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BY KINISH KUMAR(www
          .kinishcybersec.blogspot.in)
http://www.facebook.com/kinishkumar
Transmission media
 Transmission media
  are located below the
  physical layer
 Computers use signals
  to represent data.
 Signals are ransmitted
  in form of
  electromagnetic
  energy.
Transmission Media
  Transmission Media and Physical Layer
Transmission Media
  Guided Media (Wired)
      Twisted-Pair Cable
      Coaxial Cable
      Fiber-Optic Cable
  Unguided Media (Wireless)
      Radio Waves
      Microwaves
      Infrared
Classes of transmission media
GUIDED MEDIA

Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit
from one device to another, include twisted-pair cable,
coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable.
Overview
 The transmission media that are used to convey information can be
  classified as guided or unguided. Guided media provide a physical
  path along which the signals are propagated; these include twisted
  pair, coaxial cable, and optical fiber. Unguided media employ an
  antenna for transmitting through air, vacuum, or water.
 The characteristics and quality of a data transmission are determined
  both by the characteristics of the medium and the characteristics of
  the signal. In the case of guided media, the medium itself is more
  important in determining the limitations of transmission.
 For unguided media, the bandwidth of the signal produced by the
  transmitting antenna is more important than the medium in
  determining transmission characteristics. One key property of signals
  transmitted by antenna is directionality. In general, signals at lower
  frequencies are omnidirectional; that is, the signal propagates in all
  directions from the antenna. At higher frequencies, it is possible to
  focus the signal into a directional beam. In considering the design of
  data transmission systems, key concerns are data rate and distance:
  the greater the data rate and distance the better.
Data Rate and Bandwidth
 Any transmission system has a limited band of
  frequencies
 This limits the data rate that can be carried
Design Factors
 Bandwidth
    higher bandwidth gives higher data rate
 Transmission impairments
    eg. attenuation
 Interference
 Number of receivers in guided media
   more receivers introduces more attenuation
Guided Media – Twisted-pair Cable

         Twisted-pair cable
Twisted Pair
Twisted pair
 One of the wires carries signal, the other is used only as a ground
  reference.

 The receiver uses the difference b/w the two levels.

 Twisting increases the probability that both wires are effected by
  the noise in the same manner, thus the difference at the receiver
  remains same.

 Therefore, number of twists per unit length determines the
  quality of the cable.
Twisted Pair - Transmission
Characteristics
 analog
   needs amplifiers every 5km to 6km
 digital
   can use either analog or digital signals
   needs a repeater every 2-3km
 limited distance
 limited bandwidth (1MHz)
 limited data rate (100MHz)
 susceptible to interference and noise
Unshielded Versus Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable
               UTP and STP cables
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
 Ordinary telephone
  wire
 Cheapest
 Easiest to install
 Suffers from external
  EM interference
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
 Metal braid or
  sheathing that reduces
  interference
 More expensive
 Harder to handle
  (thick, heavy)
Near End Crosstalk
 coupling of signal from one pair to another
 occurs when transmit signal entering the link couples
  back to receiving pair
 ie. near transmitted signal is picked up by near
  receiving pair
Categories of unshielded twisted-pair cables
UTP Categories
Guided Media – UTP
        UTP Connector
Guided Media - UTP
  Applications:
      Telephone lines connecting subscribers to
       the central office
      DSL lines
      LAN – 10Base-T and 100Base-T
Twisted Pair - Applications
 Most common medium
 Telephone network
 Within buildings
 For local area networks (LAN)
Twisted Pair - Pros and Cons
 Cheap
 Easy to work with
 Low data rate
 Short range
Guided Media – Coaxial Cable
            Coaxial Cable
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable
 Inner conductor is a
  solid wire outer
  conductor serves both
  as a shield
 against noise and a
  second conductor
Coaxial Cable Applications
 Most versatile medium
 Television distribution
 Long distance telephone transmission
 Can carry 10,000 voice calls simultaneously
 Short distance computer systems links
 Local area networks
Coaxial Cable - Transmission
Characteristics
 superior frequency characteristics to TP
 performance limited by attenuation & noise
 analog signals
    amplifiers every few km
    closer if higher frequency
    up to 500MHz
 digital signals
    repeater every 1km
    closer for higher data rates
Guided Media – Coaxial Cable
        Categories of coaxial cables
Guided Media – Coaxial Cable
        BNC Connectors
BNC connectors
 BNC = Bayone-Neill-
  Concelman
 BNC Connector is used to
  connect the end of the
  cable to a device
 BNC T is used in networks
  to branch out a cable for
  connection to a computer
  or other device
 BNC Terminator is used at
  the end of the cable to
  prevent the reflection of
  signal.
Coaxial cable performance
Guided Media – Coaxial Cable
  Applications:
    Analog telephone networks
    Cable TV networks
    Traditional Ethernet LAN – 10Base2,
      10Base5
Guided Media – Fiber-Optic Cable
Fiber-optic cable transmit signals in the form of light.

             Bending of light ray
Bending of light ray
 Angle of Incidence (I): the angle the ray makes
  with the line perpendicular to the interface
  between the two substances

 Critical Angle: the angle of incidence which
  provides an angle of refraction of 90-degrees.
Guided Media – Fiber-Optic Cable
                 Optic Fiber
Optical fiber
 Uses reflection to
  guide light through a
  channel
 Core is of glass or
  plastic surrounded by
  Cladding
 Cladding is of less
  dense glass or plastic
Optical Fiber
Optical Fiber - Benefits
 greater capacity
    data rates of hundreds of Gbps
 smaller size & weight
 lower attenuation
 electromagnetic isolation
 greater repeater spacing
    10s of km at least
Optical Fiber - Benefits
 The following characteristics distinguish optical fiber from twisted pair or coaxial cable:
 Greater capacity: The potential bandwidth, and hence data rate, of optical fiber is
  immense; data rates of hundreds of Gbps over tens of kilometers have been
  demonstrated. Compare this to the practical maximum of hundreds of Mbps over
  about 1 km for coaxial cable and just a few Mbps over 1 km or up to 100 Mbps to 10
  Gbps over a few tens of meters for twisted pair.
 Smaller size and lighter weight: Optical fibers are considerably thinner than coaxial
  cable or bundled twisted-pair cable. For cramped conduits in buildings and
  underground along public rights-of-way, the advantage of small size is considerable.
  The corresponding reduction in weight reduces structural support requirements.
 Lower attenuation: Attenuation is significantly lower for optical fiber than for coaxial
  cable or twisted pair, and is constant over a wide range.
 Electromagnetic isolation: Optical fiber systems are not affected by external
  electromagnetic fields. Thus the system is not vulnerable to interference, impulse
  noise, or crosstalk. By the same token, fibers do not radiate energy, so there is little
  interference with other equipment and there is a high degree of security from
  eavesdropping. In addition, fiber is inherently difficult to tap.
 Greater repeater spacing: Fewer repeaters mean lower cost and fewer sources of
  error. The performance of optical fiber systems from this point of view has been
  steadily improving. Repeater spacing in the tens of kilometers for optical fiber is
  common, and repeater spacings of hundreds of kilometers have been demonstrated.
Optical Fiber - Transmission
Characteristics
 uses total internal reflection to transmit light
    effectively acts as wave guide for 1014 to 1015 Hz
 can use several different light sources
    Light Emitting Diode (LED)
        cheaper, wider operating temp range, lasts longer
    Injection Laser Diode (ILD)
      more efficient, has greater data rate

 relation of wavelength, type & data rate
Guided Media – Fiber-Optic Cable
              Propagation Modes
Guided Media – Fiber-Optic Cable
              Propagation Modes
Optical Fiber Transmission Modes
Guided Media – Fiber-Optic Cable
              Fiber Construction
Guided Media – Fiber-Optic Cable
              Fiber-optic Cable Connectors
Guided Media – Optical Fiber Cable
 Applications:
   Backbone networks – SONET
   Cable TV – backbone
   LAN
     100Base-FX network (Fast Ethernet)
     100Base-X
Transmission Characteristics of
  Guided Media
                  Frequency       Typical        Typical    Repeater
                    Range       Attenuation       Delay     Spacing
Twisted pair     0 to 3.5 kHz   0.2 dB/km @    50 µs/km    2 km
(with loading)                  1 kHz

Twisted pairs    0 to 1 MHz     0.7 dB/km @    5 µs/km     2 km
(multi-pair                     1 kHz
cables)
Coaxial cable    0 to 500 MHz   7 dB/km @ 10   4 µs/km     1 to 9 km
                                MHz
Optical fiber    186 to 370     0.2 to 0.5     5 µs/km     40 km
                 THz            dB/km
Comparison of Physical Media
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Wireless Transmission Frequencies
 2GHz to 40GHz
      microwave
      highly directional
      point to point
      satellite
 30MHz to 1GHz
    omnidirectional
    broadcast radio
 3 x 1011 to 2 x 1014
    infrared
    local
Unguided Media
           Propagation Methods
Bands
Unguided Media
      Wireless transmission waves
Broadcast Radio
 radio is 3kHz to 300GHz
 use broadcast radio, 30MHz - 1GHz, for:
    FM radio
    UHF and VHF television
 is omnidirectional
 still need line of sight
 suffers from multipath interference
    reflections from land, water, other objects
Unguided Media – Radio Waves
  Omnidirectional Antenna

                    Frequencies between 3 KHz and
                   1 GHz.
                    are used for multicasts
                   communications, such as radio and
                   television, and paging system.
Terrestrial Microwave
 used for long haul telecommunications
 and short point-to-point links
 requires fewer repeaters but line of sight
 use a parabolic dish to focus a narrow beam onto a
  receiver antenna
 1-40GHz frequencies
 higher frequencies give higher data rates
 main source of loss is attenuation
   distance, rainfall
 also interference
Unguided Media – Microwaves
   Frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz.
   Used for unicast communication such as cellular phones, satellite
    networks and wireless LANs.

                           Unidirectional Antenna
Satellite Microwave
 satellite is relay station
 typically requires geo-stationary orbit
   height of 35,784km
   spaced at least 3-4° apart
 typical uses
   television
   long distance telephone
   private business networks
   global positioning
Unguided Media – Infrared
   Frequencies between 300 GHz to 400 THz.
   Can not penetrate walls.
  Used for short-range communication in a
  closed area using line-of-sight propagation.
Infrared
   modulate noncoherent infrared light
   end line of sight (or reflection)
   are blocked by walls
   no licenses required
   typical uses
     TV remote control
     IRD port
Antennas
 electrical conductor used to radiate or collect
  electromagnetic energy
 transmission antenna
   radio frequency energy from transmitter
   converted to electromagnetic energy byy antenna
   radiated into surrounding environment
 reception antenna
   electromagnetic energy impinging on antenna
   converted to radio frequency electrical energy
   fed to receiver
 same antenna is often used for both purposes
Radiation Pattern
 power radiated in all directions
 not same performance in all directions
    as seen in a radiation pattern diagram
 an isotropic antenna is a (theoretical) point in space
    radiates in all directions equally
    with a spherical radiation pattern
Antenna Gain
 measure of directionality of antenna
 power output in particular direction verses that
  produced by an isotropic antenna
 measured in decibels (dB)
 results in loss in power in another direction
 effective area relates to size and shape
   related to gain
Satellite Point to Point Link
Satellite Broadcast Link
Wireless Propagation
Ground Wave
Wireless Propagation
Sky Wave
Wireless Propagation
Line of Sight
Line of Sight Transmission
 Free space loss
    loss of signal with distance
 Atmospheric Absorption
    from water vapour and oxygen absorption
 Multipath
    multiple interfering signals from reflections
 Refraction
    bending signal away from receiver
Multipath Interference
Comparison of Media
 Medium Cost Speed Atten Interfere Security
 UTP      Low 1-100M High High       Low
 STP     Medium 1-150M High Medium    Low
 Coax Medium 1M–1G Medium Medium       Low
 Fibre High     10M–2G Low Low       High
 Radio Medium 1-10M Varies High       Low
 Microw High 1M–10G Varies High     Medium
 Satellite High 1 M–10G Varies High  Medium
 Cellular High 9.6–19.2K Low Medium    Low

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Transmission media

  • 1. BY KINISH KUMAR(www .kinishcybersec.blogspot.in) http://www.facebook.com/kinishkumar
  • 2. Transmission media  Transmission media are located below the physical layer  Computers use signals to represent data.  Signals are ransmitted in form of electromagnetic energy.
  • 3. Transmission Media Transmission Media and Physical Layer
  • 4. Transmission Media  Guided Media (Wired)  Twisted-Pair Cable  Coaxial Cable  Fiber-Optic Cable  Unguided Media (Wireless)  Radio Waves  Microwaves  Infrared
  • 6. GUIDED MEDIA Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to another, include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable.
  • 7. Overview  The transmission media that are used to convey information can be classified as guided or unguided. Guided media provide a physical path along which the signals are propagated; these include twisted pair, coaxial cable, and optical fiber. Unguided media employ an antenna for transmitting through air, vacuum, or water.  The characteristics and quality of a data transmission are determined both by the characteristics of the medium and the characteristics of the signal. In the case of guided media, the medium itself is more important in determining the limitations of transmission.  For unguided media, the bandwidth of the signal produced by the transmitting antenna is more important than the medium in determining transmission characteristics. One key property of signals transmitted by antenna is directionality. In general, signals at lower frequencies are omnidirectional; that is, the signal propagates in all directions from the antenna. At higher frequencies, it is possible to focus the signal into a directional beam. In considering the design of data transmission systems, key concerns are data rate and distance: the greater the data rate and distance the better.
  • 8. Data Rate and Bandwidth  Any transmission system has a limited band of frequencies  This limits the data rate that can be carried
  • 9. Design Factors  Bandwidth  higher bandwidth gives higher data rate  Transmission impairments  eg. attenuation  Interference  Number of receivers in guided media  more receivers introduces more attenuation
  • 10. Guided Media – Twisted-pair Cable Twisted-pair cable
  • 12. Twisted pair  One of the wires carries signal, the other is used only as a ground reference.  The receiver uses the difference b/w the two levels.  Twisting increases the probability that both wires are effected by the noise in the same manner, thus the difference at the receiver remains same.  Therefore, number of twists per unit length determines the quality of the cable.
  • 13. Twisted Pair - Transmission Characteristics  analog  needs amplifiers every 5km to 6km  digital  can use either analog or digital signals  needs a repeater every 2-3km  limited distance  limited bandwidth (1MHz)  limited data rate (100MHz)  susceptible to interference and noise
  • 14. Unshielded Versus Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable UTP and STP cables
  • 15. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)  Ordinary telephone wire  Cheapest  Easiest to install  Suffers from external EM interference
  • 16. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)  Metal braid or sheathing that reduces interference  More expensive  Harder to handle (thick, heavy)
  • 17. Near End Crosstalk  coupling of signal from one pair to another  occurs when transmit signal entering the link couples back to receiving pair  ie. near transmitted signal is picked up by near receiving pair
  • 18. Categories of unshielded twisted-pair cables
  • 20. Guided Media – UTP UTP Connector
  • 21. Guided Media - UTP  Applications:  Telephone lines connecting subscribers to the central office  DSL lines  LAN – 10Base-T and 100Base-T
  • 22. Twisted Pair - Applications  Most common medium  Telephone network  Within buildings  For local area networks (LAN)
  • 23. Twisted Pair - Pros and Cons  Cheap  Easy to work with  Low data rate  Short range
  • 24. Guided Media – Coaxial Cable Coaxial Cable
  • 26. Coaxial cable  Inner conductor is a solid wire outer conductor serves both as a shield  against noise and a second conductor
  • 27. Coaxial Cable Applications  Most versatile medium  Television distribution  Long distance telephone transmission  Can carry 10,000 voice calls simultaneously  Short distance computer systems links  Local area networks
  • 28. Coaxial Cable - Transmission Characteristics  superior frequency characteristics to TP  performance limited by attenuation & noise  analog signals  amplifiers every few km  closer if higher frequency  up to 500MHz  digital signals  repeater every 1km  closer for higher data rates
  • 29. Guided Media – Coaxial Cable Categories of coaxial cables
  • 30. Guided Media – Coaxial Cable BNC Connectors
  • 31. BNC connectors  BNC = Bayone-Neill- Concelman  BNC Connector is used to connect the end of the cable to a device  BNC T is used in networks to branch out a cable for connection to a computer or other device  BNC Terminator is used at the end of the cable to prevent the reflection of signal.
  • 33. Guided Media – Coaxial Cable  Applications:  Analog telephone networks  Cable TV networks  Traditional Ethernet LAN – 10Base2, 10Base5
  • 34. Guided Media – Fiber-Optic Cable Fiber-optic cable transmit signals in the form of light. Bending of light ray
  • 35. Bending of light ray  Angle of Incidence (I): the angle the ray makes with the line perpendicular to the interface between the two substances  Critical Angle: the angle of incidence which provides an angle of refraction of 90-degrees.
  • 36. Guided Media – Fiber-Optic Cable Optic Fiber
  • 37. Optical fiber  Uses reflection to guide light through a channel  Core is of glass or plastic surrounded by Cladding  Cladding is of less dense glass or plastic
  • 39. Optical Fiber - Benefits  greater capacity  data rates of hundreds of Gbps  smaller size & weight  lower attenuation  electromagnetic isolation  greater repeater spacing  10s of km at least
  • 40. Optical Fiber - Benefits  The following characteristics distinguish optical fiber from twisted pair or coaxial cable:  Greater capacity: The potential bandwidth, and hence data rate, of optical fiber is immense; data rates of hundreds of Gbps over tens of kilometers have been demonstrated. Compare this to the practical maximum of hundreds of Mbps over about 1 km for coaxial cable and just a few Mbps over 1 km or up to 100 Mbps to 10 Gbps over a few tens of meters for twisted pair.  Smaller size and lighter weight: Optical fibers are considerably thinner than coaxial cable or bundled twisted-pair cable. For cramped conduits in buildings and underground along public rights-of-way, the advantage of small size is considerable. The corresponding reduction in weight reduces structural support requirements.  Lower attenuation: Attenuation is significantly lower for optical fiber than for coaxial cable or twisted pair, and is constant over a wide range.  Electromagnetic isolation: Optical fiber systems are not affected by external electromagnetic fields. Thus the system is not vulnerable to interference, impulse noise, or crosstalk. By the same token, fibers do not radiate energy, so there is little interference with other equipment and there is a high degree of security from eavesdropping. In addition, fiber is inherently difficult to tap.  Greater repeater spacing: Fewer repeaters mean lower cost and fewer sources of error. The performance of optical fiber systems from this point of view has been steadily improving. Repeater spacing in the tens of kilometers for optical fiber is common, and repeater spacings of hundreds of kilometers have been demonstrated.
  • 41. Optical Fiber - Transmission Characteristics  uses total internal reflection to transmit light  effectively acts as wave guide for 1014 to 1015 Hz  can use several different light sources  Light Emitting Diode (LED)  cheaper, wider operating temp range, lasts longer  Injection Laser Diode (ILD)  more efficient, has greater data rate  relation of wavelength, type & data rate
  • 42. Guided Media – Fiber-Optic Cable Propagation Modes
  • 43. Guided Media – Fiber-Optic Cable Propagation Modes
  • 45. Guided Media – Fiber-Optic Cable Fiber Construction
  • 46. Guided Media – Fiber-Optic Cable Fiber-optic Cable Connectors
  • 47. Guided Media – Optical Fiber Cable  Applications:  Backbone networks – SONET  Cable TV – backbone  LAN  100Base-FX network (Fast Ethernet)  100Base-X
  • 48. Transmission Characteristics of Guided Media Frequency Typical Typical Repeater Range Attenuation Delay Spacing Twisted pair 0 to 3.5 kHz 0.2 dB/km @ 50 µs/km 2 km (with loading) 1 kHz Twisted pairs 0 to 1 MHz 0.7 dB/km @ 5 µs/km 2 km (multi-pair 1 kHz cables) Coaxial cable 0 to 500 MHz 7 dB/km @ 10 4 µs/km 1 to 9 km MHz Optical fiber 186 to 370 0.2 to 0.5 5 µs/km 40 km THz dB/km
  • 51. Wireless Transmission Frequencies  2GHz to 40GHz  microwave  highly directional  point to point  satellite  30MHz to 1GHz  omnidirectional  broadcast radio  3 x 1011 to 2 x 1014  infrared  local
  • 52. Unguided Media Propagation Methods
  • 53. Bands
  • 54. Unguided Media Wireless transmission waves
  • 55. Broadcast Radio  radio is 3kHz to 300GHz  use broadcast radio, 30MHz - 1GHz, for:  FM radio  UHF and VHF television  is omnidirectional  still need line of sight  suffers from multipath interference  reflections from land, water, other objects
  • 56. Unguided Media – Radio Waves Omnidirectional Antenna  Frequencies between 3 KHz and 1 GHz.  are used for multicasts communications, such as radio and television, and paging system.
  • 57. Terrestrial Microwave  used for long haul telecommunications  and short point-to-point links  requires fewer repeaters but line of sight  use a parabolic dish to focus a narrow beam onto a receiver antenna  1-40GHz frequencies  higher frequencies give higher data rates  main source of loss is attenuation  distance, rainfall  also interference
  • 58. Unguided Media – Microwaves  Frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz.  Used for unicast communication such as cellular phones, satellite networks and wireless LANs. Unidirectional Antenna
  • 59. Satellite Microwave  satellite is relay station  typically requires geo-stationary orbit  height of 35,784km  spaced at least 3-4° apart  typical uses  television  long distance telephone  private business networks  global positioning
  • 60. Unguided Media – Infrared  Frequencies between 300 GHz to 400 THz.  Can not penetrate walls. Used for short-range communication in a closed area using line-of-sight propagation.
  • 61. Infrared  modulate noncoherent infrared light  end line of sight (or reflection)  are blocked by walls  no licenses required  typical uses  TV remote control  IRD port
  • 62. Antennas  electrical conductor used to radiate or collect electromagnetic energy  transmission antenna  radio frequency energy from transmitter  converted to electromagnetic energy byy antenna  radiated into surrounding environment  reception antenna  electromagnetic energy impinging on antenna  converted to radio frequency electrical energy  fed to receiver  same antenna is often used for both purposes
  • 63. Radiation Pattern  power radiated in all directions  not same performance in all directions  as seen in a radiation pattern diagram  an isotropic antenna is a (theoretical) point in space  radiates in all directions equally  with a spherical radiation pattern
  • 64. Antenna Gain  measure of directionality of antenna  power output in particular direction verses that produced by an isotropic antenna  measured in decibels (dB)  results in loss in power in another direction  effective area relates to size and shape  related to gain
  • 65. Satellite Point to Point Link
  • 70. Line of Sight Transmission  Free space loss  loss of signal with distance  Atmospheric Absorption  from water vapour and oxygen absorption  Multipath  multiple interfering signals from reflections  Refraction  bending signal away from receiver
  • 72. Comparison of Media  Medium Cost Speed Atten Interfere Security  UTP Low 1-100M High High Low  STP Medium 1-150M High Medium Low  Coax Medium 1M–1G Medium Medium Low  Fibre High 10M–2G Low Low High  Radio Medium 1-10M Varies High Low  Microw High 1M–10G Varies High Medium  Satellite High 1 M–10G Varies High Medium  Cellular High 9.6–19.2K Low Medium Low