1. UCI Extension
Paper-Based TOEFL Workshop
Glossary of Grammatical Terms
Structure and Written Expression Section
Longman Preparation Course for the TOEFL Test
Tutorial prepared by Marla Yoshida
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2. active voice: The form of a verb that is used when the subject is doing the
action. I am reading a book. We bought some sandwiches, went to the
park, and had a picnic.
adjective: A word that describes or gives more information about a noun.
Delicious chocolate. An interesting story. Three big, ugly, scary dogs.
adjective clause: A clause that acts as an adjective. It describes or gives
more information about a noun. Adjective clauses are also called relative
clauses. The whales that live at Sea World are trained to do tricks.
Whales, which are mammals, breathe air into their lungs.
adjective clause connector: A word that introduces a relative
clause/adjective clause: who, which, that, whom, whose. An adjective
clause connector is also called a relative pronoun. The students who go
to this school have to wear uniforms. The book which he wrote is boring.
adverb: A word that describes or gives more information about a verb, an
adjective or another adverb. You’ll learn easily. We study often. It’s rather
hot. He ran very quickly.
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3. adverb clause: A clause that often answers the questions: When? Why?
How? Where? An adverb clause begins with a subordinating conjunction.
After we finish our homework, we’ll watch TV. Will you help me if I don’t
understand this?
appositive: A noun or noun phrase that comes before or after a noun to
rename it or give more information about it. Irvine, a very safe city, is a
good place to live. My brother Bob wants to be a doctor.
article: The words a, an, and the. Articles are a special type of adjective.
They show whether someone is talking about a particular thing (the
definite article: the) or just anything (the indefinite article: a or an).
auxiliary verb: A verb, such as forms of be, have, or do, that is used with
another verb to change its tense or form. Auxiliary verbs are also called
helping verbs. They are studying now. This car was made in Japan. We
have done our homework. Do you like soccer? When did the class start?
clause: A group of words that has a subject and a verb. This sentence has
two clauses: [I took a nap] [because I was sleepy.]
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4. Conditional sentence: A conditional sentence has two clauses. One
usually starts with if and tells a condition or possibility. The other clause
can start with then (or without then), and it tells a result. There are three
kinds of conditional sentences:
Real or possible conditionals in the present/future (also called the
first conditional) tell about something that might actually happen. If I
have time, then I’ll go to the mall. If you hurry, you will be in time for
class.
Unreal or impossible conditionals in the present/future (also called
second conditional) tell about things that are not true. If I were you, I
would study harder. (I’m not you.) If we lived in Alaska, then we could go
skiing all year. (We don’t live in Alaska.)
Unreal or impossible conditionals in the past (also called third
conditional) tell about things that were not true in the past. If I had
known the bank was closed, I wouldn’t have bothered to go there. (I
didn’t know.) If you had lived 1,000 years ago, then you couldn’t have
had a computer or cell phone. (You didn’t live then.)
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5. conjunction: A word that joins two nouns, two verbs, two clauses, etc. The
two things that are joined must be of the same type. Bob and Tom are
studying. Do you want coffee or tea? [I’m sleepy] and [I want to take a
nap]. [He was late] because [he missed the bus].
conjunctive adverb (transition word): One kind of word that joins two
clauses, like therefore, however, or otherwise. It was my brother’s
birthday; therefore, I bought him a present.
coordinate connector (coordinating conjunction): One kind of word that
joins two clauses, like and, but, or so. In these sentences, both clauses
seem equally important. It was my brother’s birthday, so I bought him a
present.
dependent clause: A clause that can’t stand on its own as a complete
sentence, usually because it begins with a subordinating conjunction.
Dependent clauses are also called subordinate clauses. I’ll take a nap
because I’m sleepy. Will you help me if I don’t understand this?
direct object: A noun or pronoun that comes after a verb to show who or
what receives the action. The children played soccer. I don’t know him.
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6. gerund: The -ing form of a verb when it is used as a noun. Playing soccer
is fun. I like reading books.
helping verb: A verb, such as forms of be, have, or do, that is used with
another verb to change its tense or form. Helping verbs are also called
auxiliary verbs. They are studying now. This car was made in Japan.
We have done our homework. Do you like soccer? When did the class
start?
independent clause: A clause that can stand on its own as a complete
sentence. An independent clause is also called a main clause. I’m
sleepy. I’ll take a nap because I’m sleepy.
infinitive: To + the plain form of a verb. Do you want to go to the movies?
To err is human; to forgive is divine.
inverted subject and verb: In some kinds of sentences, we change the
positions of the subject and the verb, so that the subject comes after the
verb or the helping verb. Can you help me? Never have I seen such a
mess. There are many beautiful places in California. Had I known you
needed help, I would have come earlier.
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7. linking verb: A verb that links, or joins two ideas. We can think of it as
being like an equal sign ( = ). The most common linking verb is be, but
some other verbs can be linking verbs too: seem, appear, become, feel,
get, grow, look, smell, sound, stay, turn. The weather was warm, but then
it turned cold. We got tired. Try to stay healthy.
main clause: A clause that can stand on its own as a complete sentence.
A main clause is also called an independent clause. I’m sleepy. I’ll take
a nap because I’m sleepy.
modals: A group of special verbs that usually have another verb after
them: Can, could, will, would, may, might, shall, should, must. Ducks can
swim. Would you help me?
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8. nonrestrictive adjective clause: An adjective clause that doesn’t restrict
the number of things a noun refers to; it just gives more information about
the noun. We don’t need the information in it to understand what the
whole sentence is about. When we say “Irvine, which is a safe city, is a
good place to live,” we’re just giving more information about Irvine.
There’s only one Irvine, and that’s the one we’re talking about.
Nonrestrictive adjective clauses have commas around them. (See also
restrictive adjective clause.)
noun: A word that names a person, place, thing, or idea. Student, city,
table, honesty.
noun clause: A clause that can be used in the same way as a noun, for
example, as a subject or object of a sentence. [That the world is round] is
a well-known fact. I don’t know [who you are].
noun phrase: A noun plus its modifiers. The diligent student. A big city.
That expensive table.
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9. object of a preposition: A noun or pronoun that comes after a preposition
to complete its meaning. He went (to the mall) (in the morning) (without
his wallet).
paired conjunctions: Two conjunctions that commonly occur together, like
both…and…, either… or…, neither… nor…, not only… but also….
Both cats and dogs make good pets. I’ll order either a salad or a
sandwich.
parallel structure: In some situations, two things that are linked or used
together must be the same grammatically. Dogs and cats make good
pets. (Both are nouns.) It’s easier to read a book than to write one. (Both
are infinitives.)
passive voice: The form of a verb that is used when the subject is
receiving the action. The person or thing that is doing the action can be in
a prepositional phrase beginning with by. This portrait was painted (by
Vincent Van Gogh). Oranges are produced in central California.
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10. past participle: A form of a verb that can be used to make perfect tenses
or the passive voice. When you memorize verbs, it’s the third part that
you say: give, gave, given. The past participle of a regular verb ends in ed: walked, studied, robbed. The past participle of an irregular verb is
hard to predict. You just have to memorize it: gone, eaten, hit, been. A
past participle is sometimes used as an adjective: a broken window, a
bowl made in California.
plural form: A form of a word that shows there are two or more. Chairs,
elephants, dishes, children, they, we.
predicate adjective: An adjective that comes after a linking verb to
complete its meaning. Elizabeth is intelligent. That cake looks delicious.
predicate noun: A noun that comes after a linking verb to complete its
meaning. (Predicate nouns are not considered objects.) Elizabeth is a
teacher. Bob will become the president of the company.
preposition: A word that shows a relationship between a noun and other
things in the sentence. The chair in the corner is comfortable. Let’s go to
the beach.
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11. prepositional phrase: A preposition and the noun that comes after it (its
object) together are called a prepositional phrase. The chair in the corner
is comfortable. Let’s go to the beach.
present participle: A form of a verb that ends with -ing. It can be used to
make progressive tenses. The children are sleeping. I was waiting for
you. A present participle can be used as an adjective. Don’t wake the
sleeping child. The students taking a test are tired. It can also be used as
a noun (a gerund). Swimming is fun.
pronoun: A word that can replace a noun, like he, they, we, us, me, or it.
Words like something, nobody, and each other are also pronouns.
relative clause: A clause that acts as an adjective. It describes or gives
more information about a noun. Relative clauses are also called
adjective clauses. The whales that live at Sea World are trained to do
tricks. Whales, which are mammals, breathe air into their lungs.
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12. relative pronoun: A word that introduces a relative clause/adjective clause:
who, which, that, whom, whose. A relative pronoun is also called an
adjective clause connector. The students who go to this school have to
wear uniforms. The book which he wrote is dull.
restrictive adjective clause: An adjective clause that restricts, or limits,
the number of things the sentence is talking about. We need the
information in it to understand what the whole sentence is about. When
we say “Cities that are safe are good places to live,” we’re not saying that
all cities are good places to live, only cities that are safe. Restrictive
adjective clauses do not have commas around them. (See also
nonrestrictive adjective clause.)
singular form: A form of a word that shows there is just one. Chair,
elephant, dish, child, he, she, I.
subject: A noun or pronoun that tells what a sentence is about. In an active
sentence, it usually tells who or what did something. [People should be
careful] when [they’re crossing the street].
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13. subordinate clause: A clause that can’t stand on its own as a complete
sentence, usually because it begins with a subordinating conjunction.
Subordinate clauses are also called dependent clauses. I’ll take a nap
because I’m sleepy. Will you help me if I don’t understand this?
subordinating conjunction: A word that joins two clauses, like before,
after, because, if, or when. In these sentences, the clause that starts with
a subordinating conjunction seems less important; the other clause is the
main focus. I bought my brother a present because it was his birthday.
verb: A word that describes an action or a state of being: eat, play, think,
be, exist. The main verb of a clause tells what the subject does or is. The
gardener planted some roses. The roses are beautiful. I wish I had some
beautiful roses.
verb agreement: A verb needs to match its subject. A singular subject
needs a singular verb. The library is full of books. A plural subject needs
a plural verb. The libraries are full of books. A third-person singular
subject in the present tense needs an –s ending. Ice cream tastes
delicious.
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14. verb tenses: Verbs can have different forms to show when something
happened, whether it lasted a long time or a short time, etc. These forms are
called verb tenses.
Verb Tense
Simple present
Present progressive
(present continuous)
Present perfect
Example
I often walk to school.
He often walks to school.
I am walking now.
He is walking now.
I have already walked
five miles.
He has already walked
five miles.
Present perfect
I have been walking for
progressive (past perfect an hour. He has been
continuous)
walking for an hour.
Meaning*
A habitual or repeating
action.
A current action.
An action that began in
the past but continues to
be true. A past action
(indefinite time) that
could happen again.)
An action that began in
the past but is continuing
now (with emphasis on
the fact that it is still
happening.
* Explanations of meanings are from Keys to Teaching Grammar to English
Language Learners by Keith S. Folse. University of Michigan Press, 2009.
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15. Verb Tense
Simple past
Past progressive
(past continuous)
Past perfect
Example
I walked to school
yesterday.
He walked to school
yesterday.
While I was walking to
school, I stopped at
Starbucks.
I had walked to school
many times before I
bought a car.
I had been walking for
Past perfect progressive
two hours by the time I
(past perfect continuous)
stopped.
Meaning*
A single past event.
A past action that was
happening (when it was
interrupted by another).
A past action that was
completed before a
second past action.
An action that began in
the past before a second
past action (with
emphasis on the
duration of the action).
* Explanations of meanings are from Keys to Teaching Grammar to English
Language Learners by Keith S. Folse. University of Michigan Press, 2009.
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16. Verb Tense
Future with be going to
Future with will
Future progressive
(future continuous)
Future perfect
Future perfect
progressive (future
perfect continuous)
Example
Meaning*
An event in the future,
I am going to walk soon.
especially one already
He is going to walk soon.
planned.
An event in the future,
I will walk tomorrow.
especially one that is
I’ll walk with you if you
scheduled or expresses
want me to.
strong desire to do
something.
I will be walking at 10:00 An action that will be
tonight.
taking place at some
He will be walking too.
point in the future.
By the time I graduate, I An action that will be
will have read 100
finished by a specified
textbooks.
time in the future.
How long an action has
By the time I get to
been happening at a
school, I will have been
future point; focus is on
walking for an hour.
the duration.
* Explanations of meanings are from Keys to Teaching Grammar to English
Language Learners by Keith S. Folse. University of Michigan Press, 2009.
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