A team of MDes students from OCAD University in Toronto defines problem areas and opportunities for innovation in early childhood learning in urban slums.

1. Time for change.
A human-centred design perspective on
early childhood education in urban slums.
Project Two: Problem Framing
Sean Molloy
Kevin Morris
Lorraine Randell
Marta Scythes
Julie Sommerfreund

2. The Context
sets the stage for where we’ll innovate.
Identifying Stakeholders
tells us who is present and what their needs are.
Problem Areas
stem from emergent patterns found within the stakeholder ecosystem.
Personas
develop human-centred perspectives of the people we need to consider.
Journey Mapping
identifies critical moments and touch points for transformation & change.
Innovation Criteria
states the requirements we must meet and the constraints we’ll design within.

3. context

4. The Benefits of ECE.
Early childhood education programs have been found to yield
benefits in academic achievement, behaviour, educational
progression, delinquency and crime, and labor market success.
There is mounting evidence that interventions in early childhood
education particularly benefit the poor and disadvantaged. It
may also have positive impacts on parents and the economy as
a whole.
ECE interventions can be a gateway to other development
supports like nutrition and health. It also improves gender and
social inequalities and has been linked to better cognitive,
language, physical and social development.

5. Who Cares for Children?
Kenya is heavily effected by the AIDS epidemic. 1.6 million
people in the country have AIDS and 1.1 million children are
orphaned because of it. 180,000 children in Kenya are HIV
positive.
Urban migration is also impacting the family structure while
increasing the number of single parents. The number of non
relative caregivers are on the rise as the traditional family
structure breaks down. Single mother family units are becoming
more of the norm along with orphans
Currently there are 2.6 million orphans in Kenya. If the main
caregiver is not a parent, children are usually cared for by
grandparents, relatives, siblings, the community or orphanages.

6. Children in Slums
72% of Nairobi’s population lives in congested informal settlements,
commonly referred to as slums, without proper access to sanitation,
clean water, health care and other social services.
Children in such areas are exposed to disproportionately high health
hazards. Results show that the slum-born have higher mortality than
non-slum-born, an indication that delivery in the slums has long-term
health consequences for children
Data from the slums of Nairobi show that children living in slum
settlements are considerably more likely to get sick from infectious
diseases, less likely to use medical services, and more likely to die
than other major sub-populations, including rural residents.

7. identifying
stakeholders

8. Stakeholder Identification.
Female Child
Pregnant
Women
Women’s Groups
Grandmothers
Birth
Attendant
Married
Parents
Male Child Unborn Child
Fathers
Non-relative
Caregiver
Siblings
Teachers
Local Industry
Churches
Public
Healthcare
NFPs/NGOs
Doctors
Slum Dwellers
International
School
Administrators

9. fulfillment
income
admin time
community support
working capital
tools & resources
facility
training
Teachers.
ECE educators we observed in Kenya were driven by a motivation to
help their communities. Despite a less than promising outlook for
steady income, these young men and women often complete a first-level
ECE diploma and begin their own school. In this sense, many ECE
educators are also small business owners. While their need for
fulfillment and satisfaction is quite high, this entrepreneurial zest leads
the ECE educator to take on a number of wide ranging roles which
ultimately take away from actual teaching time. Our research showed
the ECE educator spending much of their time building learning
materials, salvaging trash to use for lessons, chasing overdue
payments, and dealing with administrative tasks. Because their business
depends on parents paying for the child’s education, maintaining a
steady revenue stream is difficult. Counterintuitively, this leads the ECE
teacher to take on more students, further increasing administrative
workload, stressing school capacity, and adding to the list of slow-paying
or non-paying parents. Often the ECE educator teachers out of
their own home, or using a rented facility which tends to be inadequate
for the number of students present.
Needs:

10. safety & protection
mother & child health
development
caring parent/figure
acceptance of
learning
Children.
They are commonly malnourished and because they lack Needs:
access to basic health care, are often afflicted with diseases
such as parasitic infestations. Children are often subjected to
or witness violence and abuse and are psychologically
affected for life. Due to extreme poverty in informal
settlements, many children have little stimulation, access to
toys and safe play areas. It is common that children do not
attend school or drop out at a young age as they are
needed to help at home with siblings, chores, water
collection or their Caregivers simply can not afford to send
their Children to school. Parents or Caregivers are often
illiterate and may not see the value in their children’s
education leaving their children little opportunity for social
change or mobility.

11. income
safety & protection
physical/mental health
child wellbeing
parenting knowledge
time & workload
Parents.
(incl. caregivers)
Needs:
A wide range of people can be considered parents or caregivers in a child’s
life in the African slum including parents, single mothers, teenage mothers,
grandparents, siblings and other community members.The family structure in
Kenya is shifting from a large extended community structure to more
individualistic. The single parent family structure is starting to emerge. The
old traditions are no longer, but the new structure is not yet normal. Single
mothers often still rely on their parents but increasingly feel isolated in the
community and are prone to depression. Parents are interested in their
children doing better than themselves and hope their children will help them
when they grow up.Parents or caregivers in the slum are often uneducated
and illiterate.

12. Healthcare
Needs:
Workers. satisfaction & care
income
education, training,
skills
retention, migration
capacity
donor & funder
interests
facilities &
infrastructure
policy visibility
Kenya suffers from an overall shortage of health care workers and has a skill
imbalances among the existing workforce.There is a maldistribution of health workers
between urban and rural areas and between the public and private sectors.
Healthcare workers face poor working environments rife with deficient equipment,
lack of drugs and supplies along with irregular supervision and oversight.
Professional development is a concern with a weak knowledge base in core skills and
competencies the norm. There is a shortage of capital to pay for infrastructure,
healthcare education, supplies, drugs and training. Care delivery through the
traditional medical model we are familiar with in the western world and more
traditional “medicine” is not aligned. Tradition can often trump science in health care
depending on the setting and individual. The largest discipline is nursing and a
professional college exists in Kenya that is unionized but many nurses work outside
this system.Nurses in clinics, especially public ones, are often the last line of defense
and can serve well beyond scopes of practice more prevalent in western countries.

13. uphold traditions
relevance
care
trust and loyalty
income
Traditional Birth
Attendants (TBAs)
In Kenya’s slums, pregnant women often opt to have their children delivered in
their own homes by community elders known as Traditional Birth Attendants
(TBAs). TBAs generally use natural, traditional, and spiritual/religious birthing
methods, often showing a resistance to more modern delivery practices. TBAs
might deliver five to seven babies in a single day. Studies have shown that, while
the community trusts TBAs because of their status in the community, their delivery
success rate is quite low. A range of external organizations including NGOs and
Healthcare associations frequently see the TBA as a barrier to early childhood
health. A smaller number of these organizations have attempted, mostly
unsuccessfully, to intervene by either educating community women directly, or
trying to partner with TBAs to bring women in labour to licensed facilities. The
TBAs, therefore, see their livelihoods at stake, increasing their perceived pressure
to win the trust of the community in order to uphold their traditions and income
sources. While this community trust is admirable, the TBA’s healthcare practices
are less so, which may be a point of focus later in the project.
Needs:

14. Relative Stakeholder Needs.
teachers
fulfillment
income
admin time
community support
working capital
tools & resources
facility
training
children
safety & protection
mother & child
health
development
caring parent/figure
acceptance of
learning
parents
income
safety & protection
physical/mental
health
child wellbeing
parenting
knowledge
time & workload
healthcare
satisfaction & care
income
education, training,
skills
retention, migration
capacity
donor & funder
interests
facilities &
infrastructure
policy visibility
TBAs
uphold traditions
relevance
care
trust and loyalty
income

15. problem
areas

16. A design tension identifies not a
problem or a solution, but rather a
limited resource or choice across
one or more criteria.
Design tensions help us search the
situation for crucial points that may
make or break a system.

17. Recognizing Design Tensions.
need for income
need for care
trust of tradition need for change
teacher as teacher teacher as admin
returns on ECE $ accessible financing
new social structure social support for ECE

18. From Design Tensions to Problem Areas.
The team used the concept of ‘Design
Tensions’ to synthesize our insights. By
grouping Design Tensions from
independent and collaborative research,
we were able to identify nine major
problem areas which we would consider
as meaningful possible territories for
innovation.

19. From Design Tensions to Problem Areas.
Trust of TBAs
in ECE
Care vs.
Income
Money,
Income, Time
as Currency
Family
Support of ECE
Maternal
Health
Parallels b/w
Healthcare &
ECE
Education
Level of Parents
Changing
Traditions in the
Slum
Time as a
Scarce
Resource

20. Possible Problem Direction:
Family Support of Early Learning
A mother of three is recently on her
own. Her husband left her after their
third child and she is now isolated in the
community. Her husband’s family no
longer drops by. She wishes she could
be a part of the community but people
treat her like she’s a prostitute. Her
children no longer can go to ECE and
she has lost her social network.

21. Possible Problem Direction:
Education Levels of Parents
A mother of three children has tried to
sort out the ECE system in her area but
she can’t read the flyers that her friends
have brought over. She wishes she
could read to her kids but she can’t.
She sings at home. When her children
play with other kids she notices that
other kids have a lot more words than
hers.

22. Possible Problem Direction:
Time as a Scarce Resource for Teachers
An ECE teacher sees almost 100 kids
per day. She spends her entire day
dedicated to early childhood education
but only 25% of it is actually teaching.
During the day she also makes her own
toys and classroom resources, designs
her lesson plans, cooks lunch for the
kids, recruits new students and chases
parents for the money they owe.

23. Possible Problem Direction:
Care at the Expense of Income
A mom in the slum has a hard choice to
make, her safety or an income to feed
her children. She puts herself at risk and
does dangerous work so she can feed
the kids but she still doesn’t have the
time to play with them. They don’t get
to play with toys and she doesn’t get to
read them.

24. Possible Problem Direction:
Parallels between Healthcare and ECE
A nurse and an ECE teacher have a lot of similarities
and so do the systems in which they work. Like the
ECE teacher, the nurse spends an inordinate amount
of time doing administration and playing roles that
take her time away from providing healthcare. She
also functions in a world where tradition and culture
play an important part. She is less trusted than
traditional medicine and she has limited resources.
She hopes to make a difference in people’s lives but
she struggles to earn enough money.

25. Possible Problem Direction:
Trust of Traditional Birth Attendants
A traditional birth attendant is a well
trusted member of the community. She
knows most of the children and their
families in the slums. She helps with
their births but sometimes the mom
and/or baby doesn’t make it. They die.
She believes that this is god’s way. She
enjoys supporting births but also needs
other sources of income. She is more
trusted than the outsiders who come to
help the community.

26. Possible Problem Direction:
Maternal Health
Lisa just gave birth to a beautiful baby boy. She
loves him very much but there is so much he needs.
He is so vulnerable and exposed, she needs to feed
him, find clothes and change him. But she is
exhausted, she also has needs, she needs an
education, an income, a community, food for herself.
She finds herself having to choose between herself
and her baby. When she was pregnant, she often
put her baby first, now she doesn’t know how to do
that.

27. Possible Problem Direction:
Traditions in the Slums
A pregnant mother is torn, does she travel a far distance
to the hospital to have her baby or does she go to her
friend and neighbour, the traditional birth attendant?
When she was younger, she always knew that she’d go
to the TBA like her mom did but now everything is
changing. But that was when she lived in the village and
everyone was her family. They would all be there when
the baby was born and would be in their life forever.
Now it’s just her and her mom, who will help if anything
goes wrong? She decides to go the TBA and pray.

28. Possible Problem Direction:
Money & Time as Currency
The traditional birth attendant spends a lot of time trying
to make additional income to supplement her decreasing
role as a birth attendant. A mom of three spends so
much of her time trying to get money to meet the basic
physical needs of her children, she doesn’t get to spend
time with them. An ECE teacher never gets to spend her
time teaching, she has so many other things to do to run
the school. The oldest girl in her family never gets to
stay at school all day because she has to take care of her
baby brother since the baby group ends at lunch. And
there is not enough money for any of them.

29. Four Criteria for
Choosing a Problem Area
1. Did the opportunity area stem from unique or
unexpected insights?
2. Does the opportunity represent an area where change is
feasible?
3. Does the area represent an overlooked or underserved
opportunity?
4. Does the opportunity area present a territory where
disruptive change can take place?

30. innovate
here.
Unique &
Unexpected
Feasible
to Change
Overlooked or
Underserved
Potential for
Impact

31. Ranking & Prioritizing Problem Directions.
Trust of TBAs
Family Support of ECE
Parent Education
Money & Time as Currency
Teaching Time vs. Admin Time - Scarce Resource
Care vs. Income
Mother vs Baby
Healthcare and ECE
Traditions and New Practices
89
Using our four criteria for selecting an innovation area, the team objectively
ranked each potential problem area. After scoring, discussion, and further
synthesis, the team was able to identify a clear problem direction. ‘Money &
Time as Currency’ scored highest, and the team also included the ‘Time as a
Scarce Resource’ theme in this problem direction because of the overlap
between the two.

32. Problem Direction: Time
What if we could
make more time
available for those
involved in the
child’s early years?

33. personas

34. Milka | ECE teacher in the slums of Nyalena
Frustrations & Pain Points
• Workload is overwhelming
• Payment is not reliable
• Teaching time is limited by other
administrative tasks
Milka is a thirty-two year old teacher in the slum area of Nairobi, Kenya. She received her
ECE diploma seven years ago after she decided to dedicate her life to working with young
children. Without any money to rent or buy a building, Milka began an ECE program out of
her home in the slums of Nyalenda. Milka is the founder, administrator, coordinator, and
also a teacher.
Milka first offered the school for free to help a small group of children community, even
hand-sewing uniforms and offering food to those who attended. Eventually, the program
grew and Milka began charging 400 shillings a month to cover her expenses. Many parents
could not afford this and chose not to send their children anymore. Still, Milka’s school sees
around 95 children each day, 40 of which are in the ‘baby class’.
Milka has contacted NGOs with no success. She “would just like to not worry about the
money and be able to teach all of the children freely”.
• Basic supplies aren’t available for number of
students
Influencers
• Students
• Teachers
• Parents

35. Josephine | Traditional birth attendant
Josephine is a 67 year old traditional birth attendant in the slums of Nairobi, where she has
delivered babies to slum mothers for over thirty years. She is one of thirty TBAs in the slum
who the community looks to for birthing support. She delivers one or two babies each week
in a slum mother’s home. Josephine believes in traditional birth practices, such as ancient
herbal lotions, and does not use delivery tools like those found in a hospital. She learned
these from other community elders and this is Josephine’s only ‘education’.
It is not uncommon for the babies or mothers who Josephine works with to become sick or
even die after birth. Josephine says “this is a sign of something greater than us. Maybe this
mother has been unfaithful. It is for a reason”.
Over her thirty years of work in this area, Josephine says that many outside organizations
have tried to interfere with her work and even try to work with her. She does not trust these
outsiders and warns the community mothers about the suspicious of new medicines and
practices they offer in ‘real hospitals’. Because of these interventions, however, Josephine
now sells water in her free time in order to supplement her income.
Influencers
• Slum community mothers
• NGOs and outside health organizations
• Religious, spiritual and community elders/
leaders
Frustrations & Pain Points
• Pressure from outside organizations to conform to
new practices
• Some community mothers seeking help from other
birth services such as midwives and clinics
• Religious and community elders see Josephine and
fellow TBAs as front lines of decreasing number of
church goers

36. Kito is an 8 year old orphan child who lives in Soweto Village, an Informal Settlement in
Kibera Slum, Nairobi, Kenya. His Mother died of AIDS after delivering a baby girl and his
Father deserted the family shortly thereafter.
Kito is a busy young person. He is head of his household and spends each day caring for his
young sister, running deliveries for his uncle’s urban goat and chicken farm and bartering for
water/food by helping a Birthing Assistant with daily care of young orphans. Kito misses his
mom.
When my Mom was alive, we lived in a nice big flat with two rooms on the second floor. I
remember my Mom singing a lot before she got sick. My Father was always away, so I
helped with housework when my Mom was laying down and sleeping all the time. Then
she died. I miss my Mom and I dream about her dying and then I wake and she is
already gone.
Now Kito wishes they would have lots of food and could go back to their flat and that he
could pay for his sister’s medicine. Kito is afraid to try and get food in the streets in Nairobi,
“My friend went and he didn’t come back.”
Frustrations & Pain Points
• Can not go to school/no time/money
• Hungry and thirsty
• Little time for playing
• Scared, sad, full of anxiety at night
• Worried that his sister will die
Influencers
• Family (Uncle and Aunt, Sibling)
• TBA
• Teacher
Kito | Orphan in Kibera Slum

37. Otieno is a 32 year old man that lives and works in Kibera. He has five children with
my wife even though I cannot afford them with my low wage. “My latest child was
born because the birth control my wife used was counterfeit”, says Otieno. He has two
other wives and four children with them but I am not part of their lives. Otieno was
raised in a rural part of Kenya and moved to Kibera at age 7. “This was very hard for
me but my mom thought it would be a etter life here. At least in Kibera, you can have
a little bit to survive, back home there is nothing” says Otieno.
He works as a driver in Nairobi and drives tourists or businessmen around the city all
day in a car that is owned by a company. He works 12 hours a day, 6 days a week. He
is told that he has to work more if he wants to keep my job. Otieno would love to
move his family to a better place where they could have a better future but he feels he
cannot get out of Kibera.
Frustrations & Pain Points
• He does not have hope and wants to forget
his life
• He drinks to escape
• He is worried about losing his job
• Has just enough money for his kids
Influencers
• Peer pressure – other men
• His wives
• His children
• Employer
• His parents are both now dead
Otieno | Man in Kibera Slum

38. Sabiha | Mother in Kibera Slum
Sabiha is 25 years old and a mother of three children. Her eldest daughter is 8, her son is 4
and her new baby was born 6 months ago. Her husband disappeared last year after our third
child was born. To earn money she now works at the dump to collect plastic bags to sell to a
recycler. She says the work is very hard and she brings her baby with her as she has nowhere
else to go. Now she relies on her eldest daughter to take care of her son because her
husband’s family has abandoned her.
“Without my husband’s job, we now have had to move into a shack with another family.
Sometimes, I’m not sure that I will be able to feed my children and usually there’s not
enough for me. But my children are beautiful and I love them so much.”
Frustrations & Pain Points
● Often doesn’t have enough food for her
children or herself
● She doesn’t have time to play with her baby
● She is having trouble breast feeding
● She is isolated and depressed
● She might get hurt at work or at home
● She is afraid for her safety and her children’s
safety without a man in the house
Influencers:
● Her family
● Other women in the community
● TBA

39. Aleela is a 23 year old nurse who works in one of the poorest parts of Nairobi – a
neighborhood called Kibera. She works 15 hours a day, 6 days a week as there is a
shortage of health workers in the area. “One district over, we have too many doctors
and nurses as people can pay for them, here we have to make do with what we have”,
says Aleela.
She works in the public system where I deal with shortages of supplies, drugs and
other health care workers to collaborate with. Aleela is frustrated,“I am thinking of
moving to the private system where they have more.” Aleela feels isolated at her work,
“The environment I work in is unsafe and sometimes I feel very alone as I don’t have
the right equipment or supplies to do my job”.
Frustrations & Pain Points
• overwhelmed, discouraged and may want to move somewhere else in the
world where she may make more money and be happier with my future.
- She is alone and suffers because of the skills shortage in Kenya
- In the private system, she would be better off and more well resourced, as she
is a public worker she has less
- She doesn’t have the supplies, equipment, drugs or infrastructure to do her job
properly
- She also feels like she does not have all the proper training she should have to
keep her skills up to date
- There is no money in the system, she has to barter for essential items to keep
the clinic running
- She has been trained in medicine based on science but is constantly faced with
tension from those who believe in traditional cures to serious and very
contagious illnesses
- She cannot work 24 hours a day, but often does
Influencers:
- The community (she serves those most vulnerable)
- Funders, NGOs, government, private entities –
whoever pays for or controls services where she works
- Regulatory bodies – the Nursing Council of Kenya
- Suppliers and pharma companies
Aleela | Nurse in Kibera Slum

40. journey
mapping

52. Learning from the Journey Mapping
Process.
After laying out the Events, Thinking, and Feeling
tracks, the team returned to identify new learning
from each journey map. We call these Moments.
Moments represent any points along the map that
are of interest to us because of something new we
learned by going through the journey mapping
process.

53. Moments of Interest. • Breastfeeding appears to be a challenge that recurs for the
mother and an opportunity for education/involvement from
healthcare sector or traditional health leaders
• Single mothers feel isolated from the rest of the community, as do
nurses and ECE teachers when they are overwhelmed
• The baby, although with their mother for the entire day, does not
get interaction from the mother when she is working. The child is
usually in a baby wrap.
• At the nurse’s early morning clinic there is a potential for all of the
caregivers (mother and orphan sibling) to be there with the baby
and other children
• Similarly, at the start of the school program there is a potential for
the teacher to interact with the caregivers along with the baby
and other children
• Based on the journey map for the mom and baby, they have less
opportunity to engage with the teacher but they do meet other
women from the community at their work
• People travel long distances to visit the nurse during off hours
when they need health related help in the middle of the night
• A day in the life of a nurse is very similar to the day in the life of
the ECE teacher
• Men seem to play a very small role in the life of children in Kenya
• The physical location of where healthcare is provided in children
aged 0 - 3 is quite often the same as where education services is
provided and vice versa

54. Creating Points of View from Journey
Mapping.
While the identified Problem Area is “Time”, the
team recognized the importance to the next phase
of the project in creating Points of View.
The outputs of Defining our Problem Area,
Creating Personas, and Journey Mapping became
the inputs for our Points of View. These Points of
View include the users we are interested in
designing for and under what circumstances.

55. Two points of view
on time.
A struggling
teacherpreneur, who only
wants to help her
community and make a
modest income, needs to
spend more time
educating and less time
administering.

56. Two points of view
on time.
A working mother, who
must generate income to
feed her family, needs to
find work while also finding
the time to properly care
for her 6 month old child.

57. innovation
criteria

58. 1 Design for contextual relevance.
2 Design for economics.
3 Design for repeatability & adaptability.
4 Design for the benefit of the child.
5 Design for emotion & empowerment.

59. barriers.

60. 1 The power of tradition.
2 Finding revenue streams.
ECE regulation and operating
environment.
3
4
Conceptual understanding of
‘time’ in Africa.

61. conclusion

62. The Context
The early childhood development needs of children in Kenya are not met.
Identifying Stakeholders
There are five main stakeholder groups: Children. Caregivers, Teachers,
Birth Attendants, Healthcare Workers
Problem Areas
‘Making Time Available’ met our criteria of uniqueness, feasibility,
overlooked needs, and possibility for disruptive change.
Personas
Six personas guided our development of insights grounded in empathy.
Journey Mapping
Explored 24 hours in the life of our Personas in order to identify Moments &
Interactions to shape our Points of View.
Innovation Criteria
We will design for: Contextual Relevance, Economic Realities, Repeatability &
Adaptability, the Benefit of the Child, and Emotional Fulfillment.

63. A Video Reflection.
https://vimeo.com/110848172
Password: businessanddesign
As part of our project, we
documented our work and
reflections on the process
in a short film, available
for viewing with the link
and password below.

64. bibliography

65. Bibliography
Amuyunzu-Nyamongo, M., & Nyamongo, I. (2006). Health Seeking Behaviour of Mothers of Under-Five-Year-Old Children in the Slum Communities of Nairobi, Kenya. Anthropology and Medicine , 13 (1).
Bourdanné, D. (2010). Family Life in Africa. Retrieved from Transforming Lives on Four Continents: http://www.bmsworldmission.org/africanfamily
Fotso, J., Ezeh, A., Ogollah, R., & Ziraba, A. What does access to maternity health care among the urban poor mean? University of Southampton.
Kindzeka, M., & Lattus, A. (2012). Africa's family structure faces massive upheaval. Retrieved from Deutsche Welle: http://www.dw.de/africas-family-structure-faces-massive-upheaval/a-15780769
Moja Afryka. (n.d.). Concept of Family in Africa. Retrieved 2014, from Moja Afryka: http://mojaafryka.weebly.com/concept-of-family.html
Nairobi Community Movie House. (2014). African Slum Journal. Retrieved 2014, from http://www.africanslumjournal.com
Social Trends Institute. (2008). Family Structures and Globalization in Africa. Retrieved from Social Trends Institute: http://www.socialtrendsinstitute.org/experts/experts-meetings/culture-lifestyles/family-structures-and-globalization-in-africa
Izugbara, C., Tikkanen, R., & Barron, K. (2014). Men, masculinity, and community development in Kenyan slums. Community Development, 32-44.
Boomtown Slum. (2012, December 22). The Economist.
Barnett, W., & Ackerman, D. (n.d.). Costs, Benefits, And Long-Term Effects Of Early Care And Education Programs: Recommendations And Cautions For Community Developers. Community Development, 86-100. Vol. 37, No. 2,
Summer 2006
Barnett, W., & Escobar, C. (1989). Research on the cost effectiveness of early educational intervention: Implications for research and policy. American Journal of Community Psychology, 17(6), 677-704.
Kenya Country Statistics, UNICEF. (2013, December 27). Retrieved November 5, 2014, from http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/kenya_statistics.html
Karoly, L., Kilburn, R., & Cannon, J. (2005). Proven Benefits of Early Childhood Interventions. Rand Labour and Population. RAND.
Early Childhood Education Has Widespread and Long Lasting Benefits. (2012).Special Report - TD Economics. Retrieved November 5, 2014, from http://www.td.com/document/PDF/economics/special/
di1112_EarlyChildhoodEducation.pdf
Halpern, R. (1990). Poverty and Early Childhood Parenting: Toward a Framework for Intervention. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 60(1), 6-18.
Anthony, D., & Anthony, D. (2012). The state of the world's children 2012: Children in an urban world. New York, NY: United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF).
UNICEF. (2014). An Early Childhood Development: A Statistical Snapshot. Data and Analystic Section.
Pain, P. (2014, September 5). Hunger still holds back India's Schools. The Guardian Weekly
Nair, M. K. C., & Rekha Radhakrishnan, S. (2004). Early childhood development in deprived urban settlements. Indian pediatrics, 41(3), 227-238.
Mboho, M., Eyo, U., & Agbaje, A. (2012). Services of the traditional birth attendants: how relevant in achieving millenium development goal 5? Academic Research International. 2(3), 710-717.
Casillas, Giselle Emilia Navarro, "Early Care and Education for At-Risk Children in Rural and Urban Slums in Kenya" (2010). Independent Study Project (ISP) Collection. Paper 967. http://digitalcollections.sit.edu/isp_collection/967

66. Bibliography (cont’d)
Mboho, M., Eyo, U., & Agbaje, A. (2012). Services of the traditional birth attendants: how relevant in achieving millenium development goal 5? Academic Research International. 2(3), 710-717.
Casillas, Giselle Emilia Navarro, "Early Care and Education for At-Risk Children in Rural and Urban Slums in Kenya" (2010). Independent Study Project (ISP) Collection. Paper 967. http://digitalcollections.sit.edu/isp_collection/967
Meda, S. G. (2013). Single Mothers of Nairobi: Rural-Urban Migration and the Transformation of Gender Roles and Family Relations in Kenya. Lidé města, (02), 279-307.
Abuya, B., Ciera, J., & Kimani-Murage, E. (2012). Effect of mother’s education on child’s nutritional status in the slums of Nairobi. BMC Pediatrics, 12.
Ramachandran, V., & Saihjee, A. (2002). The New Segregation: Reflections on Gender and Equity in Primary Education. 37(17), 1600-1613.
Irwin, L.G., Siddiqi, A., & Hertzman, C. (March, 2007) Early Childhood Development - Powerful Equalizer. A Report from the World Health Organization’s Commission on Social Determinants of Health.
Samuelsson, I.P. & Kaga, Y. The Contribution of Early Childhood Education to a Sustainable Society. UNESCO. (2008) http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0015/001593/159355e.pdf.
Shonkoff, J. P. (2010), Building a New Biodevelopmental Framework to Guide the Future of Early Childhood Policy. Child Development, 81:357–367.
Phillips, D. A., & Shonkoff, J. P. (Eds.). (2000). From Neurons to Neighborhoods: The Science of Early Childhood Development. National Academies Press.
Type: academic (book)
Awasthi S, Peto R, Pande VK, Fletcher RH, Read S, et al. (2008) Effects of Deworming on Malnourished Preschool Children in India: An Open-Labelled, Cluster-Randomized Trial. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2(4): e223. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.
0000223
Waldfogel, Jane (2004) Social mobility, life chances and the early years. (2004) Center for Analysis of Social Exclusion, London School of Economics
Herman-Smith, Robert (2013). Do Preschool Programs affect Social Disadvantage? What Social Workers should know. Social Work 58, 1 (pp. 66-73)
Kostelny, K., Wessells, M., Chabeda-Barthe, J., & Ondoro, K. (2013). Learning about children in urban slums: A rapid ethnographic study in two urban slums in Mombasa of community-based child protection mechanisms and their
linkage with the Kenyan national child protection system. London: Interagency Learning Initiative on Community-Based Child Protection Mechanisms and Child Protection Systems.
Erulkar, A., Matheka, J. K., & Population Council. (2007). Adolescence in the Kibera slums of Nairobi, Kenya. Nairobi, Kenya : New York: Population Council.
Togom, D. K. (2009). Challenges facing AIDS Orphans in Nairobi Kibera Slums. Thesis, TURKU UNIVERSITY OF APPLIED SCIENCE
Kbc Kenya (2013). Traditional Birth Attendants. [Video]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zk3VmvMfjaU

67. Insight by Ola Möller from The Noun Project
Baby Carrier by Luis Prado from The Noun Project
Icon by Milky - Digital innovation from The Noun
Project
Shoe by Chris Kerr from The Noun Project
Doctor by Wilson Joseph from The Noun Project
Childbirth by Luis Prado from The Noun Project
Clock by Taylor Medlin from The Noun Project
Teacher by Juan Pablo Bravo from The Noun Project
Money by Luis Prado from The Noun Project
Man by Justin Alexander from The Noun Project
Nursery by Luis Prado from The Noun Project
Boy by Peacock Dream from The Noun Project
Sine Wave by Jared Pace from The Noun Project
Teacher by Juan Pablo Bravo from The Noun Project
Tools by Juan Pablo Bravo from The Noun Project
Scribble by Emily Haasch from The Noun Project
Road Block by Lift Interactive from The Noun Project
Gauge by Juan Pablo Bravo from The Noun Project
Rubik's Cube by David Papworth from The Noun
Project
School by JenniferWong from The Noun Project
Church by Joab Penalva from The Noun Project
Teacher by Piotrek Chuchla from The Noun Project
Binoculars by Luis Prado from The Noun Project
Insight by Ola Möller from The Noun Project
Clock by christoph robausch from The Noun Project
Binoculars by Ben Fausone from The Noun Project
Childbirth by Luis Prado from The Noun Project
Vote by Krisada from The Noun Project
Children by Sarah Rudkin from The Noun Project
Team by Wilson Joseph from The Noun Project
Growth by Mister Pixel from The Noun Project
Observe by la-fabrique-créative from The Noun
Project
Elderly Woman by Francisca Arévalo from The Noun
Project
High Five by Keith Mulvin from The Noun Project
Embryo by Muhamad Faizal Rahman Hakim from The
Noun Project
Sprint Cycle by Chris Jones from The Noun Project
People by Wilson Joseph from The Noun Project
Networking by gilbert bages from The Noun Project
Pregnant by Gregory Sujkowski from The Noun
Project
Nonprofit by Brandosaur.us from The Noun Project
Check Mark by Nathanael Siering from The Noun
Project
Faith, Praying, hands, High Five, Implore, Invocate,
Supplicate, Beg, Beseech, Invoke, Call Upon, Ask,
Appeal by Cristiano Zoucas from The Noun Project
Of tension by Amrit Mazumder from The Noun Project
Photography:
Ruggles, Brad (Photographer). (2010). Boy in Kibera Slum. [Digital Image].
Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/bradruggles/4501152322
Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (2009). The Crowded Slum of Korogocho [Digital Image].
Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/gatesfoundation/6667811857
Burgert, Kevin (Photographer). (2006). Cup Feeding. {Digital Image}.
Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/68899910@N00/338946216
Novartis Ag (2011). Kibera slum area of Kenya. {Digital Image}.
Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/51868421@N04/7064192761
Colin Crowley (Photographer). (2009). kibera_photoshow10. {Digital Image}.
Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/newbeatphoto/3726826076
Leigh Rowan (Photographer). (2009). Kibera-Nairobi. {Digital Image}.
Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/leighrowan/3239468096/
Artistactivists. (2010). Kibera Photo Project with Sisi ni Amani. {Digital Image}.
Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/artistsactivists/8001372124
Artistactivists. (2010). Kibera Photo Project with Sisi ni Amani. {Digital Image}.
Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/artistsactivists/8001372124
Jaap den Dulk (Photographer). (2009). Business Model Canvas - Great Visual by Jam. {Digital Image}.
Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/11527081@N05/3641124674/
Unamid (Photographer) (2012). El Fasher Hospital. {Digital Image}.
Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/unamid-photo/8267209312
Brian Wolf (Photographer) (2011). Good Teacher. {Digital Image}.
Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/mightyboybrian/6389271595/
Brian Wolf (Photographer) (2011). Girl Look Back. {Digital Image}.
Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/mightyboybrian/6835016251
Upper Lab (2009). Kids at School. {Digital Image}.
Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/upperlab/3368442804
Bibliography (cont’d)
Icons: