
involve protracted hostage seizures, hijacking etc against highly visible symbols of state
control (e.g., national airlines). Groups intend coercion attacks to force individuals,

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organizations, or governments to act in a desired manner. Using this strategy, terrorists
selectively target facilities with the intent of bringing increasing pressure to bear on the
targeted activity. Terrorist attacks designed primarily to intimidate are a means of
preventing organizations or governments from acting in a defined manner. Provocation
attacks aim to force government security forces to take repressive action against the
general populace. These attacks generally are against critical infrastructures, popular or
high profile individuals, or important facilities. The goal of these attacks is to
demonstrate the weakness of the legitimate government, thus causing an uncoordinated
backlash. If the security forces/government succumbs to the provocative trap laid down
by the Terrorists in the Provocation phase (which generally is the case), then the
victimized population will ease into the Insurgency Support phase as they now start to
sympathise with the Terrorists.
Terrorism Trends: World in general, India in particular
In addition to Terrorists becoming more violent, terrorist groups also have
expanded the range of targets that they consider legitimate. Brian Jenkins, formerly the
director of the Rand Corporation's Program on Subnational Conflict, has postulated three
reasons for this trend:
 First, as generational replacement has occurred in terrorist organizations, new
leaders have become less concerned with ideological constraints and adverse
public opinion. As a result, they are more willing to use excessively violent or
shocking tactics.
 Second, leaders desire to maintain media attention. Limited acts of terrorism
repeated over time have failed to gain desired media attention. To receive
attention, terrorists have escalated the level of violence and have used bolder,
more shocking tactics designed to force the media and the public to pay
attention to the terrorist group and its demands.
 Finally, the internal dynamics of terrorist groups require that the organization
move inexorably toward its goals. Increasingly violent tactics allow group
members to perceive that they are increasingly powerful and are likely to
achieve their objectives.
Data gathered from 1968 to 1990 substantiates the trend that the number of
terrorist groups is increasing and that groups are also more violent. In 1990, there were
70 active terrorist groups throughout the world, compared to 11 identifiable groups in
1968. Although the number of terrorist incidents identified in the 1980s increased by only
one-third over those identified in the 1970s, the level of violence increased dramatically.
In the 1980s, the number of deaths worldwide attributed to terrorism doubled. There was
a 75 percent increase in the number of terrorist incidents resulting in fatalities, a 115
percent increase in incidents resulting in 5 or more deaths and a 135 percent increase in
incidents resulting in 10 or more deaths. Pinkerton Risk Assessment Services, an
organization that tracks terrorist incidents, recorded an unprecedented 5,404 terrorist
incidents in 1992, resulting in over 10,000 deaths. These incidents represent an 11

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percent increase over 1991 figures. Part of this pattern is attributable to the growth of
religious terrorism. Religious terrorists differ from traditional ideological terrorists in that
the former are willing to sacrifice to obtain their objective. Consequently, religious
terrorists are more likely to use indiscriminate violence. They see themselves as involved
in a total war in which there are no innocent parties. In determining operational matters,
religious terrorists also are largely unconcerned with public opinion.
Some terrorist groups are evolving into new organizational structures that are
harder to detect and infiltrate. These terrorist groups are often a collection of factions
with common interests. Accordingly, the groups form, change and regroup in response to
specific agendas or planned actions. The groups tend to be religious or ethnic
organizations that often have major grievances with the government of India. The
extremist factions of Islamic fundamentalist groups that are currently emerging fit this
pattern. While many are funded by Pakistan or supported by some Arab countries, some
emerging groups are not controlled or directed by these states. Instead, they tend to be
autonomous in their planning and decision-making functions. There may be dozens of
such groups in India waiting for the opportunity to strike. The large numbers of these
groups as well as their lack of central direction and changing organizational structures,
make them very difficult to crack.
Finally, a trend may be developing regarding a sponsoring state's use of terrorists
to conduct a proxy war against India. Terrorist groups offer the sponsoring state a
deniable method to attack primary Indian interests. In turn, sponsoring states would
provide terrorist groups with funding, access to weapons and advanced technologies,
intelligence, target planning support, logistics support and secure communications. In
times of crisis or conflict, the use of terrorists as proxies is the aspect of terrorism that
appears to be the most dangerous to Indian interests because attacks could be directed at
facilities critical to force mobilization or crisis management for e.g. the serial Bombay
Bomb blasts in 1991.
Prediction of Terrorist Attacks
To succeed, terrorist operations require detailed information for planning and
executing an attack. Many of these organizations have access to intelligence produced by
sponsor states or have the ability to produce intelligence required for an attack. Proactive
intelligence operations by security forces can be used to deny adversaries information on
the movements of key personnel, or the identity and vulnerabilities of critical facilities.
Improved methods of intelligence collection can assist security agencies in determining
the best security approach to be adopted to protect against terrorist attacks based upon
assessed risk levels. An efficient intelligence network, combining the country’s
intelligence agencies, to ensure that information is gathered and exchanged at the earliest,
will ensure that terrorists are denied the critical information required to plan an attack and
will also aid in the implementation of security countermeasures that are commensurate
with the assessed level of risk.

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Communal Riots
India in the past has been a victim to countless instances of communal riots.
During such incidents, one of the most troubling aspects is the level of violence. While
all riots tend to be destructive, extremely high levels of violence mark communal riots,
often resulting in numerous deaths as well as maiming, looting and destruction of
property owned by the ethnic group targeted by the rioters. However, in understanding
the causes of communal riots, researchers have often tended to place too much emphasis
on rioters using riot as a tool to seek redress for perceived socio-economic or political
grievances. Instead, two main aspects better describe the dynamics governing the size,
brutality and virulence of communal riots: (Horowitz)
 "Lucid madness." Although communal riots often suddenly erupt into
violence Horowitz pointed out, study has indicated that such riots are not
unplanned. To the contrary, his research has shown that while riots may take
on the tone of an "orgy of killing" they also include a high degree of rational
planning - deadly mix of passion and calculation. Targets for violence are
often carefully selected and rioters have even been found to plan traps for
specific individuals or to devise strategies to maximize causalities and damage
to the targeted ethnic group.
 Emotion, insecurity and rumors. Building on his previous point, Horowitz
argued that an insidious combination of anxiety and hatred were a significant
motivator for many rioters. In particular, he noted that his research has
discovered that rumors had frequently played a major role in motivating
crowds. They were almost always framed in a way that the rioters saw their
actions as a necessary preemptive action or strike against a plan or action by
the rival ethnic group. Ironically, Horowitz explained, as these rumors were
nearly always baseless, the actions of the rioters frequently created a self-
fulfilling prophecy. The rioters overestimated the threat and took
disproportionate action; thereby creating a threat where it didn't exist when the
victimized ethnic group subsequently responded in the wake of the riot.
Why do People Participate in Communal Riots?
One question often nagging experts was to the trigger mechanism that was
needed to goad perfectly rational people to embark on a wanton destructive spree. It has
now been found that four main elements are needed to actively induce individuals to join
in a communal riot:
 A sense of reduced personal risk. Contrary to popular opinion, studies
consistently show that rioters tend to be rational decision makers. Participants
in communal riots use a rational decision-making process where they seek to
maximize destruction while minimizing personal risk. Therefore, rioters seek
to attack "strong targets at weak moments" when there is a reduced risk of

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punishment by government agencies or retaliation by the targeted ethnic
group.
 A sense of personal justification. Most rioters see themselves as "heroes"
defending their ethnic group. People participating in communal riots often find it
personally gratifying. Rioters not only see their cause as righteous, but as an act
of defense (even if preemptively) against perceived imminent and grave threat.
 An intense emotional response to a recent event. It has also been seen that
not only in such cases did "aggression feel good," for the rioters but it often
was also rooted in a negative response to recent events. This creates an
opportunity for the rioters to not only see their actions as heroic, but also as an
opportunity to correct a perceived social, economic, or political wrong against
their own ethnic group. Thereby communal riots provide an opportunity for
the release of built-up group or communal tensions and anger.
 An inherently suspicious and hostile relationship with the other ethnic
group. Research has indicated that rioters in general share hatred of the
targeted ethnic group. This usually is manifested by an obsessive type of
ethnic hatred where the rioters believe that all members of the targeted ethnic
group think the same way on socio-economic and political issues and
therefore felt a general sense of repulsion of the ethnic group as a whole.
Examining Civil Society and Ethnic Riots
In examining the relationships and social structures within multiethnic societies, it
has been seen that the viability of intra and inter ethnic social networks has played an
important role in how susceptible the society has been to lethal communal riots. More
specifically, it has been indicated that societies without strong inter ethnic social
structures were more prone to ethnic violence. Elaborating upon the importance of inter
ethnic social structures in defusing ethnic tensions, it has been proved by researchers that
both formal organized associations (such as professional associations or unions) and
informal or neighbourhood-level associations (such as book or sports clubs) tend to be
helpful. However, research has also found that more formal organized social structures
appear to be able to better withstand ethnic tensions because these types of organization
not only provide for stronger personal and professional bonds between individuals in
different ethnic groups, but also provide for important informal channels of inter ethnic
communication. (Varshney)
Civil Society Structures – Tool to Combat Ethnic Violence
To understand how civil society structures could be used effectively to help lessen
ethnic violence, social scientists and researchers had examined the elements in multi
ethnic societies that have been prone to violent ethnic violence and riots as well as those
that have been able to weather such tensions largely peacefully. Yet although these
researchers had clearly found a link between inter ethnic civil society structures and

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lower incidences of ethnic violence, it was observed with concern that civil society tools
were frequently under utilized as a tool to combat ethnic tensions, whereas it can be
argued that civil society reforms have already proven in several cases to be a valuable
tool in defusing some of the underlying elements that serve to create an atmosphere
where communal riots are likely to occur.
For example, research of cities in India which have proven to be less riot prone
indicates that the inter ethnic bonds and communication structures facilitated by
organized professional associations have proven to be a valuable tool in stopping rumors
before they reach critical mass within the community. Such social structures have also
been shown to provide a vital unofficial channel of communication to leaders and opinion
makers in both ethnic communities that can be used in crisis management. Research
indicates that neighbourhood-level social structures can provide an important opportunity
for everyday inter ethnic interaction that is helpful in combating perceptions by
individuals that all members of a certain ethnic group think or felt the same way about
controversial social, religious, economic, or political issues.
In conclusion, it is emphasized that the type of civil society mechanisms
described do not occur naturally in areas with very strict ethnic division lines, active
facilitation is needed by the state or other actors. It is also stressed that while it is not
possible to completely eliminate ethnic conflict, the proper application of such civil
society tools can help reduce and manage ethnic violence in multi ethnic societies.

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Chapter 4
Disaster and its Impact On Infrastructure
Introduction
When a disaster occurs, it has a cascading effect because of its impact on the
infrastructure: transportation, utilities, communications systems, fuel supplies and water
suppliesthe services and delivery systems on which we depend. When one of these
important elements in our support system breaks down, it has a domino effect, causing other
elements to falter. When multiple elements break down, the effect can be crippling. Some
of the ways in which the infrastructure can be affected in a disaster or emergency are shown
below.
Service Effect
Transportation Inability to get emergency service
personnel into the affected
area.Inability to transport victims
away from the area.
Electrical Increased risk of fire and electrical
shock.
Possible disruption to transportation
system if
downed lines are across roads.
Telephone Lost contact between victims, service
providers and family members.
System overload due to calls from or
to friends or relatives
Water Disruption of service to homes,
businesses and medical providers.
Inadequate water supply for
firefighting.
Increased risk to public health if there
is extensive damage to the water
supply or if it becomes contaminated.

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Fuel Supplies Increased risk of fire or explosion
from ruptured fuel lines.
Risk of asphyxiation from natural gas
leaks in confined
areas.
Emergency Services
Each instance of damage to the infrastructure may severely restrict the abilities of
police, fire and paramedic/medical services to provide service following a disaster. Some
types of damage and their effects on emergency services are shown in the table 9.1 below.
Type Of Damage Effect On Emergency Services
Road
 Inability to assess damage accurately.
 Ambulances prevented from reaching victims and/or victims prevented from
reaching emergency medical services.
 Police prevented from reaching areas of civil unrest.
 Fire departments prevented from getting to fires.
 Flow of needed supplies is interrupted.
Structural  Damaged hospitals unable to receive patients.
 Increased risk of damage from falling debris.
Disrupted Communication  Victims unable to call for help.
 Coordination of services is hampered.
Fuel Line Damage  Fire and paramedic services overburdened.
Disrupted Water Service  Firefighting capabilities restricted.
 Medical facilities hampered.
Table 4.1. Possible Effects Of Damage On Emergency Service Providers
Service Priorities
As emergency services are likely to have inadequate resources to meet the needs in a
disaster situation, these resources must be applied according to highest priority need:
 Police/Law Enforcement agencies: Establish order and safe ingress/egress
to and from the disaster area.
 Fire: Suppression of major fires.
 Paramedic/Medical Service: Life-threatening injuries.

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 Disaster Relief Workers: Assistance to victims
Lower priority needs may have to be met in other ways.
Structural And Nonstructural Hazards due to Disasters
During and following a disaster, damage to building structures presents one of the
greatest hazards. Damage will vary according to the type of disaster, the type and age of the
structure and location in relation to the disaster center. The following is an overview of
disaster hazards related to building structures and their contents.
Hazards Related To Structural Type
High-Rise And Apartment Buildings
Engineered buildings, such as most high-rise structures, have performed well in
earthquakes, bomb attacks and other disasters. Older high-rise buildings with steel and
concrete construction are more susceptible to damage than the newer ones, which use
curtain construction and prefabricated panels. Primary hazards in and around high-rise
buildings include:
 Broken glass.
 Falling panels.
Hazards in and around apartment buildings depend largely on the age and condition of the
structure. Hazards may include:
 Collapsing walkways and stairways.
 Crumbling cornices and other trim.
 Broken glass.
Independent Homes
Age, type of construction and type of disaster are major factors in potential damage to
independent homes and garages. Older homes constructed of unreinforced brick are less
stable than newer construction. Porches without support beams may collapse. Damage to
single homes from earthquakes, Tropical Cyclones and floods can range from little damage
to total destruction, e.g. Latur and Gujarat earthquakes. Following a disaster event, there is
the potential for further collapse and fire due to ruptured gas lines, short circuit etc.

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Thatched/Semi Thatched Homes
When thatched and semi thatched homes are displaced in a disaster (whether
earthquake, storm, flood, or other), it may lead to large-scale fires hazards esp. during
earthquakes and storms.
Other Public Places
Shopping arcades, sports arenas, airports, places of worship and other places where
people gather may pose hazards in some types of disasters. For example, in an earthquake,
terrorist attacks; bomb blasts, overhead structures may collapse or widespread panic in large
crowds can result in casualties.
Hazards Related to Nonstructural Type
Fixtures and items within a home, garage, or office can pose hazards during or after a
disaster event. The following are examples of some of the nonstructural hazards that may
be encountered:
 Gas line ruptures from cooking ranges displaced by shock or water.
 Damage from falling books, dishes, or other cabinet contents.
 Risk of injury or electric shock from displaced appliances and office equipment.
 Hazardous products within reach of children.

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Chapter 5
Disaster Hazard Mitigation for
Natural and Manmade Disasters
Introduction
Regardless of the event or the amount of warning offered, there are safety precautions
that one can take to reduce or prevent injury. These measures include:
 Personal safety.
 Home and worksite preparation.
 Community preparation.
Personal Safety
The personal safety measures that one takes depends on the circumstances one finds
himself/herself in. Precautions for natural hazards are shown in preceding pages.
Earthquake
Before
 Have a home earthquake plan and know what to do after the earthquake occurs.
 Have a plan for reuniting all family members after an earthquake occurs.
 Have an out-of-state family phone contact.
 Have supplies on hand including water, a torch, a portable radio, food, a fire
extinguisher and tools.
 Bolt bookshelves, cabinets and other heavy furniture that is likely to fall during
the event.
 Move beds away from windows.
During
 Move pictures and other hanging objects away from beds.
 Keep a pair of shoes/slippers next to your bed to avoid stepping on glass and other
debris.
 Drop, cover and hold.
 Get under a heavy table or desk and hold on, or sit or stand against an inside wall.
 Keep away from windows.

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After
If indoors, stay there.
 If outdoors, stay outdoors away from falling debris, trees and power lines.
 If in your car, drive to a clear spot and stay in the car. Avoid stopping on or under
flyovers/bridges etc.
 Do not use elevators.
 Expect aftershocks. These are just as serious as the main earthquake.
 Put on shoes to protect from broken glass.
 Check for injuries and fires.
 Use a torch to inspect your residence for damage including gas, water and
electrical lines and appliances.
 If you smell gas or if there is a fire, turn off the main gas valve/regulator. Switch
off individual circuit breakers (or pullout individual fuses), and then switch off the
main circuit breaker (or pullout the main fuse).
 Do not go into damaged areas.
 Do not use telephones except in emergencies.
 Do not use vehicles except in emergencies.
 Use a portable radio for information.
 Evacuate if your home is unsafe
Tropical Cyclones
Before
 Know the risks of the area, the evacuation routes and the location of shelters.
 Have a home cyclone plan of action.
 Know what a cyclone “watch” and “warning” means.
[Note: A cyclone watch means a cyclone may hit your area. A cyclone warning
means such a cyclone is headed for your area.]
 Have a portable radio and torch, as well as other supplies.
 Ensure that enough nonperishable food and water supplies are on hand to last for
at least 2 weeks.
 Flood proof your home.
 Keep trees trimmed.
 Review your insurance policy to ensure that it provides adequate coverage.
During
Watch Phase (24-48 hours before landfall):
 Board up all windows.
 Fill your car’s tank and prepare to evacuate.
 Check batteries and stock up on canned/dry food, medical supplies and drinking
water.
 Bring in outside objects (e.g., garbage cans, lawn furniture, bicycles).
 Listen to the advice of local officials and evacuate if told to do so.

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Warning Phase (24 hours or less before landfall):
 Listen to the advice of local officials and evacuate if told to do so.
 If you are not advised to evacuate, stay indoors and away from windows.
 Stay away from floodwaters; never drive through them.
 Be aware of the calm “eye”; the storm is not over.
 Be ALERT for more dangers
After
 Wait until an area is declared safe before entering
 Use a torch to inspect for damage including gas, water and electrical lines and
appliances.
 Stay away from downed power lines.
 If you smell gas or if there is a fire, turn off the main gas valve/regulator. Switch
off individual circuit breakers (or pullout individual fuses) and then switch off the
main circuit breaker (or pullout the main fuse).
 Do not use telephones except in emergencies.
 Use a portable radio for information.
Flood
Before
 Know the flood risk and the elevation of the area.
 Prepare a home flood evacuation or escape plan.
 Get flood insurance, if available.
 Keep insurance papers, important documents and other valuables in a safe-deposit
box.
 Know what a flood and a flash flood “watch” and “warning” mean. [Note: A
flood watch means a slow rising flood is possible for your area. A flood warning
means flooding is already occurring or will occur soon in your area. A flash flood
watch means there is a chance that flashes flooding could occur anytime within
the next few hours. A flash flood warning means you may only have seconds to
evacuate to higher ground.]
 Have a family plan and choose a safe area in advance.
 Have a portable radio, torch and emergency supplies.
During
Watch Phase (2-3 days for flood; 2-12 hours for flash flood):
 Sandbag windows and doors.
 Move furniture and other items to higher levels.
 Fill your car’s tank.
 Listen to radio or TV for up-to-the-minute information.

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Warning Phase (24-48 hours for flood; 0-1 hour or flash flood):
 Use telephones only for life-threatening emergencies.
 Evacuate, if necessary and follow instructions.
 Do not walk or drive through floodwaters.
 Stay off bridges where water is covering them.
 Heed barricades blocking roads.
 Keep away from waterways during heavy rain. If you are in a valley area and hear a
warning, get out of your car and get to high ground immediately.
 Keep out of storm drains and irrigation ditches.
After
 Listen to a portable radio for information.
 Boil drinking water before using (rolling boil for 10 minutes). Wells should be
pumped out and the water tested for purity before drinking.
 Use a torch to check for damage including gas, water and electrical lines and
appliances.
 If you smell gas or if there is a fire, turn off the main gas valve. Switch off
individual circuit breakers (or pullout individual fuses), and then switch off the
main circuit breaker (or pullout the main fuse).
 Stay out of the disaster area.
 Do not use telephones except in emergencies.
 Do not use vehicles except in emergencies.
Handling Chemicals
Prevention of injury from hazardous materials in the home especially in rural India,
where farming activity involves the usage and handling of farm related chemicals and
pesticides is routine, chiefly lies in proper storage and handling. A simple acronym for safe
storage procedures is Q.S.D.S. (Quantity, Storage, Disposal, Separation)
 Quantity Limit the quantity of hazardous materials in storage.
 Storage Isolate products in approved containers, store them inside closed
cabinets and protect them from sources of ignition. Keep containers in storage
tightly covered.
 Disposal Dispose products that are no longer necessary by disposing off
them properly.
 Separation Separate incompatible materials (e.g., chlorine products and
sulphuric - acid).
When handling hazardous materials, be sure to:
 Read the warnings on product labels.
 Use the safety precautions (e.g., gloves, goggles, or breathing mask) recommended
by the manufacturer.

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 Limit contact to the degree possible.
If you are not sure of the product with which you are dealingor if the product
produces a noxious odor, smoke, or steamleave the area immediately. Call the local
emergency service operator [usually 100(police), 101(fire), 102(Ambulance)] and observe
the material from uphill, upwind and at a distance until qualified personnel arrive. If
necessary, enlist the help of neighbours to warn others of the danger. If evacuation is
required, evacuate to an upwind location. Moving uphill and upwind will prevent
reintroduction to the hazard via the wind.
Preparation for Potential Terrorist Attacks/Communal Riots
Devastating acts, such as the series of bomb blasts at residential areas, public places,
e.g. Delhi, Mumbai, Jammu & Kashmir, seizure of temples e.g. Akshardham in Gujarat, etc.
have left many concerned about the possibility of future incidents in India and their potential
impact. They have raised uncertainty about what might happen next, thus increasing stress
levels. Nevertheless, there are things that can be done to prepare for the unexpected and
reduce the stress that one may feel now and later should another emergency arise. Taking
preparatory action can reassure an individual and his/her family, by instilling in them a spirit
of self-confidence, by exerting a measure of control even in the face of such events.
How To Prepare Oneself
Finding out what can happen is the first step. Once it has been determined that
disastrous events are possible and their potential of their occurrence in a community is high,
it is important that individuals discuss them with their family or household. Develop a
disaster/emergency plan together.
 Create an emergency contact plan. Choose an out-station contact your family or
household can call or e-mail to check on each other should a disaster/emergency
occur. Your selected contact should live location that the probability of them being
affected by the same disaster would be unlikely and they should know they are the
chosen contact. Make sure every household member has that contact's and each
other's, e-mail addresses and telephone numbers (home, work and cell). Leave
these contact numbers at your children's schools, if you have children, and at your
workplace. Your family should know that if telephones are not working, they need
to be patient and try again later or try e-mail. Many people flood the telephone
lines when emergencies happen but e-mail can sometimes get through when calls
don't.
 Fix a meeting place (Rendezvous). Having a predetermined meeting place away
from your home will save time and minimize confusion should your home be
affected or the area evacuated. You may even want to make arrangements to stay
with a family member or friend in case of an emergency. Be sure to include any
pets in these plans, since pets are not permitted in shelters and most hotels will not
accept them.

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 Prepare a disaster supplies kit. If you need to evacuate your home or a Curfew is
imposed, having some essential supplies on hand will make you and your family
more comfortable. Prepare a disaster supplies kit in an easy-to-carry container such
as a Rucksack or suitcase. Include "special needs" items for any member of your
household (infant food or items for people with disabilities or older people), first
aid supplies (including prescription medications), a change of clothing for each
household member, a sleeping bag or bedroll for each, a battery powered radio and
extra batteries, food, bottled water and tools. It is also a good idea to include some
cash and copies of important family documents (birth certificates, passports and
licenses) in your kit. Copies of essential documents-like powers of attorney, birth
and marriage certificates, insurance policies, life insurance beneficiary
designations and a copy of your will-should also be kept in a safe location outside
your home. A safe deposit box or the home of a friend or family member who lives
out of town is a good choice.
 Check on the school emergency plan of school-age children if any. You need to
know if they will keep children at school until a parent or designated adult can pick
them up or send them home on their own. Be sure that the school has updated
information about how to reach parents and responsible caregivers to arrange for
pickup. Ask what type of authorization the school may require to release a child to
someone you designate, if you are not able to pick up your child. During times of
emergency the school telephones may be overwhelmed with calls. However, in
India most of the schools lack a disaster management plan as disasters are
considered a rare possibility, also, the lack of a formal Disaster Management
education contributes to the mindset. The Education Ministry authorities should
hence make it mandatory for all schools and colleges to have a
disaster/emergency plan and the same should be added to the students’
curriculum and be rehearsed on a monthly basis.
When Disaster Strikes
When disaster strikes in the form of a bomb blast, communal riot or if manifested in
any other form that could prove to be dangerous to the community in general and your
family in particular, adhering to the following basic suggestions would go a long way in
saving you from the impending event:
 Remain calm and be patient.
 Follow the advice of local police/emergency officials.
 Listen to your radio or television for news and instructions.
 If the disaster occurs near you, check for injuries. Give first aid and get help for
seriously injured people.
 If the disaster occurs near your home while you are there, check for damage using
a torch. Do not light matches or candles or turn on electrical switches. Check for
fires, fire hazards and other household hazards. Sniff for gas leaks, if you smell gas
or suspect a leak, turn off the main gas valve, open windows, and get everyone
outside quickly.

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 Shut off any other damaged utilities.
 Confine or secure your pets.
 Call your family contact—do not use the telephone again unless it is a life-
threatening emergency.
 Check on your neighbours, especially those who are elderly or disabled.
Lessons from the past….
As is learnt from the events of the serial bomb blasts in New Delhi, Mumbai, Jammu
and Kashmir or communal conflagrations in Gujarat or after the Babri Masjid demolition,
the following things can happen/expected to happen:
 There can be significant numbers of casualties and/or damage to buildings and the
infrastructure. Contact office/employers so that up-to-date information about any
medical needs you may have and on how to contact your designated beneficiaries
can be conveyed to you.
 Heavy law enforcement involvement at local, state and National levels follows a
terrorist attack/communal riot due to the event's criminal nature.
 Health and mental health resources in the affected communities can be strained to
their limits, maybe even overwhelmed.
 Extensive media coverage, strong public fear and international implications and
consequences can continue for a prolonged period.
 Workplaces and schools may be closed, and there may be restrictions on domestic
and international travel.
 You and your family or household may have to evacuate an area, avoiding roads
blocked for your safety.
 Clean up may take many months.
 Usually after a terrorist attack tensions may flare up leading to Communal violence
and large scale riots.
Evacuation of affected Area
If local police/emergency authorities ask you to leave your home, they have a good
reason to make this request, and you should heed the advice immediately. Listen to your
radio or television and follow the instructions of local police/emergency officials and keep
these simple tips in mind:-
 Wear long-sleeved shirts, long pants/salwar kameez and sturdy shoes so you can be
protected as much as possible as also this will aid in quicker mobility.
 Take your disaster supplies kit.
 Take your pets with you; do not leave them behind. Because pets are not permitted
in public shelters, follow your plan to go to a relative's or friend's home.
 Lock your home.

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 Use travel routes specified by local authorities—don't use shortcuts because certain
areas may be impassable or dangerous.
 Stay away from downed power lines.
Heed to local authorities advise.
Your local authorities will provide you with the most accurate information specific to
an event in your area. Staying tuned to local radio and television and following their
instructions is your safest choice.
If you're sure you have time:
 Call your family contact to tell them where you are going and when you expect to
arrive.
 Shut off water, gas and electricity before leaving.
Curfew
If a curfew is imposed in your area, what they mean is for you to remain inside your
home or office and protect yourself there. Close and lock all windows and exterior doors.
Get your disaster supplies kit, and make sure the radio is working. Go to an interior room
without windows. Keep listening to your radio or television until you are told all is safe or
you are told to evacuate. Local officials may call for evacuation in specific areas at greatest
risk in your community.
Additional Positive Steps
Raw, unedited footage of terrorism events and people's reaction to those events can be
very upsetting, especially to children. It is not recommend that children watch television
news reports about such events, especially if the news reports show images over and over
again about the same incident. Young children do not realize that it is repeated video
footage, and think the event is happening again and again. Adults may also need to give
themselves a break from watching disturbing footage. However, listening to local radio and
television reports will provide you with the most accurate information from responsible
governmental authorities on what's happening and what actions you will need to take. Some
arrangements to take turns listening to the news with other adult members of your household
could be made.
Another useful preparation includes learning some basic first aid. In an emergency
situation, you would need to tend to your own well being first and then consider first aid for
others immediately around you, including possibly assisting injured people to evacuate a
building if necessary.

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People who may have come into contact with a biological or chemical agent may need
to go through a decontamination procedure and receive medical attention. Listen to the
advice of local officials on the radio or television to determine what steps you will need to
take to protect yourself and your family. As emergency services will likely be overwhelmed,
only call 100 or 102 for life-threatening emergencies.
First Aid (International Red Cross Procedure)
If you encounter someone who is injured, apply the emergency action steps: Check-
Call-Care.
 Check the scene to make sure it is safe for you to approach. Then check the victim
for unconsciousness and life-threatening conditions. Someone who has a life-
threatening condition, such as not breathing or severe bleeding, requires immediate
care by trained responders and may require treatment by medical professionals.
 Call out for help.
 Care for someone who is hurt till professional help arrives.
Control Bleeding
o Cover the wound with a dressing, and press firmly against the wound (direct
pressure).
o Elevate the injured area above the level of the heart if you do not suspect that the
victim has a broken bone.
o Cover the dressing with a roller bandage.
o If the bleeding does not stop:
o Apply additional dressings and bandages.
o Use a pressure point to squeeze the artery against the bone.
o Provide care for shock.
Care for Shock
o Keep the victim from getting chilled or overheated.
o Elevate the legs about 12 inches (if broken bones are not suspected).
o Do not give food or drink to the victim.
Tend Burns
o Stop the burning by cooling the burn with large amounts of water.
o Cover the burn with dry, clean dressings or cloth.

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Care for Injuries to Muscles, Bones and Joints
o Rest the injured part.
o Apply ice or a cold pack to control swelling and reduce pain.
o Avoid any movement or activity that causes pain.
o If you must move the victim because the scene is becoming unsafe, try to
immobilize the injured part to keep it from moving.
Be Aware of Biological/Radiological Exposure
Listen to local radio and television reports for the most accurate information from
responsible governmental and medical authorities on what's happening and what actions you
will need to take.
Reduce Any Care Risks
The risk of getting a disease while giving first aid is extremely rare. However, to
reduce the risk even further:
o Avoid direct contact with blood and other body fluids.
o Use protective equipment, such as disposable gloves and breathing barriers.
o Thoroughly wash your hands with soap and water immediately after giving care.
It is important to be prepared for an emergency and to know how to give emergency
care.

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Chapter 6
Home and Worksite Preparations -
Assembling and Storing Survival Supplies in
Anticipation of a Potential Disaster
Preparedness is the key to survival in a disaster or emergency. Individuals, families
and worksites can take steps that will help minimize structural and nonstructural hazards
during a disaster, facilitate escape and promote survival in the period immediately following
the event.
Reducing Structural And Nonstructural Hazards
Many injuries from structural and nonstructural hazards are easily preventable. Some
steps that you can take to reducing structural and nonstructural hazards are shown in the
table 6.1 below.
Type Of Hazard Precautions
Structural  Re-inforce/Retro-fit older houses.
 Board or place protective tape on windows and glass doors to minimize flying glass.
 Consult local architect for suitable disaster proof design if located in high-risk zone.
 Check standard/quality of materials used in construction when moving into an
apartment.
Nonstructural  Anchor such furniture as bookshelves, cabinets and grandfather clocks to the wall.
 Secure appliances and office equipment in place with industrial-strength Velcro7.
 Secure cabinet doors with childproof fasteners.
 Locate and label gas, electricity and water shut-offs before disasters occur. After a
disaster, shut off the utilities as needed to prevent fires and other risks. Store a shut-
off wrench where it will be immediately available.
 Invest in a portable fire extinguisher.
Table 6.1.Precautions Against Structural And Nonstructural Hazards
You can cope best by preparing for disaster before it strikes. One way to prepare is by
assembling a Disaster Supplies Kit. Once disaster hits, you won’t have time to shop or
search for supplies. But if you’ve gathered supplies in advance, you and your family can
endure an evacuation or home confinement.
Kit Preparation
 Review the checklist given in the following pages.

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 Gather the supplies/alternatives that are listed.
 Place the supplies you need for an evacuation in an easy-to-carry bag/container.
These supplies are listed with an asterisk (*).
Water
Store water in plastic containers such as soft drink bottles. Avoid using containers that
will decompose or break, such as milk cartons or glass bottles. A normally active person
needs to drink at least 2.5 litres of water each day. Hot environments and intense physical
activity can double that amount. Children, nursing mothers and ill people will need more.
 Store 5 litres of water per person per day (2.5 ltrs for drinking, 2.5 ltrs for food
preparation/sanitation.)*
 Keep at least a 3-day supply of water for each person in your household.
If you have questions about the quality of the water, purify it before drinking. You can
heat water to a rolling boil for 10 minutes or use commercial purification tablets to purify
the water. You can also use household liquid chlorine bleach if it is pure, unscented 5.25%
sodium hypochlorite. To purify water, use the following table as a guide:
WATER QUANTITY BLEACH ADDED
1 ltr
5 ltrs
20 ltrs
4 Drops
16 Drops
1 Teaspoon
6.2 Ratios For Purifying Water With Bleach
After adding bleach, shake or stir the water container and let it stand thirty minutes before
consumption.
Clothing And Bedding
*Include at least one complete change of clothing and footwear per person.
 Sturdy shoes or boots*
 Hat and gloves
 Thermal underwear
 Sunglasses
 Rain coat*
 Blankets or sleeping bags*

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Food
Store at least a 3-day supply of nonperishable food. Select foods that require no
refrigeration, preparation, or cooking and little or no water. If you must heat food, pack a
can of Kerosene and a small stove. Select food items that are compact and lightweight.
*Include a selection of the following foods in your Disaster Supplies Kit:
 Ready-to-eat canned meats, fruits and vegetables, noodles, Khasta poori
 Canned juices, milk, soup (if powdered, store extra water)
 Staplessugar, salt, pepper, masala
 High-energy foodsbutter/ghee, biscuits, chocolate bars etc
 Vitamins
 Foods for infants, elderly persons or persons on special diets
 Comfort/stress foodshome made sweets, hard candy, sweetened cereals,
lollipops, instant coffee, tea bags
First Aid Kit
Assemble a first aid kit for your home and one for car/cars. A first aid kit* should
include:
 Sterile adhesive bandages in assorted sizes
 2-inch sterile gauze pads (4-6)
 4-inch sterile gauze pads (4-6)
 Hypoallergenic adhesive tape
 Triangular bandages (3)
 Needle
 Moistened napkins
 Antiseptic
 Thermometer
 Tongue blades (2)
 Tube of petroleum jelly or other lubricant
 Assorted sizes of safety pins
 Cleaning agent/soap
 Latex gloves (2 pair)
 Sunscreen
 2-inch sterile roller bandages (3 rolls)
 3-inch sterile roller bandages (3 rolls)
 Scissors
 Tweezers
Nonprescription/prescription Drugs
 Aspirin or nonaspirin pain reliever