1. Basic Electro Mechanical
Mehran University College
Khairpur mirs
Department of Civil Engineering
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2. PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM
 Any characteristic of a system is called a property.
 Some familiar proper-ties are pressure P, temperature T, volume V, and mass m. The list
can be extended to include less familiar ones such as viscosity, thermal conductivity,
modulus of elasticity, thermal expansion coefficient, electric resistivity, and even velocity
and elevation
i. Intensive properties
Intensive properties are those that are independent of the mass of a system, such as
temperature, pressure, and density.
ii. Extensive properties
Extensive properties are those whose values depend on the size—or extent—of the
system. Total mass, total volume, and total momentum are some examples of extensive
properties.
STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM
 At a given state, all the properties of a system have fixed values.
 The word equilibrium implies a state of balance. In an equilibrium state there are no
unbalanced potentials (or driving forces) within the system. A system in equilibrium
experiences no changes when it is isolated from its surroundings.
 There are many types of equilibrium, and a system is not in thermodynamic
equilibrium unless the conditions of all the relevant types of equilibrium are satisfied.
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3. PROCESSES AND CYCLES
 Any change that a system undergoes from one
equilibrium state to another is called a
Process.
 The series of states through which a system
passes during a process is called the Path of
the process (Fig. 1–26)
 A system is said to have undergone a cycle if
it returns to its initial state at the end of the
process. That is, for a cycle the initial and final
states are identical.
STEADY-FLOW PROCESS
 The term steady implies no change with time.
 A large number of engineering devices operate for
long periods of time under the same conditions, and
they are classified as steady-flow devices .
 Processes involving such devices can be represented
reasonably well by a somewhat idealized process,
called the steady-flow process
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4. STEADY-FLOW PROCESS
 The term steady implies no change with time.
 A large number of engineering devices operate
for long periods of time under the same
conditions, and they are classified as steady-flow
devices .
 Processes involving such devices can be
represented reasonably well by a somewhat
idealized process, called the steady-flow process
 which can be defined as a process during which a
fluid flows through a control volume steadily
(Fig. 1–29).
 The fluid properties can change from point to
point within the control volume, but at any fixed
point they remain the same during the entire
process.
 Therefore, the volume V, the mass m, and the
total energy content E of the control volume
remain constant during a steady-flow process
(Fig. 1–30).
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5. Types of Processes
i. Isobaric i. Reversible
ii. Isochoric ii. Ireversible
iii. Isothermal
iv. Adiabatic
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6. or
or
Thus
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7. Thus
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8. Adiabatic Process
 A process during which there is no heat transfer is called an adiabatic process (Fig.
2–14). The word adiabatic comes from the Greek word adiabatos, which means not
to be passed.
 There are two ways a process can be adiabatic:
i. Either the system is well insulated so that only a negligible amount of heat can
pass through the boundary, T
ii. The system and the surroundings are at the same temperature and therefore
there is no driving force (temperature difference) for heat transfer.
 An adiabatic process should not be confused with an isothermal process. Even
though there is no heat transfer during an adiabatic process, the energy content and
thus the temperature of a system can still be changed by other means such as work.
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9. REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE PROCESSES
 Reversible process
 A reversible process is defined as a process that can be reversed without leaving any
change on the surroundings (Fig. 6–30).
 Both the system and the surroundings are returned to their initial states at the end of
the reverse process.
 This is possible only if the net heat and net work exchange between the system and the
surroundings is zero for the combined (original and reverse) process.
 Example: Once a cup of hot coffee cools, it will not heat up by retrieving the heat it
lost from the surroundings. If it could, the surroundings, as well as the system (coffee),
would be restored to their original condition, and this would be a reversible process.
 Engineers are interested in reversible processes because work-producing devices such as
car engines and gas or steam turbines deliver the most work, and work-consuming
devices such as compressors, fans, and pumps consume the least work when reversible
processes are used instead of irreversible ones (Fig. 6–31).
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10.  Irreversible processes
 Processes that are not reversible are called Irreversible processes.
The factors that cause a process to be irreversible are called irreversibilities.
i. Friction.
ii. Unrestrained expansion or uncontrolled expansion.
iii. Mixing of two fluids.
iv. Heat transfer across a finite temperature difference.
v. Electric resistance.
vi. Inelastic deformation of solids.
vii. Chemical reactions.
 The presence of any of these effects cause a process irreversible. A reversible process
involves none of these. Some of the frequently encountered irreversibilities are discussed
briefly below.
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11. Page 298 Cengel
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12. Internally and Externally Reversible Processes
 A process is called internally reversible if no irreversibility's
occur within the boundaries of the system during the process.
 During an internally reversible process, a system proceeds
through a series of equilibrium states, and when the process is
reversed, the system passes through exactly the same
equilibrium states while returning to its initial state.
 That is, the paths of the forward and reverse processes
coincide for an internally reversible process.
 The quasi-equilibrium process is an example of an internally
reversible process.
 A process is called externally reversible if no irreversibility's
occur out-side the system boundaries during the process. Heat
transfer between a reservoir and a system is an externally
reversible process if the outer surface of the system is at the
temperature of the reservoir..
 A process is called totally reversible, or simply reversible, if it
involves no irreversibility's within the system or its
surroundings (Fig. 6–35).
 A totally reversible process involves no heat transfer through a
finite temperature difference, no non quasi-equilibrium
changes, and no friction or other dissipative effects.
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13. Specific and Rate of a Quantity
WORK
ENERGY
ENTHALPY
HEAT
SPECIFIC HEAT
 Specific heat at Constant Volume, Cv
 Specific heat at Constant Pressure, Cp
 Relation b/w Cp and Cv
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14. FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
 The second law of thermodynamics states that no heat engine can have an efficiency of
100 percent.
 Then one may ask, What is the highest efficiency that a heat engine can possibly have?
Before we can answer this question,
 we need to define an idealized process first, which is called the reversible process.
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15. Thank
you
Love for all hatred
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