1.
1. Theories of crime and
deviance
Key questions:
Key information
1. What is crime and
deviance?  Definitions of crime and
deviance, social construction
and biological explanations.
2. Why do people commit
 Functionalism – Durkheim &
crime?
Merton
 Subcultural strain theory
3. What happens if a person  Labelling theory
is labelled as a criminal?  Marxism and Neo-Marxism
(white collar crime)
4. Are crime statistics  Left and Right Realism
valid?

2.
Crime Deviance Deviant not
criminal
Any act which breaks Behaviour which Deviant and
the laws of moves away from Burping, not criminal
society, such as murder conventional queuing
or rape. norms and values Rape, murder
such as burping Criminal not deviant , paedophilia
Social control is
and farting in
enforced by agencies Speeding, parking on
such as police and the public.
yellow lines
courts.
Biological explanations Definitions and
Early criminologists like explanations Crime and deviance as
Cesare Lombroso sort to relative
find physical criminal
characteristics like long Crime as socially constructed
Crime and deviance is
arms or sloping
If what is consider to be crime relative (changing) in
foreheads. Sociologists
and deviance changes it can’t relation to time, place
find such ‘born bad’
be inherently wrong but must and culture. What one
determinism dangerous
be culturally specific. society may see as a
and prefer to normalise
This means crime and deviance crime another may
crime by reminding us
is socially constructed i.e. not, such as polygamy
that we all commit crime
created and defined by the (many wives). Other
and there are social
people of that society and not examples are
factors which influence
universal. homosexuality and
our behaviour.
suicide.

3.
Durkheim – Key ideas Crime and society Positive functions of
crime
1. Crime is inevitable and Society is only healthy when
necessary to society. social order is maintained 1. Re-marking social
through the police and boundaries – affirms
2. Crime has positive
courts. We need a small social norms and
functions.
amount of crime to remind values.
3. The perfect amount us of what we believe in.
2. Media coverage – as
of crime will keep Only a small minority will be
a warning to others.
society healthy and self-interested and commit
avoid anomie crime. 3. Social bonds –
(Normlessness) strengthened as we
unite in disapproval.
Functionalism
on crime 4. Safety Value – a
Criticisms little bit of deviance
reduces more serious
 What is the perfect amount Society of saints problems –
of crime? Prostitution – Kingley
Imagine there was no Davis.
Explaining the functions of crime or deviance, even
crime doesn’t explain what the most slight slip like 5. Malfunctioning
caused them in the first place. coughing without putting society – theft, drug
your hand over your use and truancy alert
Murder maybe functional for mouth would become a us to other social
society but what about the crime. problems in society.
victim?

4.
Merton - Key idea
1. The goals of
People engage in society – American
deviant behaviour Deviance is the
Dream
when they are result of the
unable to achieve strain between
socially approved 2. Your legitimate
goals. means of achieving
them
1. Conformity Strain produces
Five frustration which creates a
Most of America not pressure to deviate, what
adaptations
criminal or deviant Merton calls the strain to
anomie.
Deviant adaptations
Innovation Retreatism Explanation
Criminal behaviour Habitual drug users
as an adaptation and alcoholics lower class and
ethnic minorities are
more likely to
commit criminal acts
Ritualism Rebellion because of their
People in dead end position in the social
Karl Marx and structure.
jobs. Martin Luther King

5.
TYPE Goal of Means Type
Success
Conformity Accepts Legitimate Most people
(Normal)
Innovation Accepts Illegitimate Gangsters (Tony
(Criminal) Montana)
Ritualism Rejects Legitimate People in dead end
(Deviant) jobs.
Retreatism Rejects Illegitimate Habitual drug user
(Deviant) or drunk
Rebellion Rejects for Illegitimate Karl Marx, Martin
(Deviant) alternative Luther King,
Criticisms
 Why don’t all lower class people turn to crime?
 Can only account for utilitarian crime (money) what about gang violence, rape and
Graffiti?
 What about other factors like class, gender, ethnicity and sexuality?

6.
Subcultural group Albert Cohen – Status
frustration
A group with its own Cloward and Ohlin –
distinctive norms and A Subcultural strain theory Opportunity structures
values, sometimes which argues lower class people
A Subcultural strain
although not always are frustrated because they
theory like Cohen but
deviant. want to be successful but lack
more concerned about
the qualifications and skills to do
the different types of
Contemporary examples so. They solve this frustration
crimes groups commit.
by rejecting society and creating
The Street gangs living They conclude where
their own norms and values in a
in the Favelas of Rio you live dictates the
gang. Here they achieve status
and the gangs of South type of criminal activity
through non-utilitarian crimes
Africa show that often available to you. Criminal
like violence and graffiti.
criminal groups are not subcultures are
rejecting societies available in areas of
norms and values but Subcultural strain criminal hierarchy.
are in fact conforming theories Conflict subcultures
to their own. arise due to low social
cohesion and high
Walter Miller – Lower class subcultures population turnover.
Retreatists subcultures
Not a strain subculture, each social class doesn’t feel any are the result of being
strain but just has different focal concerns which lead to unsuccessful in society
different criminal activity. The lower class experience a and the other two
lack of excitement at work which leads to the desire to subcultures.
look for excitement in things like joy-riding.

7.
Overview
Lower-class feel the strain
Strain theory Robert Merton and commit utilitarian
crime (money)
Lower-class feel the
strain but start
Albert Cohen subculture and commit
Subcultural non-utilitarian crime
Strain theory
Lower-class feel the
Cloward and strain but what crime
Ohlin they commit depends
on the area they live in
Lower-class doesn’t
Subcultural feel the strain each
Walter Miller
theory subcultural group has
different values

8.
Interactionism Howard Becker Labelling process
Doesn’t focus on the Focuses on the process of a 1. A label is attached
structures of society but person and act getting by police and courts.
how people and society labelled as deviant. He
interact and how this argues that no act is 2. Label becomes a
affects criminal intrinsically deviant but master status –
behaviour. relies on its context to overrides other
determine its acceptability. status as sibling,
Examples: nudity, injecting friend etc.
Deviancy amplification oneself even murder. 3. The labelled person
spiral accepts the label –
Interactionism – because how we see
This idea says that ourselves relies on
sensationalist reporting
Labelling theory
how others see us.
by the newspapers
distorts the act of crime Stanley Cohen 4. Self-fulfilling
or deviance and prophecy – whether
Cohen studied how the media
increases public the label was true or
has often demonised youth
awareness. Public not we act in
culture. This happened to
pressure is put on the accordance with it.
mods and Rockers in 1964
police and courts to act. This confirms
who were seen as modern day
This creates a moral peoples beliefs
folk devils who threatened
panic where certain acts about the label being
social order. His research
or groups are seen as a true.
found that actual acts of
threat to social order. deviance were minimal.

9.
Blue collar crime White collar crime Corporate crime
Crimes committed by Crimes committed by Crimes carried out on behalf of
manual factory workers office workers a company such as tax evasion or
(working class), these (middle/upper class) toxic waste dumping.
are street crimes like like fraud, these are
Occupational crime
theft which are in often hidden from
public view. public view. Crimes carried out at the
expense of companies like fraud.
Case study – Enron
False accounting and White collar crime
White collar crime
reports of high profit
allowed president Very difficult to prosecute
Kenneth Lay to Case study – Guinness affair due to problems of who is
borrow $74 million responsible and who is a
from a company False claims of success led to victim. Much white collar
before it was made high share prices and company crime is not dealt with
bankrupt. 20,000 directors making millions. criminally but
creditors were owed Gerald Ronson received a one administratively by
an estimated $67 - year sentence in Ford (open external agencies like the
billion, most received prison) and was released on EPA (Environmental
less than 20 cents for parole after serving about 6 Protection Agency) and the
every dollar they months. He is still a successful Trading Standards Agency.
were owed. 19,000 businessman and one of Only serious cases go to
people lost their jobs Britain's 100 richest people. court.
and savings.

10.
Key idea Criminolgenic Capitalism The state and law making
The Law and the Crime is inevitable in Capitalism.  All laws serve the ruling
criminal justice system The working class commit class.
is another tool used by
the ruling class to utilitarian and non-utilitarian
Most law is based on
serve their interests crimes because of poverty,
protecting private
and maintain a position constant advertising, alienation
of power. property.
and a lack of control. Even the
ruling class feel the pressure to The working class and
commit crime and get ahead. ethnic minorities are
punished harshly while the
Weaknesses crimes of the powerful go
Marxism on crime unnoticed.
 Very deterministic, not
all working class commit
crime. Ideological functions of law
 Switzerland and Japan Strengths Laws don’t just punish but
are capitalist but have low perform functions to keep
crime rates. Shows a link between capitalism stable. Health and
law and the safety laws keep the working
Prosecutions against
interests of the class able to work. Seeing crime
companies and the ruling
ruling class. as a working class problem
class do happen.
diverts it away from capitalism.
Left Realists say most Highlights selective Seeing criminals as disturbed
working class crime is enforcement. also disguises the true nature of
committed against working crime.
class people not the state.

11.
A fully social theory of Neo-Marxism on crime
deviance – combining Marxism
and labelling theory Policing the crisis – Stuart Hall
1. The 1970’s was a period of considerable
Ian Taylor, Paul Walton and social crisis in Britain, the result of an
Jock Young (1973) international downturn in capitalist economies.
1. The wider origins of the 2. This turmoil was shown in a number of inner-
deviant act. city riots, conflict in Northern Ireland and a
high level of strikes. The government was
2. The immediate origins of searching for a group that could be
the deviant act. scapegoated, to draw attention onto them and
away from the crisis.
3. The act itself.
3. Mugging – which according to the police was
more likely to be carried out by those from
African-Caribbean backgrounds.
4. The immediate origins of
social reaction. 4. Media outrage at the extent of muggings,
linked to racism amongst the Metropolitan
police.
5. The wider origins of
social reaction. 5. The need to find scapegoats and the ease
with which young men from African-Caribbean's
backgrounds could be blamed.
6. The effects of labelling.
6. A sense of injustice amongst ethnic
minorities against the police led to much
hostility between them and further arrests.

12.
Key ideas Biology
 The root cause of crime is Wilson and Hernstein Charles Murray (1990)
biology and poor socialisation suggest some people are
Argues most crime is
as people make a rational innately more strongly
committed by the
choice to commit crime. predisposed to commit
underclass (unemployed).
crime than others.
 The solution is more A recent upsurge in lone-
Especially those who have
formal social control such parent families has led to
personality traits like
as harsher prison poor socialisation and
aggression, risk taking and
sentences, zero tolerance encouraged these people
low impulse control.
policies and more CCTV. to be welfare dependant.
Criticisms Right Realism Rational Choice
 Doesn’t explain white theory
collar crime or Tackling crime
domestic violence. Ron Clarke (1980)
Make crime less attractive to suggests that people
 Ignores issues like criminals by (formal rationalise their
poverty. control):- choice to commit crime
 Scapegoats the • Zero tolerance – harsh by weighing up the
underclass. sentences ‘broken window’. cost vs benefits. If
the benefits (money)
 Overstates the role of • Target hardening – make it outweigh the costs
rationality. difficult to access private (prison) then they will
and public buildings. commit crime.
 Crime displaced to
other areas. • More surveillance – CCTV.

13.
Key ideas
The offenders Marginalisation
 The root cause of crime is
Relative Young and Lea argue that Marginalised groups are
deprivation, marginalisation most crime is committed by those who lack clear
and exclusion in modern W/C against the W/C. This goals or
society. is due to discontent caused representation. Young
by relative deprivation W/C are powerless and
The solution is more (judging your status by that unrepresented which
informal social control such of others) and individualism leads to violence and
as better housing, more job (being self-interested). rioting.
opportunities and more
democratic policing. Left Realism
Criticisms Modern society and
exclusion
 Doesn’t explain white Tackling crime
collar crime or A lack of jobs for the
domestic violence. Make things better for people W/C and being out
by (informal social control): priced of the property
 Minimum wage and
• Giving them housing market has left many
housing conditions have socially excluded. Jock
never been better. conditions to be proud of.
young says we live in a
 M/C could be relatively • Better job opportunities. ‘bulimic society’ where
deprived and • A better relationship we are exposed to a
individualistic, yet don’t between police and large variety of
commit as much crime. public, being more consumer products
democratic will help the which the W/C cannot
 Impossible to get rid of purchase.
relative deprivation. flow of information.

14.
2. The social distribution of crime
Key questions Key information
1. Do crime statistics give a  Crime statistics – police, BCS
true picture of crime? and self-report study.
 Gender and crime
2. Are people from different  Ethnicity and crime
age  Age and social class
groups, classes, ethnicities  Location – Environmental
and gender groups treated criminology
equally when it comes to
crime?
3. Is there any link between
location and criminal
activity?

15.
Official statistics Recorded crime Lack of crime reporting
Complied from A crime, which has Crimes may not be reported due
government departments been recorded by to:-
the police as a
like the police and crime. (Only 40%  fear of reprisal.
courts. of reported crime
is then recorded Lack of awareness (fraud).
due to
discretionary Fear it may not be taken
Reported crime powers of the seriously.
A crime, which the police).
 Crime is too trivial.
public has reported
to the police. (90%
of all crime the Crime statistics
Inaccurate picture of
police deal with is
crime
reported to them by
the public).  White collar crime dealt
with administratively.
Official crime statistics are  Only serious crimes
the tip of the iceberg, BCS from incidences is
and self-report studies recorded.
show there is more crime
Rules for counting always
than what can be seen on
change.
the surface. This is known
as the dark figure of crime Lack of recording makes
(what is recorded vs. clear up rates look higher.
reported).

16.
British Crime Survey The study is based on a
representative sample of adults
A victim study which asks Self-report studies
living in private households in
people if they have been a
England and Wales. In 2002 over Anonymous
victim of a crime and the
36,000 surveys were conducted. questionnaires which
circumstances of that
Certain crimes are excluded due ask respondents if they
crime. It was conducted
to low reporting such as have committed a crime
every two years from
murder, drug possession or over the past year.
1982 -2000 then every
dealing, fraud, offences against
year since.
businesses.
They are usually based
Trends and patterns on self-completed
BCS and Self- questionnaires or
 BCS says 10.7 million crimes
committed, OS (4.7 million. report studies interviews which
contain a list of
The majority of crime is BCS: includes unreported offences.
property related. and unrecorded crime but Respondents are asked
 Violent crime accounts for only 75% is comparable with to highlight which they
1/5 of all crime police statistics. have committed. Self
report studies show us
 Overall crime peaked in 1995 Self-report: Mainly street that most people
and has declined ever since. crime (working class) commit crime at some
excludes hidden crimes like point in their lives so
 Men aged 16-24 most likely domestic violence. Only
to be a victim of violence. crime is normal.
gives a small picture of
criminal activity.

17.
Key facts The Chivalry thesis Feminism
 Girls and women appear This argues that most They argue the criminal
to commit less crime. police, judges and justice system is
 4/5 convicted offenders magistrates are men and patriarchal and is bias
in Britain are male. men are socialised to be against women when they
chivalrous to women. step outside gender roles.
 Women more likely to be Roger Hood found women Women are judged more
convicted of theft and are 1/3 less likely to be harshly for having
property offences. jailed than men in similar promiscuous sex and
 Men more likely to cases. being bad mothers rather
convicted of violence and than the seriousness of
sexual offences. Gender and crime their crimes. This is
what happens in rape
cases where the victims
Liberation thesis Explanations for sexual activity is always
female criminality on trial.
Freda Alder (1975) argues
that if feminists are right
and women only commit less Feminist - Control Functionalist -Sex role
crime because of patriarchy theory theory
then greater equality should Women commit less The way girls are
see a rise in women crimes because men socialised to be quiet and
offenders. This equality will control women through demur doesn’t encourage
bring about more female domestic roles, fear of them to behave
offenders for violence and being a victim and aggressively or break
white collar crime. financial dependence. the law.

18.
Women demonised in the media
Myra Hindley Maxine Carr
Sentenced to 30 years in prison for Was convicted and sent to prison for
her part in the murder and torture of providing a false alibi for boyfriend Ian
5 children along with Ian Brady. The Huntley who murdered Holly wells and
media widely reported her true crime Jessica Chapman in 2002. Maxine had
as not having any motherly instincts nothing directly to do with the murders but
as a women. Newspapers still to this many protested for reintroduction of the
day publish a sinister picture taken of death penalty outside the court. The media
her 30 years ago because it portrays had a definitive role in demonising Maxine
her as a cold sadistic killer. Carr by producing sensationalist stories of
her past.
Gender and crime
Why do men commit crime?
Postmodernity and masculinity James Messerschmidt (1993) makes a link
Others have suggested that between male offending and masculinity. He
previously jobs in manufacturing says all men want the dominant hegemonic
allowed men to express their masculinity which is achieved through
masculinity. An increase in domination of work, women and sexuality. He
service sector jobs like bouncers argues that lower class men and ethnic
allows men to express their minorities lack the resources to achieve this
masculinity through masculinity so commit crime in order to
violence, drug dealing and achieve it.
racketeering.

19.
Key facts Ethnicity and the criminal 1. Policing
Official statistics say black justice system
Many allegations of
people are: oppressive policing
 7 times more likely to be from minority ethnic
2.Stop and search communities are made.
stopped and searched.
Lots of stop an search is
 3 ½ times more likely to
perhaps due to racism
be arrested. 3. Arrests and
and the targeting of
cautions
 5 times more likely to be ethnic minorities.
in prison than their white More likely to be
counterparts. arrested and cautioned
Ethnicity and perhaps due to a
 Victim studies say black mistrust of police and
crime
people are more likely to not admitting to the
be identified as offence.
offenders & most crime 4. Prosecution &
is intra –ethnic meaning conviction
it takes place among 5. Sentencing and Prison
rather than between Crown prosecution
Service more likely to Custodial sentences more
ethnic groups.
drop cases against ethnic likely to be given to black
 Self-report studies minorities. Black and offenders. Blacks and
conclude that black Asian defendants are less Asians over-represented
people have similar rates likely to be found guilty. in prisons and more likely
of offending to whites if to be given longer
not lower. sentences.

20.
Explaining differences in
offending Neo-Marxist - Paul Gilroy
Neo-Marxist - Stuart
Black people commit more Hall et al (Policing the
Left realism crime because they resent crisis)
Ethnic minorities commit more the cultural experience of
crime because racism in wider colonialism i.e. being taken Combines Marxism and
has caused them to be over and having black slaves Labelling theory.
marginalised, coupled with sent to Britain to work. This
economic exclusion such as experience causes Economic conditions in
high unemployment and poor resentment in young black the 1990’s were
housing. Left realists don’t males which makes them bad, government look
believe that racism in the commit crime. for a scapegoat.
police can account for higher
crime because black people Young black muggers
Ethnicity and
have a higher offending rate are labelled and a moral
than Asians. crime panic is created about
their behaviour in the
Stephen Lawrence Victimisation media.
The death of Stephen Police recorded 61,000
Lawrence in 1993 by a white Young black males
racists incidents while the
gang caused outcry as police commit no more crime
BCS reports 184,000 many
botched the investigation. than any other group
go unreported. People from
The inquiry called the but labelling and the
mixed ethnic backgrounds
Macpherson report declared economy makes it seem
were more likely to be
institutional racism in the like they do.
victims of crimes.
police.

21.
Key facts Functionalism – Age and Subcultural theory – Age
class and class
 Young, working class are
more likely to commit Functionalists like Merton Young working class people
criminal acts than say young working class join gangs because they are
older, middle class. people commit crime because frustrated at their status in
they strive for success but mainstream society. They
 A typical prisoner in the lack the necessary solve this by rejecting
U.K will be under 30 and educational skills and mainstream norms and
working class. qualifications. They want values, joining a gang and
 Offending rises steeply the goal of success but must achieving a status through
from 10-18 then declines achieve it illegitimately. non-utilitarian crimes.
sharply after 24. (Innovation)
Age – class and
Right realism – class
Labelling theory – crime
age and class Right realists like
Charles Murray believe
Young working Left realism – Age and class that single parent
class people Most crime is committed by working families fail to socialise
especially boys are class people against working class their children
more likely to be people. Perhaps because relative effectively due to a lack
stopped and deprivation, individualism and that of male role
searched and fact we live in a bulimic society (the models, they also grow
labelled as idea that we are exposed to consumer up to be welfare
criminals by the products but cannot consume them). dependant.
police and courts.

22.
Marxism
Blue collar crime
The working class are no more
criminals than anyone else, however Crimes committed
the law protects the bourgeoisie so by manual factory
the working class become easier to workers (working
criminalise. The working class get class), these are
street crimes like White collar crime
harsher punishments compared with
those who commit white collar crimes. theft which are in Crimes committed by
public view. office workers
(middle/upper class)
White collar crime like fraud, these are
often hidden from
Very difficult to prosecute Social class and
public view.
due to problems of who is crime
responsible and who is a
victim. Much white collar
crime is not dealt with
criminally but Case study – Guinness affair
administratively by False claims of success led to high share prices
external agencies like the and company directors making millions. Gerald
EPA (Environmental Ronson received a one -year sentence in Ford (open
Protection Agency) and the prison) and was released on parole after serving
Trading Standards Agency. about 6 months. He is still a successful
Only serious cases go to businessman and one of Britain's 100 richest
court. people.

23.
Key ideas Shaw and McKay They found the
Did a study of delinquency in delinquency living rates
 There is a link between declined from zone 1 to
Chicago (1927-33). They
where offenders live and 5. They argue that
divided the city of into five
crimes committed in that zone 1 has the highest
zones, drawn at two-mile
area. rate of delinquents
intervals, radiating outwards
in concentric circles from the because it is
 Environmental criminology characterised by a
CBD (Central Business
is concerned with mapping high population
District).
the spatial distribution of turnover and mixture
offenders and offences. of different cultures.
Location – They called this the
zone of transition
Environmental
Criminology
The least delinquents
live in Zone 5 – 1.8 % They concluded that
mainly commuter zone the zone of transition
with expensive houses. had social
disorganisation (low
social cohesion and
The most delinquents
little sense of
live in Zone 1 – 9.8% -
community) making it
deteriorating housing
a breading ground for
and factories, high
deviants.
population turnover

24.
Explanations
Area offending rates in Britain
Studies in Britain contradict
Opportunity theory
Shaw and Mckay and the idea of
determining crime by location. Crimes will be committed in locations where
Some studies show higher targets are attractive to criminals meaning
numbers of offenders living in it has a high monetary value and can easily
council housing estates rather be transported and sold. Coupled with
than city centres (Morris 1957). accessibility meaning if physical access is
One study of two council estates easy and chances of being observed are low.
separated by a road showed one
had 300% more offenders living
Location – Routine activities
there than the other (Bottoms,
Mawby and Xanthos 1989) . Environmental theory
Criminology
Argues that crimes are
likely to happen in
They say most Cognitive mapping (1984)
particular places
offenders commit Patricia and Paul Brantingham argue because of three things:
crimes in areas they that we have cognitive maps inside There are likely
are familiar with; out heads which outline our offenders in the area,
because of an perception of the geography of our attractive targets and
offender’s awareness local area. These maps contain an absence of capable
of space, and places we are familiar with such as guardians like property
opportunities for home, school or work, places of owners.
crime. entertainment etc.

25.
3. Crime in contemporary society
Key questions: Key information
1. Has crime become global?  Globalisation and crime
 Mass media and crime
2. How does the media report  Green crime
criminal activity?  Human rights
 State crimes
3. What are green crimes and
how are they dealt with?
4. What rights due all human
beings have?
5. How can we stop state crimes
when we have no world police?

26.
Globalisation Transnational crime Risk consciousness
Greater communication and Increased terrorism has
Definition: The way in
travel have made the drugs increased our awareness
which we seem to live in
industry extend beyond of the international risks
an increasingly ‘shrinking
national boundaries. Often we face and increased
world’, where societies
involving many countries the security at our national
are becoming more
supply comes from south borders, airports, ports
interconnected and
America (Colombia) and its and train stations.
dependant on each other.
demand from western
countries. Increased crime
Global crime (1 trillion)
 Arms trafficking Globalisation and Ian Taylor (1973)
Marxist argues that
 Smuggling immigrants crime
globalisation has allowed
 Trafficking women capitalism to create
Changing crime
and children more crime by exploiting
Hobbs and Dunningham say workers abroad and
 Sex tourism crime is now longer local but creating fraud on a
 Cyber-crimes – ‘Glocal’ meaning it involves larger scale.
identity theft and networks of people across manufacturing products
child porn the globe. Gleeny (2008) abroad has led to a lack
argues even the mafia has of jobs and opportunities
 Drugs trade gone global, it has franchised for the working
 Money laundering its businesses to different class, which leads them
parts of the globe – McMafia to crime.

27.
The media and crime News as socially constructed Fictional crime
 The media over-represent ‘The news is not discovered but Our ideas of crime
violence and sex crimes – manufactured’ says Cohen and don’t just come from
this make us think its Young. What they mean is what the news. Fictional
happening more and that gets coverage depends on what representation of
most killers are strange has happened, who is crime comes from
psychopaths – in most involved, when and where. Crime books, films and TV
cases the perpetrator is by its very definition is abnormal shows. They tend to
know to the victim. and ticks most of these news match the incorrect
worthy boxes. stereotypes of the
The media portray media.
criminals and victims as
older and more middle- Mass media and
class. crime
How could the media
Media coverage cause crime?
Can the media cause crime
exaggerates police success
or fear?  Imitation – copycats.
in clearing up cases.
Most studies show media  Desensitisation.
The media exaggerates
violence has at most a small
the risk of victimisation,  Learning criminal
and limited negative effect
especially women. techniques.
on audiences. Studies do
The media overplay show those that watch TV  Desire for
extraordinary crimes but for longer periods of time unaffordable goods.
underplay ordinary crimes. are more likely to be fearful
of becoming a victim.  Glamorising offending.

28.
New media – new crime Cyber-crime
Cinema, television, computer games and the  Cyber-trespass – includes hacking and
internet have all been blamed for spreading viruses.
corrupting the young. The internet has
grown so quickly its brought about cyber  Cyber –deception and theft – identify
crime. Defined as computer-meditated theft, illegal downloading.
criminal activities conducted through global  Cyber-pornography – illegal porn
electronic networks. involving children.
 Cyber-violence – bullying by
text, threatening e-mails, cyber stalking.
Stanley Cohen Mass media and
crime
Cohen studied how the
media has often demonised
youth culture. This Deviancy amplification spiral
happened to mods and
Rockers in 1964 who were This idea says that sensationalist
seen as modern day folk reporting by the newspapers distorts the
devils who threatened act of crime or deviance and increases
social order. His research public awareness. Public pressure is put
found that actual acts of on the police and courts to act. This
deviant acts were minimal. creates a moral panic where certain acts
or groups are seen as a threat to social
order.

29.
Key ideas Traditional criminology Green criminology
Defined as crimes against If pollution that causes Less bound by laws but by
the environment such as global warming is legal harm caused to the
toxic waste dumping and and no real crime has environment or people.
deforestation. Green crime been committed then Green criminology is a
is linked with globalisation traditional criminology is much wider field and so
as the world is one single not interested. called Transgressive
eco-system. Ulrich Beck Criminology – goes beyond
reminds us that many traditional criminology.
environmental issues are Environmental/
manufactured rather than
Green crime
natural.
Harm
Secondary crimes Anthropocentric is a human
Primary crimes
Crimes that result from centred approach which
Crimes that result directly assumes humans have the
flouting rules aimed at
from the destruction of right to dominate nature
preventing an environmental
the earth:- for their own ends. The
disaster.
 Crimes of air pollution. Ecocentric view sees
 State violence against humans and their
oppositional groups – despite  Crimes of deforestation. environment as
opposing terrorism states have interdependent, so harming
 Crimes of species decline
used the method themselves. one is harming another.
and animal rights.
Hazardous waste and Green criminology takes the
 Crimes of water ecocentric approach.
organised crime –illegal
pollution.
dumping.

30.
Human rights Problem Solution
The right to life, liberty States create laws which Herman and Schwendinger
and free speech. make their actions legal (1970) argue we should
Civil rights and free them from define crime as a violation
criminal charges. of human rights rather
The right to vote, to than law breaking. States
privacy, fair trial and that deny humans their
education. Human rights rights are then seen as
criminals. This new
The social conditions Stanley Cohen – The spiral approach has been called
of state crimes of state denial (1996) Transgressive criminology
as it transgresses (goes
Three ways dictators deny beyond) the traditional
Three features which
human rights violations:- boundaries of criminology
produces state
crimes:- (criminal law).
Stage 1: ‘It didn’t
happen’, this works until the
Authorisation – New problem
media uncover evidence that it
obedience.
did. Not everybody agrees on
Routinisation – human rights. Is freedom
Stage 2: ‘If it did from poverty a human
pressure to continue.
happen, it is something else’. right? Could states be
Dehumanisation – charged as criminals for
Stage 3: ‘Even if it is what not making its members
Enemy is a monster.
you say it is, its justified’ wealthy?
we had to do it.

31.
Definition Case studies Eugene McLaughlin (2001)
Crimes or deviant activities Pol Pot – Leader of the Four types of state crime:-
perpetrated by or with Communist party in  Political crimes -
permission of state agencies. Cambodia. Slave corruption or censorship
labour, malnutrition, (controlling what the media
Examples:- poor medical care says).
resulted in the death
Genocide (deliberate and of 21% of the  Crimes by security and
systematic destruction of population (1.7 -2.5M). police forces – Genocide
an ethnic, national or and torture.
religious group).
War crimes  Economic crime - violations
Torture State crimes of health and safety.
Imprisonment without trial
Assassination  Social and cultural crimes
- institutional racism.
The problem of national sovereignty
States are the supreme authority Abu Ghraib
within their borders. Nazi Germany
The problem is the state is the A prison in Baghdad Hitler started the
source of law meaning it decides what Controlled by US led T4 – euthanasia
crimes are, manages the criminal coalition forces. program from 1939
justice system and prosecutes Accusations of abuse in – 1941.
offenders, meaning it can evade its 2004 – 11 soldiers 275,000 terminally
own law. charge and convicted ill and mental
for mistreatment. patients were killed.

32.
4. Crime
control, prevention, punishment, victims
and the criminal justice system
Key questions Key information
1. How can we prevent  Crime prevention policies –
crime from happening? ‘broken window’
 Punishment of crimes & the
2. Does our way of prison system
punishing really work?  Victimology – the study of
victims
 The role of the Criminal
3. What can we learn from Justice system
victims of crimes?
4. What is the role of the
criminal justice system?

33.
Situational crime prevention Marcus Felson (1998) Problem – Displacement
Ron Clarke ( 1992) argues for a This approach was used This approach doesn’t
pre-emptive approach which with the Port Authority solve the causes of
targets specific crimes (petty) Bus terminal in NYC. crime in the area.
by altering the immediate They reshaped the Often criminals find
environment of crime. As a environment to design different areas, change
right realist he believes target out crime with large the type of crime they
hardening and more CCTV will open spaces, it was commit or choose a
increase the risk of being successful. different victim.
caught and lower the rewards.
Crime control and Environmental crime prevention
prevention
Wilson and Kellings argued for an approach
called ‘broken window’. The term broken windows
stands for various signs of disorder and lack of
The results concern for others found in neighbourhoods.
They argue that leaving broken windows
This approach has found great
unrepaired such as graffiti, begging etc sends
success in NY. A ‘Clean Car
out a signal that no one cares and can tip the
Program’ was instituted on the
area into social disorder. A way to prevent this
subway in which trains with
is more police on the streets enforcing zero
graffiti on them were taken away
tolerance towards any social disorder and
immediately. As a result graffiti
repairing things that are broken or
was largely removed from the
deteriorating .
subway.

34.
Social and community Perry pre-school project
crime prevention These students were
Research conducted in 1962 by
David Weikart in Michigan. The given extra sessions
A left realist approach to on decision making
project provided high-quality
crime prevention it gets to and problem solving.
pre-school education to three-
the causes of crime by Parents implemented
and four-year-old African-
improving unemployment and the programme at
American children living in
housing. home.
poverty and assessed to be at
high risk of school failure.
The results
Crime control and
By age 40 they had
prevention significantly fewer
lifetime arrests for
violent crime, property
Evaluation of all policies crime and drugs, while
 Displacement transfers the problem elsewhere. more had graduated
from high school and
 None of the following can help reduce white were in employment.
collar or state crimes. For every dollar spent
 Do criminals make the rational choice to commit on the programme, $17
crime? were saved on
welfare, prison and
 Only social and community gets to the causes of other costs.
crime.

35.
Reduction What is the purpose Restorative
of punishment?
The aim is to reduce This approach
crime by deterring tries to restore
others, rehabilitating Retribution things as they
offenders and were by making
incapacitation meaning
taking away their ability Meaning pay back, based on the offenders meet
to re-offend. This idea that offenders deserve to their victims to
approach is instrumental be punished and society is see the personal
as punishment is a means entitled to take its revenge. affect their crime
to an end, i.e. crime
reduction. This approach is expressive as has had on their
it expresses societies outrage. lives.
Do Prisons work?
Punishment Prison – key facts
 Two –thirds of prisoners
commit further crimes on  8.75 million people in
their release from prison. prisons across the
Do prisons work?
world.
 In 1993, the UK prison Transcarceration means
population was 44,000.  The U.S has the
when somebody enters
Today it is over 83,000. highest prison
prison or youth offending
population compared
 David Garland (2001) they are more than likely to
with population
argues the USA and the UK re-enter it again at some
to a lesser extent are point be it with social  The U.K has the
moving into the era of mass services or mental health highest prison
incarceration. institutions. population in Europe.

36.
Durkheim Marxism
The function of punishment is to uphold social Society is divided into two
solidarity and reinforce shared values. It also allows classes, ruling class exploit the
people to express their outrage at rituals like trials working class.
and re-set boundaries. Traditional close knit societies Marxists ask how does
had a strong sense of right and wrong so had punishment serve the ruling
Retributive justice as punishment was severe, cruel class? They argue that
and public. Modern societies have Restitutive justice harsh punishments are part of
which like restorative justice tries to restore broken the Repressive State
relations and offer compensation. Apparatuses (RSA) which keep
the working class in their place.
Panopticon Sociological Prison is similar to the slave
labour of capitalism, especially
perspectives on
A prison designed by Jeremy similar to strict discipline of
Punishment factories in 20th century.
Bentham, its design means
inmates don’t know if they
are being watched. The idea
of surveillance turns into Michel Foucault – Postmodernism
self-surveillance, it becomes
internalised. This move Sovereign power – punishment before the 19th century
towards self surveillance and was a public spectacle with hangings and stockades, its was
self discipline is reflected a way of asserting the monarchs power over its citizens.
not just in prisons but all Disciplinary power – punishment after 19th century was
aspects of social life says not just about governance over the body but the mind or
Foucault. soul, this is done through surveillance – Panopticon.

37.
Definitions Positivist Victimology Hans Von Hentig
.
A person who suffers (1948) identified 13
It tries to identify why characteristics such
physical, mental or psychological
certain people are victims of as female, elderly or
harm, economic loss or
crimes. Early work focused on mentally subnormal.
impairment of their rights.
victim proneness meaning They imply that
finding social and victims invite
Victim is a concept like crime
psychological characteristics victimisation by the
that is socially constructed, who
that made them more way they are.
is and isn’t a victim changes
vulnerable than non-victims.
depending on the context.
Problem
Failure to label Victimology: The This approach has
They are also interested in the study of victims been called victim
way the state has the power to blaming as it
attach or deny a label as a doesn’t count for
victim. If the police decide not the motives of the
to press charges then you are Critical Victimology perpetrator.
denied the status of victim and Based on Marxism and
any compensation. Feminism it wants to highlight
structural factors like
Problem: While it highlights poverty or patriarchy which
the role of the powerful it put the powerless at greater
denies the role victims risk of being a victim.
themselves have in their own
victimisation.

38.
Class Patterns of victimisation Ethnicity
The poorest groups are Minority ethnic
most likely to be victims Age groups most at risk
of all crimes. Homeless Younger people are most at of all crimes. Ethnic
people are 12 times more risk of crimes like minorities most likely
likely to experience assault, theft, sexual to feel under-
violence than the general harassment. Infants under protected yet over
population. one are at most risk of controlled.
being murdered.
Women who have been
raped but whose cases Gender
have failed in court are Victimology: The Males most at risk of
also victims of the legal study of victims violent attacks
system. especially by
strangers. 70% of
The impact of victimisation homicide victims are
Fear male.
The media has a large Research has found that a
part to play when variety of effects such as Repeat victims
stirring up fear but disrupted sleep, feelings of Once you have been a
statistically speaking helplessness, increased security- victim once you are very
men are more likely to consciousness and difficulties in likely to be again.
be victims of violence socialising. Crime can also create Suggests people were
yet some women fear fear in communities, these are victims for a
going out late at night. referred to as indirect victims. reason, perhaps even
targeted.

39.
Common law Murder isn’t written Structure of the courts
British law not originally in law anywhere but 1. European courts of
decided upon and written based on precedents Justice
down but based on a made years ago.
2. House of Lords
series of judgements
made by judges based on Oldest statute law in 3. Royal Courts of
a series of facts. The England and Wales goes Justice
courts must follow the back to 1297 originally part 4. Crown Court
decisions of the of the Magna Carta and its
precedent (previous about seeking damages. 5. Magistrates courts
case).
Courtroom
The role of the Criminal
 Judges seats – often 3
criminal justice These are cases that
 Clerk & stenograph system have broken the law of
(typist). the land and brought
 Witness stand about by the state such
Types of law as murder or rape.
 The bar – behind which  Criminal – murder, rape.
the prosecution and Civil
defence solicitors and  Tort – These are cases that
barristers sit negligence, nuisance, defamati have broken the law but
on, trespass. are brought about by
 The dock – The
accused  Contract – sales & purchasing. people such as
compensation against
 Public viewing area  Trusts – Property and injury or land disputes.
inheritance.

40.
1. Reporting 2. Investigation 3. Crown Prosecution
Service
A crime is committed The police will
and reported to the investigate the scene The CPS must decide
police. and question witnesses. whether a case is likely to
The will either charge get a conviction in court.
8. Mental health the suspect, release
them or given them a
Those deemed to be warning. 4. Magistrates court
without their mental Over 95% of cases are dealt
faculty when committing with by the magistrates
a crime are often sent Stages of the court. Because its usually
for assessment and criminal justice less serious crimes there is a
incarceration at system limit to the punishment that
hospitals like Broadmoor can be imposed (6 months in
or Ashworth, many will prison).
never be released. 6. Prison
With shorter sentences
5. Crown court
prisoners remain in the
7. Probation service
local area while longer More serious cases are
Works to monitor sentences, prisoners passed to the crown court
prisoners after their could be sent anywhere. which is served by a judge
release. They help with They must be treated and jury. The jury will
employment and housing with fairness and decide if the accused is guilt
and advise the courts of humility and be given at which point the judge will
a risk of re-offending. productive activities. decide upon the sentence.

41.
5. The study of suicide
Key questions Key information
1. Is suicide just a  Positivism – Emile Durkheim
psychological issue?
 Interpretivism – Maxwell
Atkinson
2. What social factors may
 Realism – Steve Taylor
cause suicide?
3. How do we define suicide?
4. Should we include people
who have attempted
suicide?

42.
Emile Durkheim (1897) Findings
3
Objective: To look beyond the  Suicide rates were higher in Protestant countries
individual act and towards the than Catholic ones.
social factors which cause  Suicide rates for any given country remained more or
suicide. He took a positivist
less constant over time.
methodology, as he wanted to
establish Sociology as a  Rates were higher for childless and unmarried people.
science. He collected suicide
statistics from across  Rates rose during times of economic depression and
Europe. prosperity and fell during times of war and political
uncertainty.
Social Facts
The study of suicide Explaining findings
For Durkheim social
facts exist in the Durkheim concluded that
world. Integration Types of suicide suicide must be the result
and regulation are  Altruistic – Too much integration of the extent to which we
social facts i.e. forces (Japan, Seppuka). are integrated and
in the world that regulated into a group.
constrain our  Egoistic – too little integration Integration is the extent
behaviour. If (individualistic). to which a person is bound
Durkheim could  Fatalistic – Too much by a society by norms and
discover these facts regulation, you cant change things values (Japan). Regulation
he would establish (China). is the extent to which a
sociology as a science. society has control over its
 Anomic – Too little members (China)
regulation, norms and values

43.
Maxwell Atkinson (1978) Suicide as socially Atkinson examined the
constructed ways in which coroner’s
Took an interactionist
classified deaths. It
(Ethnomethodology) Atkinson believed suicide had
was based on the
approach because he no objective reality. It’s
observations of
believes suicide is an societies that define suicide
inquests, interview with
expression of individual as something specific, the
coroners and
meaning rather than an act definition itself is varied.
examinations of
based on social forces. Atkinson wanted to find out
coroner’s records.
what this definition was and
Atkinson claimed that
how it was constructed.
Criticises Durkheim coroners have a
‘common-sense theory’
Atkinson's work shows The study of suicide of suicide- meaning if
that Durkheim didn’t find the facts fit the theory
anything objective about then a verdict of suicide
suicide just the corners is likely.
Secondary cues
theory (subjective). He
highlights that using  History of mental Primary cues
statistics is floored as we illness.
 Suicide note.
will never have access to
 Disturbed childhood.
those cases that were  Type of death – hanging.
suicide but categorised as  Recent loss or divorce.
 Place and circumstance
death by misadventure
 Financial problems. of death – garage,
because the death didn’t
windows and doors
match the corners theory.  Lack of friends.
closed.
 Problems at work.

44.
Steve Taylor (1988) Durkheim & Atkinson Wider definition
As a realist taylor rejects Taylor agrees with A wider definition of
Atkinson's view that Durkheim that we should suicide is needed in order
suicide is socially look for the underline to explain the broad
constructed, he argues it’s structural causes of suicide spectrum of suicidal
a real problem that but believes case studies behaviour, he therefore
requires a real solution. are more appropriate than defines suicide as ‘any
statistics. deliberate act of self-
Problems damage, or potential self-
damage where the
Case studies are
individual cannot be sure
unrepresentative. He fails of survival’.
to find out what causes The study of suicide
uncertainty or detachment.
Categories Taylor said Suicide
 Thanatation suicide – Uncertainty about the world and stems from an imbalance
detached from people. in individuals sense of
their own identity and
 Appeal suicide – uncertainty about the world but attached their relationship with
to people/person (jilted lover). others, this combines
 Submissive suicide – certain about your future but both personal thoughts
detached from people (terminal illness). and feelings and their
position in wider society.
 Sacrifice suicide – Attached to people and certain about
future, but unliveable.

45.
6. Sociological methods and the study of
crime
Key questions Key information
1. What areas of crime are of  Crime as a research context
interest to Sociologists?
 Official statistics, BCS and
self report studies.
2. What is the best way of  Questionnaires and crime
studying crime?
 Interviews and crime
 Observations and crime
3. What problems do
researchers face?  Experiments and crime
 Secondary sources – statistics
and documents
4. What factors influence the
type of methodology a  P.E.R.V.E.R.T
research will use?

46.
Researching Domestic Violence Researching violent crimes
Difficult to study due to being Few observational
under represented in statistics. opportunities unless a
The act itself has few public researcher manages to
witnesses and many victims infiltrate a gang. Great
choose to not report the danger can be posed to any
incident to the police. Greater researcher who explores this
Researching corporate
confidentiality is needed for and high crime areas. Victims
crime
that take part in the research of violent crimes are unlikely
for fear of further abuse. to want to be Likely to be under-
interviewed, unless by the reported in statistics
police. and by the media. The
Researching Criminal justice crimes themselves have
Crime as a
The police maybe open to research context low visibility and are
research but aware of public often difficult to
scrutiny. Studies of senior Researching Young offenders investigate, they may
officers is rare. Although even go beyond national
courts are public places, Studying these groups maybe borders. Perpetrators
judges, jurors and lawyers are be difficult to observe and are powerful and
often beyond study. Prisons interview due to suspicion organised and enjoy
are closed environments (police officer in disguise and political protection.
where researcher safety is the age, class, gender and
paramount. Prisoners often ethnicity of the researcher.
co-operate due to boredom Researchers must be aware of
but are no stranger to the vulnerability of this group
deception. and their use of
language, literacy and cognitive

47.
Official statistics Recorded crime Lack of crime reporting
Complied from A crime, which has Crimes may not be reported due
government departments been recorded by to:-
the police as a
like the police and crime. (Only 40%  fear of reprisal.
courts. of reported crime
is then recorded Lack of awareness (fraud).
due to
discretionary Fear it may not be taken
Reported crime powers of the seriously.
A crime, which the police).
 Crime is too trivial.
public has reported
to the police. (90%
of all crime the Crime statistics
Inaccurate picture of
police deal with is
crime
reported to them by
the public).  White collar crime dealt
with administratively.
Official crime statistics are  Only serious crimes
the tip of the iceberg, BCS from incidences is
and self-report studies recorded.
show there is more crime
Rules for counting always
than what can be seen on
change.
the surface. This is known
as the dark figure of crime Lack of recording makes
(what is recorded vs. clear up rates look higher.
reported).

48.
British Crime Survey The study is based on a
representative sample of adults
A victim study which asks Self-report studies
living in private households in
people if they have been a
England and Wales. In 2002 over Anonymous
victim of a crime and the
36,000 surveys were conducted. questionnaires which
circumstances of that
Certain crimes are excluded due ask respondents if they
crime. It was conducted
to low reporting such as murder, have committed a crime
every two years from
drug possession or dealing, fraud, over the past year.
1982 -2000 then every
offences against businesses.
year since.
They are usually based
Trends and patterns on self-completed
BCS and Self- questionnaires or
 BCS says 10.7 million crimes
committed, OS (4.7 million. report studies interviews which
contain a list of
The majority of crime is BCS: includes unreported offences.
property related. and unrecorded crime but Respondents are asked
 Violent crime accounts for only 75% is comparable with to highlight which they
1/5 of all crime police statistics. have committed. Self
report studies show us
 Overall crime peaked in 1995 Self-report: Mainly street that most people
and has declined ever since. crime (working class) commit crime at some
excludes hidden crimes like point in their lives so
 Men aged 16-24 most likely domestic violence. Only
to be a victim of violence. crime is normal.
gives a small picture of
criminal activity.

49.
Positivist Written questionnaires Closed questions
Respondents are asked to The respondent must choose
Generally used by
complete and return by post their answer from a limited
positivists due to their
or e-mail. range of possible answers like
ability to generate
yes, no or don’t know.
statistical data that is
Interviews
reliable, representative
Either face-to face or by Open questions
and generalisable
telephone. These allow the respondent to
answer freely in their own
Quantitative words.
Social Surveys
Large amounts of Questionnaires
Hypothesis
statistical data
A theory or idea to test
Primary Sampling techniques
This data has not been Pilot study
1. Random – people selected
collected before
by chance A trial run to test for
2. Systematic – every problems with questions
5th, 10th or 100th person is
Sample chosen. Operationalising concepts
Not all of the 3. Stratified – a sample that
population can be Putting concepts like God
reflects societies diversity or class into categories
studied so researchers
select a sample of it to 4. Quota – researchers have a (pre-set answers) that
study quota (amount) of can be easily analysed
requirements to fill

50.
Advantages Disadvantages
1. Quick, cheap and easy 1. The data is limited and
to gather. superficial.
2. Reliable – can be 2. Postal questions have a
replicated. low response rate, in
3. Can test a hypothesis. some studies it is as low
as 40%.
4. Detached and objective
way of collecting the 3. Very inflexible as
Social surveys - hypothesis cannot be
data.
Questionnaires changed or adapted.
5. Representative; due to
the large amount of data 4. A lack of validity
that can be gathered, means Questionnaires
especially if a good don’t gives us any real
sampling method is used. insight into people
behaviour.
6. Fewer ethical issues as
questions aren’t in depth 5. Using closed questions
and people can refuse to constrains people’s
answer. answers.
7. No issue of deception
as informed consent
has been gained.