1. Running head: PON DE REPLAY 1
Pon de Replay: Music on the Island of Barbados
Rochelle Hernández
Universidad Veritas
12 December 2016

2. PON DE REPLAY 2
Abstract
When thinking about the music of Barbados, it seems that soca music used during Crop Over is
the one that is focused on, with people ignoring the Barbados' musical history – what was sung
amongst the slaves and how they developed Western elements to create what is known as Folk
Music. I will delve into this history a little bit and see how this came to be.
Keywords: Folk Music, Tuk Bands, instruments, slavery, soca, vocal music, slave codes

3. PON DE REPLAY 3
Pon de Replay: Music on the Island of Barbados
Music in Barbados is a topic that's not really focused on when one is doing research on
the island. Barbados is an Eastern sovereign Caribbean island in the Lesser Antilles. It was
thought to be originally inhabited by Amerindians from Venezuela, then the Kalinago, then the
Arawak Indians until the British came in 1627, taking possession of the island in the name of
King James I. Music during this time wasn’t a point of focus for a majority of historians and
couldn’t be recorded by slaves especially during this early slave period on the island. A majority
of the material that I will be looking at are from sources which are full of cultural biases since
the only sources available at that point in time are from white Europeans and slavers on the
island. The music of Barbados was first observed in the 1600s and is a mix or synthesis of
African and British influences, while also influenced by the surrounding Caribbean islands like
Trinidad and Jamaica. The first music of Barbados is the folk music created during the slave
period on the island. African musicians also provided the music for the white landowners' private
parties, while the slaves developed their own party music, culminating in the Crop Over festival,
which began in 1688. For this paper, I want to focus on this musical side of history in Barbados.
I would like to look at what exactly is Barbadian music and what was the stable on the island
before other genres of music such as calypso and soca were introduced to the island.
Origins of Barbadian Music
Curwen Best states in 1999 that Barbados was “regarded as the Caribbean island with the
least to offer by way of a vibrant indigenous culture” (p. 142) and therefore, doesn’t have music
to which it can reflect it. But the origins of Barbadian music is notoriously known to be
fragmentary and scattered because the only sources available from that period of time are from a
European perspective and those are all biased and poorly documented. One thing to note here is

4. PON DE REPLAY 4
that there doesn’t appear to be any documentation of music created from the original inhabitants
of the island, neither from the Amerindians from Venezuela nor the Kalinago nor the Arawak
Indians. Early Barbadian music that was recorded by historians focuses on the folk or “slave”
music that was produced by the African slaves brought to the island to work on sugarcane
plantations.
Folk Music
Folk music in Barbados was thought to have been created during the time of slavery in
the early period of the island. It is thought to have had influence from both African and European
elements. It has been found that this music was first influenced by African elements because
“slaves weren’t able to re-establish their African culture nor develop new independent patterns
and had no choice but to accept the [predominant English] culture that [had] already existed on
the island.” (Greenfield, 1966). Folk music was sung when slaves would gather after labor was
over for the day, which would commence the singing and dancing, along with their homemade
instruments (Browne, 1926: 112-113). This singing and dancing was thought to have occurred on
Sundays and major holidays” (Handler and Frisbie, 1972) to “provide a degree of freedom” and
to “temporarily reduce the severity of the system for slaves” (Handler and Frisbie, 1972). Not
sure if that’s true or no but it certainly makes sense. Some of the music was also thought to be
used in Obeah, which is an African religion found throughout the island but considered to be
secular to the white population.
Because the Church of England increased its missionary efforts during the 19th centuries,
folk music was heavily influenced by European elements as well. Anglican hymns were
introduced and taught to the slaves on Barbados and featured in many church services (Handler
and Frisbie, 1972). A lot of the Christian missionaries discouraged performance of the folk music

5. PON DE REPLAY 5
which caused it to be performed away from the slavers eyes. It is thought that they responded
negatively to the music because it was non-European in origin and thus concluded to be inferior.
Tuk Bands. Tuk bands are a form of folk music “considered indigenous [to the country]
which helped with the spreading of folk music” (Weir, 2015) and having its origins in the slave
culture of the 17th century in Barbados. Said origins stem from traditional African drumming
rhythms fused with various elements and institutions during colonial times and also by the
British fife and drum ensembles found more widely in the Anglophone Caribbean (Meredith,
2003). The word “tuk” originates from the Scottish word “touk” which was used as a description
for the sound of a drum. Due to the slave codes passed in the 1600s, drums and loud instruments
were banned and as a result, slaves produced drums similar to the regimental band drums, but
used homemade materials such as goat and cow skins to create their instruments.
The instruments used in a tuk band now are the bass drum, tin flute, and kettle drum. The
fiddle was a regular in tuk bands but has now since been replaced by the penny whistle. Today,
tuk bands are usually associated with festivities, entertainment and celebrations such as Crop
Over, and with performances featuring local popular characters such as Shaggy Bear, Donkey
Man and Mother Sally. Landship is a kind of friendly society that organizes staged “naval
maneuvers” along with marching, music, and dance with music typically being provided by tuk
bands (Burrowes, 2005).
Vocal Music. Vocal music played a big part of folk music with “instruments usually
accompany[ing] singing in recreational and religious activities but unaccompanied song [was
thought to have] probably [been] more typical in [field] work situations” (Handler and Frisbie,
1972). Information on this is also sparse and ethnocentric, only permitting very limited
generalizations on the topic. There’s suggestive evidence that says that some of the singers also

6. PON DE REPLAY 6
simultaneously danced or at least engaged in “expressive body movement” (Handler and Frisbie,
1972) and it is thought that most slave songs were modelled around a call-and-response pattern
(Handler and Frisbie, 1972). During funeral ceremonies there were numerous musical activities
that were associated with them and Pinckard observed in 1806 how one “ old Negro woman
chanted an African air, and the multitude joined her in chorus.”
There are no musical recordings of these vocal slave songs during this period of time,
neither are there contemporary Barbadian folk musical forms which can help with this subject.
Like folk music in general, Europeans looked down on the slave singing because the African
elements used were “essentially non-European” in origin and thus considered secular and
barbaric.
Slave Codes and Prevention
Slave codes passed in 1688 on the island had “direct bearing on musical expression
between the slaves” (Handler and Frisbie, 1972) with “negroes [being] considered ‘property’ that
needed rigorous regulation” (Parliamentary Papers, 1789). These codes were put into place to
regulate slaves’ dances and “their use of musical instruments” (which slavers were afraid could
be used to call together or give sign/notice to one another and perhaps start another rebellion on
the island) (Handler and Frisbie, 1972). In 1649, slaves and indentured servants rebelled against
white owners using conch shells, horns and drums (Radula-Scott et al. 2000) and in 1675, slave
owners officially passed a code to ban the use of drums. About 13 years after the passing of this
code, the slave codes passed in 1688 were put in place to burn all drums and all loud instruments
on the plantations. In essence, it made it difficult for slaves to communicate with one another
whenever they wanted to get together. Despite this, during this period of time, the codes had

7. PON DE REPLAY 7
limited effect and slaves still were able to go to different plantations and gather together to sing
and dance with their instruments.
It wasn’t until the Slave Consolidation Act of 1826 - which was implemented following
Bussa’s Rebellion in 1816 (this rebellion was formulated when slaves gathered for dances) and
white slavers were concerned about further risk of revolts that slavers “attempted to make the
island’s slave codes more relevant to contemporary conditions...and attempted to try and control
conditions in which dancing took place” (Handler and Frisbie, 1972). It essentially exposed the
slavers fear and how they considered it to be potentially dangerous for themselves in the long run
if slaves were allowed to continue with their gathering and communication with one another.
The Act reaffirmed the previous ban on drums and horns (this is primarily what led to tuk bands
being deemed illegal) and in response to this oppression, the gatherings and practices went
underground so that slaves would still be able to pass on their cultures to future generations.
Four Major Categories of Instruments
A system of musical instrument classification called the Hornbostel-Sachs which created
four categories of instruments was devised by Erich Mortiz von Hornbostel and Curt Sachs in
1914. Hornbostel and Sachs had expanded upon the model created by Victor-Charles Mahillon in
the late 19th century to make it possible to classify instruments found in any culture (Mahillon’s
model focused mainly on European classical music). The four categories are: idiophones,
membranophones, chordophones, and aerophones. There are subcategories within each set of
main categories but in this paper, I focus on each category broadly because not much information
can be found about the instruments used during this time. The categories allows researchers to
organize the instruments found in Barbados.

8. PON DE REPLAY 8
Idiophones. Idiophones are “instruments whose bodies vibrate [when struck] to produce
sound” (Handler and Frisbie, 1972) without the use of strings or membranes1. The instruments
that are thought to belong to this category include rattles (which are found to be the most
common), clappers (made by knocking two rocks together), xylophones, tambourines, and as
well as various parts of the human body.
Membranophones. Membranophones are instruments whose sound is created primarily
through the vibration of a tightly stretched membrane. This group includes most of the drums
found in the island such as the so-called “hollow log drum.” These drums were made in different
shapes and sizes but the most common would be the hollow log drum used in a lot of slave
gatherings and festivities.
Chordophones. Chordophones are instruments whose sound is created primarily by the
vibration of a string or strings stretched between several fixed points. This group involves all the
string instruments such as the violin or the fiddle, banjos or lute-like instruments.
Aerophones. Aerophones are “wind instruments that enclose a column of air which is
vibrated to produce sound” (Handler and Frisbie, 1972) and there are no vibrating strings or
membranes. Researchers aren’t too sure which instruments are involved in this group since there
aren’t reports of such instruments which would fit in this category.
Most of these instruments were played within the context of a group setting but they
could also be played alone. Bands were small with about two to three musicians though more
slaves were added on whenever they played on special occasions or holidays. It’s been found that
most of the musicians were male but it’s been thought that there were also some musicians who
1 A thin layer that vibrates and is used to produce and transfer sounds in instruments

9. PON DE REPLAY 9
may have been female - though there isn’t a whole lot of information on these musicians
themselves.
Introduction to Other Genres
Other genres of music were introduced in Barbados in the early 20th century such as
Calypso, Chutney, Dub, Dancehall, Reggae, Jankanoo, Rapso, Scratch, Soca, Ska, and many
others. One of the most prominent genres was American Jazz, which was introduced in the 1920s
with radio broadcasts from famous figures like Willis Conover and his “Voice of America”
program; it slowly was transformed into a completely different genre later on in Barbados as they
made it their own. The first major Barbadian jazz performer recorded was Lionel Gittens, who
was followed by several other artists and used a fusion of other types of music such as swing,
pop-jazz and waltzes, incorporating them into the genre and creating different “remixes” in a
sense. It was a specific type of jazz called bebop, which focused on social activism and
Afrocentrism, that really picked up in Barbados as political awareness amongst the black
population on the island spread. After the period of time when the genre faded a bit, Calypso jazz
arose during the 60s, lead by groups such as the Schofield Pilgrim, calling for national pride and
unity in the country.
Calypso, originally from Trinidad and Tobago, was introduced around the same time as
jazz but didn’t quite catch on yet and was originally called “banja.” Only a few Barbadian
Calypsonians arose such as Da Costa Allamby, Mighty Charmer, and Slammer and was
characterized with “opinionated lyrics and accompanation with the guitar or banjo.” (Wikipedia,
2015) Beginning in 1940s when Crop Over was cancelled due to sugarcane shortages and there
calypso faded from the forefront and was deemed inferior as Barbados saw an influx of popular
music (R&B and Rock and Roll took the place of jazz) from other countries such as the United

10. PON DE REPLAY 10
States, UK, and Jamaica. Prominent artists who were active during this time are acts such as
Whitney Houston, Janet Jackson, and Bob Marley & The Wailers, Prince, and Madonna.
Spouge is a combination of Jamaican ska, jazz, and calypso (as well as other genres
which include hymns and spirituals) created by Jackie Opel in the 1960s, growing towards the
end of the 70s and uses such instruments like the cowbell and guitar and is said to “reflect the
African origin” (Wikipedia, 2015) in Barbadian music. Two kinds of spouge were popular during
this time: raw spouge (“Draytons Two style) and dragon spouge (“Cassius Clay style”). Spouge
has since declined in popularity in recent times due to Opel’s early death and Barbadian media
not promoting Spouge eto the extent that it should be promoted. It’s believed that if Opel hadn’t
died so early, he would have been the one to further develop the genre and marketed it around
the world.
Calypso became popular again following independence from the UK with popular artists
like The Merrymen and Viper leading the way for its popularity. The Merrymen were able to
incorporate what is known as “blue beat” which is combination of Barbadian folk songs, ballads,
American blues, country music as well as other distinctive sounds created through a mix of the
harmonica, guitar, and banjo. In 1974, Crop over was revived and featured many calypso tent
competitions (leading all the way up to the first Monday in the month of August, known as
“Kadooment Day”), this also contributing to the rise of calypso once again in Barbados.
Bashment2 Soca was created during the 80s and is described as “drawing [up]on soca and
a variety of other Caribbean musical influences...to pioneer an eclectic and highly innovative pop
sound” (Bilby, 2008) leading to such bands like Krosfyah, Square One, and Coalishun to have a
2 The word “bashment” is a term that originated in the 1990s and was used to describea
particularly good dance. It’s been found that in Dancehall vernacular it’s used as an adjectiverather than a
noun.

11. PON DE REPLAY 11
tremendous impact on the Eastern Caribbean and beyond” (Bilby, 2008). Essentially it’s fusion
of soca and dancehall and is a distinctive subgenre within the youth culture in Barbados. It’s
described as being highly energetic, edgy, and youth-driven compared to the socas on other
Caribbean islands. This soca appears to keeps a 90s sort of dancehall rhythm that’s been sped up
and more pop-ish with its use of electronic instruments.
Conclusion
Barbadian music has roots that extend all the way back to colonial times and is a mix of
old and new world traditions, including elements from both African and Europe in which
researchers have seen a sort of blending going on. Handler and Frisbie stated that:
The Hollow log drums, banjo-like chordophones, and idiophonic rasps, rattles and
pottery jars were typically African; equally characteristic was the use of the human body
as an idiophone in clapping, stomping and slapping actions. Drum performance techniques
(such as how drums were held) may be considered African. The utilization of drums in
groups, wherein a call-and-response pattern, creating rhythmic polyphony considered to be
African. (p. 36)
They also went on to say that:
In many ways, Africans contributed to the development of the slave musical
tradition over time…[but] later on though, there were some European influences and a
blending occurred [and] by the end of the 18th century, some European instruments like
the violin and tambourine were added to African slaves’ musical repertoire although
African instrumental patterns were retained. (p. 37)
This background has allowed the Bajans to take whatever genre is introduced into
their country and “blend” it, such as what they did with the Anglican hymns so long ago,

12. PON DE REPLAY 12
thus incorporating into their own rhythms and creating something new altogether.
Bashment soca is something that can be developed even further, with the youth creating
new ways to innovate the music scene in Barbados and later on spreading what they’ve
created throughout the rest of the Caribbean.

13. PON DE REPLAY 13
References
Anon. (1823). Treatment of Slaves in Barbadoes. The Christian Remembrance. 5, 406-
408.
Barbados. (n.d.). Retrieved December 6, 2016, from
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbados
Best, C. (1999). Barbadian Popular Music and the Politics of Caribbean Culture.
Rochester, VT: Schenkman Books.
Bilby, K. (2008, July - December). Review: A Caribbean Musical Enigma: Barbados.
Caribbean Studies. 36(2), 236-240. From Jstor database.
[Browne, B.] (1926). The Yarn of a Yankee Privateer. Nathaniel Hawthorne, ed., New
York.
Burrowes, M. (2005). “The Cloaking of a Heritage: The Barbados Landship.” Pp. 215-
234 in Contesting Freedom: Control and Resistance in the Post-Emancipation
Caribbean, edited by Gad Heuman and David V. Trotman. Oxford, UK:
Macmillan.
Greenfield, S. M. (1966). English Rustics in Black Skin: A Study of Modern Family
Forms in a Pre-Industrialized Society. New Haven.
Handler, J.S. & Frisbie, C.J. (1972, January). Aspects of Slave Life in Barbados: Music
and Its Cultural Context. Caribbean Studies. 11(4), 5-46. From Jstor database.
Harwood, S. (2008). Policy and Performance in the Caribbean. Popular Music. 27(2),
209-223. From Jstor database.
Herskovits, M.J. (1941, September). Patterns of Negro Music. Transactions of the
Illinois State Academy of Science. 34, 19-23.
Hornbostel–Sachs. (n.d.). Retrieved December 9, 2016, from
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hornbostel–Sachs
Marshall, T.G. & Watson, E.F. (2007). “Barbados.” Pp. 345-358 in Music in the
Caribbean: An Encyclopedic History: Volume 2: Performing the Caribbean
Experience, edited by Malena Kuss. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.
Meredith, S. (2003). Barbadian Tuk Music: Colonial Development and Post-
Independence Recontextualization. British Journal of Ethnomusicology. 12(2),
81-106.
Millington-Robertson, J. (1991). “Music in Barbados.” Pp. 36-41 in Developments in
Caribbean Music, edited by Joycelynne Lonck. St. Augustine, Trinidad and

14. PON DE REPLAY 14
Tobago: Caribbean Inter-Cultural Musical Institute, University of the West
Indies.
Music of Barbados. (n.d.). Retrieved December 6, 2016, from
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Barbados
Parliamentary Papers. (1789). "Report of the Lords of the Committee of Council ...
Concerning the Present State of the Trade to Africa ... and the Effects and
Consequences of this Trade ... in Africa and the West Indies, Part in." Vol. 26,
London.
Pinckard, G. (1806). Notes on the West Indies. Vol. I. London.
Radula-Scott, Caroline, ed. (2000). "Features: All o' We Is Bajan". Barbados. Insight
Guide (3rd ed.). Singapore: APA Publications. p. 58.
Weir, S. (2015, February). Barbados Cultural Gem: What is Tuk Band? Retrieved
December 9, 2016, from
http://www.panamericanworld.com/en/article/barbados-cultural-gem-what-
tuk-band

15. PON DE REPLAY 15
Footnotes
1A thin layer that vibrates and is used to produce and transfer sounds in instruments
2The word “bashment” is a term that originated in the 1990s and was used to describea
particularly good dance. It’s been found that in Dancehall vernacular it’s used as an adjective
rather than a noun.