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Chapter 6
Solutions
Denniston
Topping
Caret
7th Edition
2. 6.1 Properties of Solutions
⢠Solution - homogeneous mixture
⢠Solute - the substance in the mixture present
in lesser quantity
⢠Solvent - the substance present in the largest
quantity
⢠Aqueous solution - solution where the
solvent is water
⢠Solutions can be liquids as well as solids and
gases
3. 6.1 Properties of Solutions Examples of Solutions
⢠Air - oxygen and several trace gases are
dissolved in the gaseous solvent, nitrogen
⢠Alloys - brass and other homogeneous
metal mixtures in the solid state
⢠Focus on liquid solutions as many important
chemical reactions take place in liquid
solutions
4. 6.1 Properties of Solutions General Properties of Liquid
Solutions
⢠Clear, transparent, no visible particles
⢠May have color
⢠Electrolytes are formed from solutes that are
soluble ionic compounds
⢠Nonelectrolytes do not dissociate
NaCl(s ) Hâ Na + (aq ) + Cl- (aq )
2O
⢠Volumes of solute and solvent are not additive
â 1 L ethanol + 1 L water does not give 2 L of solution
5. 6.1 Properties of Solutions
Solutions and Colloids
⢠Colloidal suspension - contains solute
particles which are not uniformly
distributed
â Due to larger size of particles (1nm - 200 nm)
â Appears identical to solution from the
naked eye
â Smaller than 1 nm, have solution
â Larger than 1 nm, have a precipitate
6. 6.1 Properties of Solutions Degree of Solubility
⢠Solubility - how much of a particular solute can
dissolve in a certain solvent at a specified
temperature
⢠Factors which affect solubility:
1 Polarity of solute and solvent
⢠The more different they are, the lower the solubility
2 Temperature
⢠Increase in temperature usually increases solubility
3 Pressure
⢠Usually has no effect
⢠If solubility is of gas in liquid, directly proportional
to applied pressure
7. 6.1 Properties of Solutions Saturation
⢠Saturated solution - a solution that contains all the
solute that can be dissolved at a particular
temperature
⢠Supersaturated solution - contains more solute
than can be dissolved at the current temperature
⢠How is this done?
⢠Heat solvent, saturate it with solute then cool slowly
⢠Sometimes the excess will precipitate out
⢠If it doesnât precipitate, the solution will be
supersaturated
8. 6.1 Properties of Solutions Solubility and Equilibrium
⢠If excess solute is added to a solvent, some
dissolves
⢠At first, rate of dissolution is large
⢠Later, reverse reaction â precipitation â occurs
more quickly
⢠When equilibrium is reached the rates of
dissolution and precipitation are equal, there is
some dissolved and some undissolved solute
⢠A saturated solution is an example of a dynamic
equilibrium
9. 6.1 Properties of Solutions Solubility of Gases: Henryâs Law
⢠Henryâs law â the number of moles of a gas
dissolved in a liquid at a given temperature is
proportional to the partial pressure of the gas
above the liquid
⢠Gas solubility in a liquid is directly proportional to
the pressure of the gas in the atmosphere in
contact with the liquid
⢠Gases are most soluble at low temperatures
⢠Solubility decreases significantly at higher
temperatures
â Carbonated beverages â CO2 solubility less when warm
â Respiration â facilitates O2 and CO2 exchange in lungs
10. 6.2 Concentration Based on Mass
6
⢠Concentration - amount of solute dissolved
in a given amount of solution
⢠Concentration of a solution has an effect on
â Physical properties
⢠Melting and boiling points
â Chemical properties
⢠Solution reactivity
11. 6.2 Concentration Based on
Weight/Volume Percent
⢠Amount of solute = mass of solute in grams
⢠Amount of solution = volume in milliliters
amount of solute
concentration =
Mass
amount of solution
⢠Express concentration as a percentage by
multiplying ratio by 100% = weight/volume
percent or % (W/V)
W grams of solute
% = Ă100%
V milliliters of solution
12. 6.2 Concentration Based on Calculating Weight/Volume
Percent
Calculate the percent composition or % (W/V) of
2.00 x 102 mL containing 20.0 g sodium chloride
20.0 g NaCl, mass of solute
Mass
2.00 x 102 mL, total volume of solution
% (W/V) = 20.0g NaCl / 2.00 x 102 mL x 100%
= 10.0% (W/V) sodium chloride
13. Calculate Weight of Solute from
6.2 Concentration Based on
Weight/Volume Percent
Calculate the number of grams of glucose in
7.50 x 102 mL of a 15.0% solution
Mass
W grams of solute
% = Ă 100%
V milliliters of solution
15.0% (W/V) = Xg glucose/7.50 x 102 mL x 100%
Xg glucose x 100% = (15.0% W/V)(7.50 x 102 mL)
Xg glucose = 113 g glucose
14. 6.2 Concentration Based on Weight/Weight Percent
W grams solute
% = Ă100%
W grams solutions
⢠Weight/weight percent is most useful for
Mass
solutions of 2 solids whose masses are
easily obtained
⢠Calculate % (W/W) of platinum in gold
ring with 14.00 g Au and 4.500 g Pt
[4.500 g Pt / (4.500 g Pt + 14.00 g Au)] x 100%
= 4.500 g / 18.50 g x 100% = 24.32% Pt
15. 6.3 Concentration of Solutions:
Moles and Equivalents
⢠Chemical equations represent the relative
number of moles of reactants producing
products
⢠Many chemical reactions occur in solution
where it is most useful to represent
concentrations on a molar basis
16. 6.3 Moles and Equivalents Molarity
⢠The most common mole-based
concentration unit is molarity
⢠Molarity
â Symbolized M
â Defined as the number of moles of solute per
liter of solution
moles solute
M=
L solution
17. 6.3 Moles and Equivalents Calculating Molarity from Moles
⢠Calculate the molarity of 2.0 L of
solution containing 5.0 mol NaOH
⢠Use the equation moles solute
M=
L solution
⢠Substitute into the equation:
MNaOH = 5.0 mol solute
2.0 L solution
= 2.5 M
18. 6.3 Moles and Equivalents Calculating Molarity From Mass
⢠If 5.00 g glucose are dissolved in 1.00 x 102 mL of
solution, calculate molarity, M, of the glucose solution
⢠Convert from g glucose to moles glucose
â Molar mass of glucose = 1.80 x 102 g/mol
5.00 g x 1 mol / 1.80 x 102 g = 2.78 x 10-2 mol glucose
â Convert volume from mL to L
1.00 x 102 mL x 1 L / 103 mL = 1.00 x 10-1 L
⢠Substitute into the equation:
moles solute
M=
L solution
Mglucose = 2.78 x 10-2 mol glucose
1.00 x 10-1 L solution
= 2.78 x 10-1 M
19. 6.3 Moles and Equivalents Dilution
Dilution is required to prepare a less
concentrated solution from a more
concentrated one
â M1 = molarity of solution before dilution
â M2 = molarity of solution after dilution
â V1 = volume of solution before dilution
â V2 = volume of solution after dilution
moles solute
M= moles solute = (M)(L solution)
L solution
20. 6.3 Moles and Equivalents Dilution
⢠In a dilution will the
number of moles of solute
change?
â No, only fewer per unit
volume
⢠So, M1V1 = M2V2
⢠Knowing any three terms
permits calculation of the
fourth
21. 6.3 Moles and Equivalents Calculating Molarity
After Dilution
⢠Calculate the molarity of a solution made by
diluting 0.050 L of 0.10 M HCl solution to a
volume of 1.0 L
â M1 = 0.10 M molarity of solution before dilution
â M2 = X M molarity of solution after dilution
â V1 = 0.050 L volume of solution before dilution
â V2 = 1.0 L volume of solution after dilution
⢠Use dilution expression M1V1 = M2V2
⢠X M = (0.10 M) (0.050 L) / (1.0 L)
0.0050 M HCl OR 5.0 x 10-3 M HCl
22. 6.3 Moles and Equivalents Representation of Concentration
of Ions in Solution
Two common ways of expressing
concentration of ions in solution:
1. Moles per liter (molarity)
⢠Molarity emphasizes the number of
individual ions
2. Equivalents per liter (eq/L)
⢠Emphasis on charge
23. 6.3 Moles and Equivalents Comparison of Molarity and
Equivalents
1 M Na3PO4
⢠What would the concentration of PO43- ions be?
⢠1M
⢠Equivalent is defined by the charge
⢠One Equivalent of an ion is the number of grams
of the ion corresponding to Avogadroâs number of
electrical charges
molar mass of ion (g)
One equivalent of an ion =
number of charges on ion
24. 6.3 Moles and Equivalents Molarity vs. Equivalents â 1 M Na3PO4
⢠1 mol Na+ = 1 equivalent Na+
⢠1 mol PO43- = 3 equivalents PO43-
⢠Equivalents of Na+?
â 3 mol Na+ = 3 equivalents of Na+
⢠Equivalents of PO43-?
â 1 mol PO43- = 3 equivalents of PO43-
25. 6.3 Moles and Equivalents Calculating Ion Concentration
⢠Calculate eq/L of phosphate ion, PO43- in a
solution with 5.0 x 10-3 M phosphate
⢠Need to use two conversion factors:
â mol PO43- mol charge
â mol charge eq PO43
5.0 x 10-3 mol PO43- x 3 mol charge x 1 eq
1L 1 mol PO43- 1mol charge
⢠1.5 x 10-2 eq PO43- /L
26. 6.4 Concentration-Dependent
Solution Properties
⢠Colligative properties - properties of
solutions that depend on the concentration
of the solute particles, rather than the
identity of the solute
⢠Four colligative properties of solutions
1. vapor pressure lowering
2. boiling point elevation
3. freezing point depression
4. osmotic pressure
27. 6.4 Concentration-Dependent Vapor Pressure of a Liquid
Consider Raoultâs law in molecular
Solution Properties
terms
⢠Vapor pressure of a solution
results from escape of solvent
molecules from liquid to gas
phase
⢠Partial pressure of gas phase
solvent molecules increases
until equilibrium vapor
pressure is reached
⢠Presence of solute molecules
hinders escape of solvent
molecules, lowering
equilibrium vapor pressure
28. 6.4 Concentration-Dependent Vapor Pressure Lowering
⢠Raoultâs law - when a nonvolatile solute is
Solution Properties
added to a solvent, vapor pressure of the solvent
decreases in proportion to the concentration of
the solute
⢠Solute molecules (red below) serve as a barrier to
the escape of solvent molecules resulting in a
decrease in the vapor pressure
29. 6.4 Concentration-Dependent Freezing Point Depression and
Solution Properties Boiling Point Elevation
⢠Freezing point depression may be explained
considering the equilibrium between solid and
liquid states
â Solute molecules interfere with the rate at which
liquid water molecules associate to form the solid
state
⢠Boiling point elevation can be explained
considering the definition as the temperature at
which vapor pressure of the liquid equals the
atmospheric pressure
â If a solute is present, then the increase in boiling
temperature is necessary to raise the vapor pressure
to atmospheric temperature
30. 6.4 Concentration-Dependent Freezing Point Depression
⢠Freezing point depression (âTf) - is proportional
Solution Properties
to the number of solute particles
â Solute particles, not just solute
⢠How does an electrolyte behave?
â Dissociate into ions
⢠An equal concentration of NaCl will affect the
freezing point twice as much as glucose (a
nonelectrolyte)
⢠Each solvent has a unique freezing point
depression constant or proportionality factor
âTf=kf m
31. 6.4 Concentration-Dependent Boiling point elevation
⢠Boiling point elevation (âTb) - is
Solution Properties
proportional to the number of solute
particles
⢠An electrolyte will affect boiling point to
a greater degree than a nonelectrolyte of
the same concentration
⢠Each solvent has a unique boiling point
elevation constant
âTb=kb m
32. 6.4 Concentration-Dependent Osmotic Pressure
⢠Some types of membranes appear impervious
Solution Properties
to matter, but actually have a network of small
holes called pores
⢠These pores may be large enough to permit
small solvent molecules to move from one side
of the membrane to the other
⢠Solute molecules cannot cross the membrane as
they are too large
⢠Semipermeable membrane - allows
solvent but not solute to diffuse from one side
to another
33. 6.4 Concentration-Dependent
Osmotic Pressure
⢠Osmosis - the
Solution Properties
movement of
solvent from a
dilute solution to a
more concentrated
solution through a
semipermeable
membrane
⢠Requires pressure
to stop this flow
34. 6.4 Concentration-Dependent Osmotic Pressure
Solution Properties
⢠Osmotic pressure (Ď) - the amount of
pressure required to stop the flow across
a semipermeable membrane
Ď=MRT
⢠Osmolarity - the molarity of particles in
solution
â Osmol, used for osmotic pressure
calculation
35. 6.4 Concentration-Dependent Tonicity and the Cell
⢠Living cells contain aqueous solution and these cells
Solution Properties
are also surrounded by aqueous solution
⢠Cell function requires maintenance of the same osmotic
pressure inside and outside the cell
⢠Solute concentration of fluid surrounding cells higher
than inside results in a hypertonic solution causing
water to flow into the surroundings, causing collapse =
crenation
⢠Solute concentration of fluid surrounding cells too low,
results in a hypotonic solution causing water to flow
into the cell, causing rupture = hemolysis
⢠Isotonic solutions have identical osmotic pressures and
no osmotic pressure difference across the cell
membrane
38. 6.5 Water as a Solvent
⢠Water is often referred to as the âuniversal
solventâ
⢠Excellent solvent for polar molecules
⢠Most abundant liquid on earth
⢠60% of the human body is water
â transports ions, nutrients, and waste into and out of
cells
â solvent for biochemical reactions in cells and
digestive tract
â reactant or product in some biochemical processes