Gsm (an overview)

AEC,ASANSOL

Global System for Mobile
communication(GSM)
An Overview
Chandra Kishor
10/23/2012

A description, overview about the basics of GSM - Global System for Mobile communications with
details of its radio interface, infrastructure technology, network and operation.

Global System for Mobile communication(GSM) 2012

GSM basics and overview:
(a description, overview about the basics of GSM - Global System for Mobile
communications with details of its radio interface, infrastructure technology,
network and operation.)

The GSM system is the most widely used cellular technology in use in the world today. It has
been a particularly successful cellular phone technology for a variety of reasons including the
ability to roam worldwide with the certainty of being able to be able to operate on GSM
networks in exactly the same way - provided billing agreements are in place.

The letters GSM originally stood for the words Groupe Speciale Mobile, but as it became
clear this cellular technology was being used worldwide the meaning of GSM was changed to
Global System for Mobile Communications. Since this cellular technology was first deployed
in 1991, the use of GSM has grown steadily, and it is now the most widely cell phone system
in the world. GSM reached the 1 billion subscriber point in February 2004, and is now well
over the 3 billion subscriber mark and still steadily increasing.

GSM system overview:

The GSM system was designed as a second generation (2G) cellular phone technology. One
of the basic aims was to provide a system that would enable greater capacity to be achieved
than the previous first generation analogue systems. GSM achieved this by using a digital
TDMA (time division multiple access approach). By adopting this technique more users
could be accommodated within the available bandwidth. In addition to this, ciphering of the
digitally encoded speech was adopted to retain privacy. Using the earlier analogue cellular
technologies it was possible for anyone with a scanner receiver to listen to calls and a number
of famous personalities had been "eavesdropped" with embarrassing consequences.

GSM services

Speech or voice calls are obviously the primary function for the GSM cellular system. To
achieve this the speech is digitally encoded and later decoded using a vocoder. A variety of
vocoders are available for use, being aimed at different scenarios.

In addition to the voice services, GSM cellular technology supports a variety of other data
services. Although their performance is nowhere near the level of those provided by 3G, they
are nevertheless still important and useful. A variety of data services are supported with user
data rates up to 9.6 kbps. Services including Group 3 facsimile, videotext and teletex can be
supported.

One service that has grown enormously is the short message service. Developed as part of the
GSM specification, it has also been incorporated into other cellular technologies. It can be
thought of as being similar to the paging service but is far more comprehensive allowing bi-
directional messaging, store and forward delivery, and it also allows alphanumeric messages
of a reasonable length. This service has become particularly popular, initially with the young
as it provided a simple, low fixed cost.

By: Chandra Kishor Page 2


GSM basics

The GSM cellular technology had a number of design aims when the development started:

It should offer good subjective speech quality
It should have a low phone or terminal cost
Terminals should be able to be handheld
The system should support international roaming
It should offer good spectral efficiency
The system should offer ISDN compatibility

The resulting GSM cellular technology that was developed provided for all of these. The
overall system definition for GSM describes not only the air interface but also the network or
infrastructure technology. By adopting this approach it is possible to define the operation of
the whole network to enable international roaming as well as enabling network elements from
different manufacturers to operate alongside each other, although this last feature is not
completely true, especially with older items.

GSM cellular technology uses 200 kHz RF channels. These are time division multiplexed to
enable up to eight users to access each carrier. In this way it is a TDMA / FDMA system.

The base transceiver stations (BTS) are organised into small groups, controlled by a base
station controller (BSC) which is typically co-located with one of the BTSs. The BSC with its
associated BTSs is termed the base station subsystem (BSS).

Further into the core network is the main switching area. This is known as the mobile
switching centre (MSC). Associated with it is the location registers, namely the home
location register (HLR) and the visitor location register (VLR) which track the location of
mobiles and enable calls to be routed to them. Additionally there is the Authentication Centre
(AuC), and the Equipment Identify Register (EIR) that are used in authenticating the mobile
before it is allowed onto the network and for billing. The operation of these are explained in
the following pages.

Last but not least is the mobile itself. Often termed the ME or mobile equipment, this is the
item that the end user sees. One important feature that was first implemented on GSM was
the use of a Subscriber Identity Module. This card carried with it the users identity and other
information to allow the user to upgrade a phone very easily, while retaining the same
identity on the network. It was also used to store other information such as "phone book" and
other items. This item alone has allowed people to change phones very easily, and this has
fuelled the phone manufacturing industry and enabled new phones with additional features to
be launched. This has allowed mobile operators to increase their average revenue per user
(ARPU) by ensuring that users are able to access any new features that may be launched on
the network requiring more sophisticated phones.


GSM system overview

The table below summarises the main points of the GSM system specification, showing some
of the highlight features of technical interest.

Specification Summary for GSM Cellular System
Multiple access technology FDMA / TDMA
Duplex technique FDD
Uplink frequency band 890 - 915 MHz
(basic 900 MHz band only)
Downlink frequency band 933 -960 MHz
(basic 900 MHz band only)
Channel spacing 200 kHz
Modulation GMSK
Speech coding Various - original was RPE-LTP/13
Speech channels per RF channel 8
Channel data rate 270.833 kbps

Frame duration 4.615 ms

Today the GSM cell or mobile phone system is the most popular in the
world. GSM handsets are widely available at good prices and the networks are robust and
reliable. The GSM system is also feature-rich with applications such as SMS text messaging,
international roaming, SIM cards and the like. It is also being enhanced with technologies
including GPRS and EDGE. To achieve this level of success has taken many years and is the
result of both technical development and international cooperation. The GSM history can be
seen to be a story of cooperation across Europe, and one that nobody thought would lead to
the success that GSM is today.

The first cell phone systems that were developed were analogue systems. Typically they used
frequency-modulated carriers for the voice channels and data was carried on a separate
shared control channel. When compared to the systems employed today these systems were
comparatively straightforward and as a result a vast number of systems appeared. Two of the
major systems that were in existence were the AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System) that
was used in the USA and many other countries and TACS (Total Access Communications
System) that was used in the UK as well as many other countries around the world.

Another system that was employed, and was in fact the first system to be commercially
deployed was the Nordic Mobile Telephone system (NMT). This was developed by a
consortium of companies in Scandinavia and proved that international cooperation was
possible.

The success of these systems proved to be their downfall. The use of all the systems installed
around the globe increased dramatically and the effects of the limited frequency allocations
were soon noticed. To overcome these a number of actions were taken. A system known as


E-TACS or Extended-TACS was introduced giving the TACS system further channels. In the
USA another system known as Narrowband AMPS (NAMPS) was developed.

New approaches

Neither of these approaches proved to be the long-term solution as cellular technology
needed to be more efficient. With the experience gained from the NMT system, showing that
it was possible to develop a system across national boundaries, and with the political situation
in Europe lending itself to international cooperation it was decided to develop a new Pan-
European System. Furthermore it was realized that economies of scale would bring
significant benefits. This was the beginnings of the GSM system.

To achieve the basic definition of a new system a meeting was held in 1982 under the
auspices of the Conference of European Posts and Telegraphs (CEPT). They formed a study
group called the Groupe Special Mobile ( GSM ) to study and develop a pan-European public
land mobile system. Several basic criteria that the new cellular technology would have to
meet were set down for the new GSM system to meet. These included: good subjective
speech quality, low terminal and service cost, support for international roaming, ability to
support handheld terminals, support for range of new services and facilities, spectral
efficiency, and finally ISDN compatibility.

With the levels of under-capacity being projected for the analogue systems, this gave a real
sense of urgency to the GSM development. Although decisions about the exact nature of the
cellular technology were not taken at an early stage, all parties involved had been working
toward a digital system. This decision was finally made in February 1987. This gave a variety
of advantages. Greater levels of spectral efficiency could be gained, and in addition to this the
use of digital circuitry would allow for higher levels of integration in the circuitry. This in
turn would result in cheaper handsets with more features. Nevertheless significant hurdles
still needed to be overcome. For example, many of the methods for encoding the speech
within a sufficiently narrow bandwidth needed to be developed, and this posed a significant
risk to the project. Nevertheless the GSM system had been started.

GSM launch dates

Work continued and a launch date for the new GSM system of 1991 was set for an initial
launch of a service using the new cellular technology with limited coverage and capability to
be followed by a complete roll out of the service in major European cities by 1993 and
linking of the areas by 1995.

Meanwhile technical development was taking place. Initial trials had shown that time
division multiple access techniques offered the best performance with the technology that
would be available. This approach had the support of the major manufacturing companies
which would ensure that with them on board sufficient equipment both in terms of handsets,
base stations and the network infrastructure for GSM would be available.


Further impetus was given to the GSM project when in 1989 the responsibility was passed to
the newly formed European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI). Under the
auspices of ETSI the specification took place. It provided functional and interface
descriptions for each of the functional entities defined in the system. The aim was to provide
sufficient guidance for manufacturers that equipment from different manufacturers would be
interoperable, while not stopping innovation. The result of the specification work was a set of
documents extending to more than 6000 pages. Nevertheless the resultant phone system
provided a robust, feature-rich system. The first roaming agreement was signed between
Telecom Finland and Vodafone in the UK. Thus the vision of a pan-European network was
fast becoming a reality. However this took place before any networks went live.

The aim to launch GSM by 1991 proved to be a target that was too tough to meet. Terminals
started to become available in mid 1992 and the real launch took place in the latter part of
that year. With such a new service many were sceptical as the analogue systems were still in
widespread use. Nevertheless by the end of 1993 GSM had attracted over a million
subscribers and there were 25 roaming agreements in place. The growth continued and the
next million subscribers were soon attracted.

Global GSM usage

Originally GSM had been planned as a European system. However the first indication that
the success of GSM was spreading further a field occurred when the Australian network
provider, Telstra signed the GSM Memorandum of Understanding.

Frequencies

Originally it had been intended that GSM would operate on frequencies in the 900 MHz
cellular band. In September 1993, the British operator Mercury One-to-One launched a
network. Termed DCS 1800 it operated at frequencies in a new 1800 MHz band. By adopting
new frequencies new operators and further competition was introduced into the market apart
from allowing additional spectrum to be used and further increasing the overall capacity. This
trend was followed in many countries, and soon the term DCS 1800 was dropped in favour of
calling it GSM as it was purely the same cellular technology but operating on a different
frequency band. In view of the higher frequency used the distances the signals travelled was
slightly shorter but this was compensated for by additional base stations.

In the USA as well a portion of spectrum at 1900 MHz was allocated for cellular usage in
1994. The licensing body, the FCC, did not legislate which technology should be used, and
accordingly this enabled GSM to gain a foothold in the US market. This system was known
as PCS 1900 (Personal Communication System).

GSM success

With GSM being used in many countries outside Europe this reflected the true nature of the
name which had been changed from Groupe Special Mobile to Global System for Mobile


communications. The number of subscribers grew rapidly and by the beginning of 2004 the
total number of GSM subscribers reached 1 billion. Attaining this figure was celebrated at the
Cannes 3GSM conference held that year. Figures continued to rise, reaching and then well
exceeding the 3 billion mark. In this way the history of GSM has shown it to be a great
success.

The GSM technical specifications define the different elements within the GSM network
architecture. It defines the different elements and the ways in which they interact to enable
the overall network operation to be maintained.

The GSM network architecture is now well established and with the other later cellular
systems now established and other new ones being deployed, the basic GSM network
architecture has been updated to interface to the network elements required by these systems.
Despite the developments of the newer systems, the basic GSM network architecture has
been maintained, and the elements described below perform the same functions as they did
when the original GSM system was launched in the early 1990s.

GSM network architecture elements

The GSM network architecture as defined in the GSM specifications can be grouped into four
main areas:

Mobile station (MS)
Base-station subsystem (BSS)
Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS)
Operation and Support Subsystem (OSS)

Simplified GSM Network Architecture


Mobile station

Mobile stations (MS), mobile equipment (ME) or as they are most widely known, cell or
mobile phones are the section of a GSM cellular network that the user sees and operates. In
recent years their size has fallen dramatically while the level of functionality has greatly
increased. A further advantage is that the time between charges has significantly increased.

There are a number of elements to the cell phone, although the two main elements are the
main hardware and the SIM.

The hardware itself contains the main elements of the mobile phone including the display,
case, battery, and the electronics used to generate the signal, and process the data receiver and
to be transmitted. It also contains a number known as the International Mobile Equipment
Identity (IMEI). This is installed in the phone at manufacture and "cannot" be changed. It is
accessed by the network during registration to check whether the equipment has been
reported as stolen.

The SIM or Subscriber Identity Module contains the information that provides the identity of
the user to the network. It contains are variety of information including a number known as
the International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI).

Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

The Base Station Subsystem (BSS) section of the GSM network architecture that is
fundamentally associated with communicating with the mobiles on the network. It consists of
two elements:

Base Transceiver Station (BTS): The BTS used in a GSM network comprises the radio
transmitter receivers, and their associated antennas that transmit and receive to directly
communicate with the mobiles. The BTS is the defining element for each cell. The BTS
communicates with the mobiles and the interface between the two is known as the Um
interface with its associated protocols.
Base Station Controller (BSC): The BSC forms the next stage back into the GSM network. It
controls a group of BTSs, and is often co-located with one of the BTSs in its group. It
manages the radio resources and controls items such as handover within the group of BTSs,
allocates channels and the like. It communicates with the BTSs over what is termed the Abis
interface.

Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)

The GSM network subsystem contains a variety of different elements, and is often termed the
core network. It provides the main control and interfacing for the whole mobile network. The
major elements within the core network include:

Mobile Switching services Centre (MSC): The main element within the core network area
of the overall GSM network architecture is the Mobile switching Services Centre (MSC). The
MSC acts like a normal switching node within a PSTN or ISDN, but also provides additional


functionality to enable the requirements of a mobile user to be supported. These include
registration, authentication, call location, inter-MSC handovers and call routing to a mobile
subscriber. It also provides an interface to the PSTN so that calls can be routed from the
mobile network to a phone connected to a landline. Interfaces to other MSCs are provided
to enable calls to be made to mobiles on different networks.
Home Location Register (HLR): This database contains all the administrative information
about each subscriber along with their last known location. In this way, the GSM network is
able to route calls to the relevant base station for the MS. When a user switches on their
phone, the phone registers with the network and from this it is possible to determine which
BTS it communicates with so that incoming calls can be routed appropriately. Even when the
phone is not active (but switched on) it re-registers periodically to ensure that the network
(HLR) is aware of its latest position. There is one HLR per network, although it may be
distributed across various sub-centres to for operational reasons.
Visitor Location Register (VLR): This contains selected information from the HLR that
enables the selected services for the individual subscriber to be provided. The VLR can be
implemented as a separate entity, but it is commonly realised as an integral part of the MSC,
rather than a separate entity. In this way access is made faster and more convenient.
Equipment Identity Register (EIR): The EIR is the entity that decides whether a given
mobile equipment may be allowed onto the network. Each mobile equipment has a number
known as the International Mobile Equipment Identity. This number, as mentioned above, is
installed in the equipment and is checked by the network during registration. Dependent
upon the information held in the EIR, the mobile may be allocated one of three states -
allowed onto the network, barred access, or monitored in case its problems.
Authentication Centre (AuC): The AuC is a protected database that contains the secret key
also contained in the user's SIM card. It is used for authentication and for ciphering on the
radio channel.
Gateway Mobile Switching Centre (GMSC): The GMSC is the point to which a ME
terminating call is initially routed, without any knowledge of the MS's location. The GMSC is
thus in charge of obtaining the MSRN (Mobile Station Roaming Number) from the HLR based
on the MSISDN (Mobile Station ISDN number, the "directory number" of a MS) and routing
the call to the correct visited MSC. The "MSC" part of the term GMSC is misleading, since the
gateway operation does not require any linking to an MSC.
SMS Gateway (SMS-G): The SMS-G or SMS gateway is the term that is used to collectively
describe the two Short Message Services Gateways defined in the GSM standards. The two
gateways handle messages directed in different directions. The SMS-GMSC (Short Message
Service Gateway Mobile Switching Centre) is for short messages being sent to an ME. The
SMS-IWMSC (Short Message Service Inter-Working Mobile Switching Centre) is used for
short messages originated with a mobile on that network. The SMS-GMSC role is similar to
that of the GMSC, whereas the SMS-IWMSC provides a fixed access point to the Short
Message Service Centre.

Operation and Support Subsystem (OSS)

The OSS or operation support subsystem is an element within the overall GSM network
architecture that is connected to components of the NSS and the BSC. It is used to control
and monitor the overall GSM network and it is also used to control the traffic load of the
BSS. It must be noted that as the number of BS increases with the scaling of the subscriber
population some of the maintenance tasks are transferred to the BTS, allowing savings in the
cost of ownership of the system.


The network structure is defined within the GSM standards. Additionally each interface
between the different elements of the GSM network is also defined. This facilitates the
information interchanges can take place. It also enables to a large degree that network
elements from different manufacturers can be used. However as many of these interfaces
were not fully defined until after many networks had been deployed, the level of
standardisation may not be quite as high as many people might like.

1. Um interface The "air" or radio interface standard that is used for exchanges
between a mobile (ME) and a base station (BTS / BSC). For signalling, a modified
version of the ISDN LAPD, known as LAPDm is used.
2. Abis interface This is a BSS internal interface linking the BSC and a BTS, and it has
not been totally standardised. The Abis interface allows control of the radio
equipment and radio frequency allocation in the BTS.
3. A interface The A interface is used to provide communication between the BSS and
the MSC. The interface carries information to enable the channels, timeslots and the
like to be allocated to the mobile equipments being serviced by the BSSs. The
messaging required within the network to enable handover etc to be undertaken is
carried over the interface.
4. B interface The B interface exists between the MSC and the VLR . It uses a protocol
known as the MAP/B protocol. As most VLRs are collocated with an MSC, this
makes the interface purely an "internal" interface. The interface is used whenever the
MSC needs access to data regarding a MS located in its area.
5. C interface The C interface is located between the HLR and a GMSC or a SMS-G.
When a call originates from outside the network, i.e. from the PSTN or another
mobile network it ahs to pass through the gateway so that routing information
required to complete the call may be gained. The protocol used for communication is
MAP/C, the letter "C" indicating that the protocol is used for the "C" interface. In
addition to this, the MSC may optionally forward billing information to the HLR after
the call is completed and cleared down.
6. D interface The D interface is situated between the VLR and HLR. It uses the
MAP/D protocol to exchange the data related to the location of the ME and to the
management of the subscriber.
7. E interface The E interface provides communication between two MSCs. The E
interface exchanges data related to handover between the anchor and relay MSCs
using the MAP/E protocol.
8. F interface The F interface is used between an MSC and EIR. It uses the MAP/F
protocol. The communications along this interface are used to confirm the status of
the IMEI of the ME gaining access to the network.
9. G interface The G interface interconnects two VLRs of different MSCs and uses the
MAP/G protocol to transfer subscriber information, during e.g. a location update
procedure.
10. H interface The H interface exists between the MSC the SMS-G. It transfers short
messages and uses the MAP/H protocol.
11. I interface The I interface can be found between the MSC and the ME. Messages
exchanged over the I interface are relayed transparently through the BSS.

Although the interfaces for the GSM cellular system may not be as rigorouly defined as many
might like, they do at least provide a large element of the definition required, enabling the
functionality of GSM network entities to be defined sufficiently.


One of the key elements of the development of the GSM, Global System for Mobile
Communications was the development of the GSM air interface. There were many
requirements that were placed on the system, and many of these had a direct impact on the air
interface. Elements including the modulation, GSM slot structure, burst structure and the like
were all devised to provide the optimum performance.

During the development of the GSM standard very careful attention was paid to aspects
including the modulation format, the way in which the system is time division multiplexed,
all had a considerable impact on the performance of the system as a whole. For example, the
modulation format for the GSM air interface had a direct impact on battery life and the time
division format adopted enabled the cellphone handset costs to be considerably reduced as
detailed later.

GSM signal and GMSK modulation characteristics

The core of any radio based system is the format of the radio signal itself. The carrier is
modulated using a form of phase sift keying known as Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying
(GMSK). GMSK was used for the GSM system for a variety of reasons:

It is resilient to noise when compared to many other forms of modulation.
Radiation outside the accepted bandwidth is lower than other forms of phase shift keying.
It has a constant power level which allows higher efficiency RF power amplifiers to be used
in the handset, thereby reducing current consumption and conserving battery life.

Note on GMSK:

GMSK, Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying is a form of phase modulation that is used in a
number of portable radio and wireless applications. It has advantages in terms of spectral
efficiency as well as having an almost constant amplitude which allows for the use of more
efficient transmitter power amplifiers, thereby saving on current consumption, a critical issue
for battery power equipment.

The nominal bandwidth for the GSM signal using GMSK is 200 kHz, i.e. the channel
bandwidth and spacing is 200 kHz. As GMSK modulation has been used, the unwanted or
spurious emissions outside the nominal bandwidth are sufficiently low to enable adjacent
channels to be used from the same base station. Typically each base station will be allocated
a number of carriers to enable it to achieve the required capacity.

The data transported by the carrier serves up to eight different users under the basic system
by splitting the carrier into eight time slots. The basic carrier is able to support a data
throughput of approximately 270 kbps, but as some of this supports the management
overhead, the data rate allotted to each time slot is only 24.8 kbps. In addition to this error
correction is required to overcome the problems of interference, fading and general data
errors that may occur. This means that the available data rate for transporting the digitally
encoded speech is 13 kbps for the basic vocoders.


GSM slot structure and multiple access scheme

GSM uses a combination of both TDMA and FDMA techniques. The FDMA element
involves the division by frequency of the (maximum) 25 MHz bandwidth into 124 carrier
frequencies spaced 200 kHz apart as already described.

The carriers are then divided in time, using a TDMA scheme. This enables the different users
of the single radio frequency channel to be allocated different times slots. They are then able
to use the same RF channel without mutual interference. The slot is then the time that is
allocated to the particular user, and the GSM burst is the transmission that is made in this
time.

Each GSM slot, and hence each GSM burst lasts for 0.577 mS (15/26 mS). Eight of these
burst periods are grouped into what is known as a TDMA frame. This lasts for approximately
4.615 ms (i.e.120/26 ms) and it forms the basic unit for the definition of logical channels.
One physical channel is one burst period allocated in each TDMA frame.

There are different types of frame that are transmitted to carry different data, and also the
frames are organised into what are termed multiframes and superframes to provide overall
synchronisation.

GSM slot structure

These GSM slot is the smallest individual time period that is available to each mobile. It has a
defined format because a variety of different types of data are required to be transmitted.

Although there are shortened transmission bursts, the slots is normally used for transmitting
148 bits of information. This data can be used for carrying voice data, control and
synchronisation data.

GSM slots showing offset between transmit and receive

It can be seen from the GSM slot structure that the timing of the slots in the uplink and the
downlink are not simultaneous, and there is a time offset between the transmit and receive.


This offset in the GSM slot timing is deliberate and it means that a mobile that which is
allocated the same slot in both directions does not transmit and receive at the same time. This
considerably reduces the need for expensive filters to isolate the transmitter from the receiver.
It also provides a space saving.

GSM burst

The GSM burst, or transmission can fulfil a variety of functions. Some GSM bursts are used
for carrying data while others are used for control information. As a result of this a number of
different types of GSM burst are defined.

Normal burst uplink and downlink
Synchronisation burst downlink
Frequency correction burst downlink
Random Access (Shortened Burst) uplink

GSM normal burst

This GSM burst is used for the standard communications between the basestation and the
mobile, and typically transfers the digitised voice data.

The structure of the normal GSM burst is exactly defined and follows a common format. It
contains data that provides a number of different functions:

1. 3 tail bits: These tail bits at the start of the GSM burst give time for the transmitter to ramp
up its power
2. 57 data bits: This block of data is used to carry information, and most often contains the
digitised voice data although on occasions it may be replaced with signalling information in
the form of the Fast Associated Control CHannel (FACCH). The type of data is indicated by
the flag that follows the data field
3. 1 bit flag: This bit within the GSM burst indicates the type of data in the previous field.
4. 26 bits training sequence: This training sequence is used as a timing reference and for
equalisation. There is a total of eight different bit sequences that may be used, each 26 bits
long. The same sequence is used in each GSM slot, but nearby base stations using the same
radio frequency channels will use different ones, and this enables the mobile to differentiate
between the various cells using the same frequency.
5. 1 bit flag Again this flag indicates the type of data in the data field.
6. 57 data bits Again, this block of data within the GSM burst is used for carrying data.
7. 3 tail bits These final bits within the GSM burst are used to enable the transmitter power to
ramp down. They are often called final tail bits, or just tail bits.
8. 8.25 bits guard time At the end of the GSM burst there is a guard period. This is introduced
to prevent transmitted bursts from different mobiles overlapping. As a result of their
differing distances from the base station.



GSM Normal Burst

GSM synchronisation burst

The purpose of this form of GSM burst is to provide synchronisation for the mobiles on the
network.

1. 3 tail bits: Again, these tail bits at the start of the GSM burst give time for the transmitter
to ramp up its power
2. 39 bits of information:
3. 64 bits of a Long Training Sequence:
4. 39 bits Information:
5. 3 tail bits Again these are to enable the transmitter power to ramp down.
6. 8.25 bits guard time: to act as a guard interval.

GSM Synchronisation Burst

GSM frequency correction burst

With the information in the burst all set to zeros, the burst essentially consists of a constant
frequency carrier with no phase alteration.

1. 3 tail bits: Again, these tail bits at the start of the GSM burst give time for the transmitter
to ramp up its power.
2. 142 bits all set to zero:
4. 8.25 bits guard time: to act as a guard interval.

GSM Frequency Correction Burst

GSM random access burst

This form of GSM burst used when accessing the network and it is shortened in terms of the
data carried, having a much longer guard period. This GSM burst structure is used to ensure


that it fits in the time slot regardless of any severe timing problems that may exist. Once the
mobile has accessed the network and timing has been aligned, then there is no requirement
for the long guard period.

1. 7 tail bits: The increased number of tail bits is included to provide additional margin when
accessing the network.
2. 41 training bits:
3. 36 data bits:
5. 69.25 bits guard time: The additional guard time, filling the remaining time of the GSM
burst provides for large timing differences.

GSM Random Access Burst

GSM discontinuous transmission (DTx)

A further power saving and interference reducing facility is the discontinuous transmission
(DTx) capability that is incorporated within the specification. It is particularly useful because
there are long pauses in speech, for example when the person using the mobile is listening,
and during these periods there is no need to transmit a signal. In fact it is found that a person
speaks for less than 40% of the time during normal telephone conversations. The most
important element of DTx is the Voice Activity Detector. It must correctly distinguish
between voice and noise inputs, a task that is not trivial. If a voice signal is misinterpreted as
noise, the transmitter is turned off an effect known as clipping results and this is particularly
annoying to the person listening to the speech. However if noise is misinterpreted as a voice
signal too often, the efficiency of DTX is dramatically decreased.

It is also necessary for the system to add background or comfort noise when the transmitter is
turned off because complete silence can be very disconcerting for the listener. Accordingly
this is added as appropriate. The noise is controlled by the SID (silence indication descriptor).

GSM Frame Structure:

The GSM system has a defined GSM frame structure to enable the orderly passage of
information. The GSM frame structure establishes schedules for the predetermined use of
timeslots.

By establishing these schedules by the use of a frame structure, both the mobile and the base
station are able to communicate not only the voice data, but also signalling information
without the various types of data becoming intermixed and both ends of the transmission
knowing exactly what types of information are being transmitted.


The GSM frame structure provides the basis for the various physical channels used within
GSM, and accordingly it is at the heart of the overall system.

Basic GSM frame structure

The basic element in the GSM frame structure is the frame itself. This comprises the eight
slots, each used for different users within the TDMA system. As mentioned in another page
of the tutorial, the slots for transmission and reception for a given mobile are offset in time so
that the mobile does not transmit and receive at the same time.

GSM frame consisting of eight slots

The basic GSM frame defines the structure upon which all the timing and structure of the
GSM messaging and signalling is based. The fundamental unit of time is called a burst period
and it lasts for approximately 0.577 ms (15/26 ms). Eight of these burst periods are grouped
into what is known as a TDMA frame. This lasts for approximately 4.615 ms (i.e.120/26 ms)
and it forms the basic unit for the definition of logical channels. One physical channel is one
burst period allocated in each TDMA frame.

In simplified terms the base station transmits two types of channel, namely traffic and
control. Accordingly the channel structure is organised into two different types of frame, one
for the traffic on the main traffic carrier frequency, and the other for the control on the beacon
frequency.

GSM multiframe

The GSM frames are grouped together to form multiframes and in this way it is possible to
establish a time schedule for their operation and the network can be synchronised.

There are several GSM multiframe structures:

Traffic multiframe: The Traffic Channel frames are organised into multiframes consisting of
26 bursts and taking 120 ms. In a traffic multiframe, 24 bursts are used for traffic. These are


numbered 0 to 11 and 13 to 24. One of the remaining bursts is then used to accommodate
the SACCH, the remaining frame remaining free. The actual position used alternates
between position 12 and 25.
Control multiframe: the Control Channel multiframe that comprises 51 bursts and occupies
235.4 ms. This always occurs on the beacon frequency in time slot zero and it may also occur
within slots 2, 4 and 6 of the beacon frequency as well. This multiframe is subdivided into
logical channels which are time-scheduled. These logical channels and functions include the
following:
o Frequency correction burst
o Synchronisation burst
o Broadcast channel (BCH)
o Paging and Access Grant Channel (PACCH)
o Stand Alone Dedicated Control Channel (SDCCH)

GSM Superframe

Multi frames are then constructed into super rames taking 6.12 seconds. These consist of 51
traffic multiframes or 26 control multiframes. As the traffic multiframes are 26 bursts long
and the control multiframes are 51 bursts long, the different number of traffic and control
multiframes within the superframe, brings them back into line again taking exactly the same
interval.

GSM Hyperframe

Above this 2048 superframes (i.e. 2 to the power 11) are grouped to form one hyperframe
which repeats every 3 hours 28 minutes 53.76 seconds. It is the largest time interval within
the GSM frame structure.

Within the GSM hyperframe there is a counter and every time slot has a unique sequential
number comprising the frame number and time slot number. This is used to maintain
synchronisation of the different scheduled operations with the GSM frame structure. These
include functions such as:

Frequency hopping: Frequency hopping is a feature that is optional within the GSM system.
It can help reduce interference and fading issues, but for it to work, the transmitter and
receiver must be synchronised so they hop to the same frequencies at the same time.
Encryption: The encryption process is synchronised over the GSM hyperframe period
where a counter is used and the encryption process will repeat with each hyperframe.
However, it is unlikely that the cellphone conversation will be over 3 hours and accordingly it
is unlikely that security will be compromised as a result.



GSM Frame Structure Summary

GSM Frequencies and Frequency Bands:

Although it is possible for the GSM cellular system to work on a variety of frequencies, the
GSM standard defines GSM frequency bands and frequencies for the different spectrum
allocations that are in use around the globe. For most applications the GSM frequency
allocations fall into three or four bands, and therefore it is possible for phones to be used for
global roaming.

While the majority of GSM activity falls into just a few bands, for some specialist
applications, or in countries where spectrum allocation requirements mean that the standard
bands cannot be used, different allocations may be required. Accordingly for most global
roaming dual band, tri-band or quad-band phones will operate in most countries, although in
some instances phones using other frequencies may be required.

GSM band allocations

There is a total of fourteen different recognised GSM frequency bands. These are defined in
3GPP TS 45.005.


Band Uplink Downlink Comments
(MHz) (MHz)
380 380.2 - 390.2 -
389.8 399.8
410 410.2 - 420.2 -
419.8 429.8
450 450.4 - 460.4 -
457.6 467.6
480 478.8 - 488.8 -
486.0 496.0
710 698.0 - 728.0 -
716.0 746.0
750 747.0 - 777.0 -
762.0 792.0
810 806.0 - 851.0 -
821.0 866.0
850 824.0 - 869.0 -
849.0 894.0
900 890.0 - 935.0 - P-GSM, i.e. Primary or standard
915.0 960.0 GSM allocation
900 880.0 - 925.0 - E-GSM, i.e. Extended GSM
915.0 960.0 allocation
900 876.0 - 915 921.0 - R-GSM, i.e. Railway GSM
960.0 allocation
900 870.4 - 915.4 - T-GSM
876.0 921.0
1800 1710.0 - 1805.0 -
1785.0 1880.0
1900 1850.0 - 1930.0 -
1910.0 1990.0

GSM frequency band usage

The usage of the different frequency bands varies around the globe although there is a large
degree of standardisation. The GSM frequencies available depend upon the regulatory
requirements for the particular country and the ITU (International Telecommunications
Union) region in which the country is located.

As a rough guide Europe tends to use the GSM 900 and 1800 bands as standard. These bands
are also generally used in the Middle East, Africa, Asia and Oceania.

For North America the USA uses both 850 and 1900 MHz bands, the actual band used is
determined by the regulatory authorities and is dependent upon the area. For Canada the 1900
MHz band is the primary one used, particularly for urban areas with 850 MHz used as a
backup in rural areas.

For Central and South America, the GSM 850 and 1900 MHz frequency bands are the most
widely used although there are some areas where other frequencies are used.


GSM multiband phones

In order that cell phone users are able to take advantage of the roaming facilities offered by
GSM, it is necessary that the cellphones are able to cover the bands of the countries which are
visited.

Today most phones support operation on multiple bands and are known as multi-band
phones. Typically most standard phones are dual-band phones. For Europe, Middle east, Asia
and Oceania these would operate on GSM 900 and 1800 bands and for North America, etc
dual band phones would operate on GSM 850 and 1900 frequency bands.

To provide better roaming coverage, tri-band and quad-band phones are also available.
European triband phones typically cover the GSM 900, 1800 and 1900 bands giving good
coverage in Europe as well as moderate coverage in North America. Similarly North America
tri-band phones use the 900, 1800 and 1900 GSM frequencies. Quad band phones are also
available covering the 850, 900, 1800 and 1900 MHz GSM frequency bands, i.e. the four
major bands and thereby allowing global use.

GSM Power Control and Power Class:

The power levels and power control of GSM mobiles is of great importance because of the
effect of power on the battery life. Also to group mobiles into groups, GSM power class
designations have been allocated to indicate the power capability of various mobiles.

In addition to this the power of the GSM mobiles is closely controlled so that the battery of
the mobile is conserved, and also the levels of interference are reduced and performance of
the basestation is not compromised by high power local mobiles.

GSM power levels

The base station controls the power output of the mobile, keeping the GSM power level
sufficient to maintain a good signal to noise ratio, while not too high to reduce interference,
overloading, and also to preserve the battery life.

A table of GSM power levels is defined, and the base station controls the power of the mobile
by sending a GSM "power level" number. The mobile then adjusts its power accordingly. In
virtually all cases the increment between the different power level numbers is 2dB.

The accuracies required for GSM power control are relatively stringent. At the maximum
power levels they are typically required to be controlled to within +/- 2 dB, whereas this
relaxes to +/- 5 dB at the lower levels.

The power level numbers vary according to the GSM band in use. Figures for the three main
bands in use are given below:


Power level Power output level
number dBm
2 39
3 37
4 35
5 33
6 31
7 29
8 27
9 25
10 23
11 21
12 19
13 17
14 15
15 13
16 11
17 9
18 7
19 5
GSM power level table for GSM 900

Power level number Power output level dBm
29 36
30 34
31 32
0 30
1 28
2 26
3 24
4 22
5 20
6 18
7 16
8 14
9 12
10 10
11 8
12 6
13 4
14 2
15 0


Power level Power output level
number dBm
30 33
31 32
0 30
1 28
2 26
3 24
4 22
5 20
6 18
7 16
8 14
9 12
10 10
11 8
12 6
13 4
14 2
15 0

GSM Power class

Not all mobiles have the same maximum power output level. In order that the base station
knows the maximum power level number that it can send to the mobile, it is necessary for the
base station to know the maximum power it can transmit. This is achieved by allocating a
GSM power class number to a mobile. This GSM power class number indicates to the base
station the maximum power it can transmit and hence the maximum power level number the
base station can instruct it to use.

Again the GSM power classes vary according to the band in use.

GSM GSM 900 GSM 1800 GSM 1900
Power
Class
Number
Power Maximum Power Maximum Power Maximum
level power level power level power
number output number output number output
1 PL0 30 dBm / PL0 30 dBm /
1W 1W
2 PL2 39dBm / PL3 24 dBm/ PL3 24 dBm /
8W 250 mW 250 mW
3 PL3 37dBm / PL29 36 dBm / PL30 33 dBm /
5W 4W 2W
4 PL4 33dBm /
2W
5 PL5 29 dBm /
800 mW



GSM power amplifier design considerations

One of the main considerations for the RF power amplifier design in any mobile phone is its
efficiency. The RF power amplifier is one of the major current consumption areas.
Accordingly, to ensure long battery life it should be as efficient as possible.

It is also worth remembering that as mobiles may only transmit for one eighth of the time, i.e.
for their allocated slot which is one of eight, the average power is an eighth of the maximum.

GSM logical and physical channels:

a tutorial, description, overview of GSM channels including transport and
logical channels, SACCH, SDCCH, FACCH, etc.

GSM uses a variety of channels in which the data is carried. In GSM, these channels are
separated into physical channels and logical channels. The Physical channels are determined
by the timeslot, whereas the logical channels are determined by the information carried
within the physical channel. It can be further summarised by saying that several recurring
timeslots on a carrier constitute a physical channel. These are then used by different logical
channels to transfer information. These channels may either be used for user data (payload)
or signalling to enable the system to operate correctly.

Common and dedicated channels

The channels may also be divided into common and dedicated channels. The forward
common channels are used for paging to inform a mobile of an incoming call, responding to
channel requests, and broadcasting bulletin board information. The return common channel is
a random access channel used by the mobile to request channel resources before timing
information is conveyed by the BSS.

The dedicated channels are of two main types: those used for signalling, and those used for
traffic. The signalling channels are used for maintenance of the call and for enabling call set
up, providing facilities such as handover when the call is in progress, and finally terminating
the call. The traffic channels handle the actual payload.

The following logical channels are defined in GSM:

TCHf - Full rate traffic channel.

TCH h - Half rate traffic channel.

BCCH - Broadcast Network information, e.g. for describing the current control channel
structure. The BCCH is a point-to-multipoint channel (BSS-to-MS).

SCH - Synchronisation of the MSs.


FCHMS - frequency correction.

AGCH - Acknowledge channel requests from MS and allocate a SDCCH.

PCHMS - terminating call announcement.

RACHMS - access requests, response to call announcement, location update, etc.

FACCHt - For time critical signalling over the TCH (e.g. for handover signalling). Traffic
burst is stolen for a full signalling burst.

SACCHt - TCH in-band signalling, e.g. for link monitoring.

SDCCH - For signalling exchanges, e.g. during call setup, registration / location updates.

FACCHs - FACCH for the SDCCH. The SDCCH burst is stolen for a full signalling burst.
Function not clear in the present version of GSM (could be used for e.g. handover of an
eight-rate channel, i.e. using a "SDCCH-like" channel for other purposes than signalling).

SACCHs - SDCCH in-band signalling, e.g. for link monitoring.

GSM Audio Codec / Vocoder:

- an overview, description or tutorial detailing the basics of GSM audio codecs
or vocoders including LPC-RPE, EFR, Full Rate, Half Rate, AMR codec and
AMR-WB codec as well as CELP, ACELP, VSELP, speech codec
technologies.

Audio codecs or vocoders are universally used within the GSM system. They reduce the bit
rate of speech that has been converted from its analogue for into a digital format to enable it
to be carried within the available bandwidth for the channel. Without the use of a speech
codec, the digitised speech would occupy a much wider bandwidth then would be available.
Accordingly GSM codecs are a particularly important element in the overall system.

A variety of different forms of audio codec or vocoder are available for general use, and the
GSM system supports a number of specific audio codecs. These include the RPE-LPC, half
rate, and AMR codecs. The performance of each voice codec is different and they may be
used under different conditions, although the AMR codec is now the most widely used. Also
the newer AMR wideband (AMR-WB) codec is being introduced into many areas, including
GSM

Voice codec technology has advanced by considerable degrees in recent years as a result of
the increasing processing power available. This has meant that the voice codecs used in the
GSM system have large improvements since the first GSM phones were introduced.


Vocoder / codec basics

Vocoders or speech codecs are used within many areas of voice communications. Obviously
the focus here is on GSM audio codecs or vocoders, but the same principles apply to any
form of codec.

If speech were digitised in a linear fashion it would require a high data rate that would
occupy a very wide bandwidth. As bandwidth is normally limited in any communications
system, it is necessary to compress the data to send it through the available channel. Once
through the channel it can then be expanded to regenerate the audio in a fashion that is as
close to the original as possible.

To meet the requirements of the codec system, the speech must be captured at a high enough
sample rate and resolution to allow clear reproduction of the original sound. It must then be
compressed in such a way as to maintain the fidelity of the audio over a limited bit rate, error-
prone wireless transmission channel.

Audio codecs or vocoders can use a variety of techniques, but many modern audio codecs use
a technique known as linear prediction. In many ways this can be likened to a mathematical
modelling of the human vocal tract. To achieve this the spectral envelope of the signal is
estimated using a filter technique. Even where signals with many non-harmonically related
signals are used it is possible for voice codecs to give very large levels of compression.

A variety of different codec methodologies are used for GSM codecs:

CELP: The CELP or Code Excited Linear Prediction codec is a vocoder algorithm that was
originally proposed in 1985 and gave a significant improvement over other voice codecs of
the day. The basic principle of the CELP codec has been developed and used as the basis of
other voice codecs including ACELP, RCELP, VSELP, etc. As such the CELP codec methodology
is now the most widely used speech coding algorithm. Accordingly CELP is now used as a
generic term for a particular class of vocoders or speech codecs and not a particular codec.

The main principle behind the CELP codec is that is uses a principle known as "Analysis by
Synthesis". In this process, the encoding is performed by perceptually optimising the
decoded signal in a closed loop system. One way in which this could be achieved is to
compare a variety of generated bit streams and choose the one that produces the best
sounding signal.
ACELP codec: The ACELP or Algebraic Code Excited Linear Prediction codec. The ACELP
codec or vocoder algorithm is a development of the CELP model. However the ACELP codec
codebooks have a specific algebraic structure as indicated by the name.
VSELP codec: The VSELP or Vector Sum Excitation Linear Prediction codec. One of the major
drawbacks of the VSELP codec is its limited ability to code non-speech sounds. This means
that it performs poorly in the presence of noise. As a result this voice codec is not now as
widely used, other newer speech codecs being preferred and offering far superior
performance.


GSM audio codecs / vocoders

A variety of GSM audio codecs / vocoders are supported. These have been introduced at
different times, and have different levels of performance.. Although some of the early audio
codecs are not as widely used these days, they are still described here as they form part of the
GSM system.

Codec name Bit rate Compression technology
(kbps)
Full rate 13 RTE-LPC
EFR 12.2 ACELP
Half rate 5.6 VSELP
AMR 12.2 - 4.75 ACELP
AMR-WB 23.85 - 6.60 ACELP

GSM Full Rate / RPE-LPC codec

The RPE-LPC or Regular Pulse Excited - Linear Predictive Coder. This form of voice codec
was the first speech codec used with GSM and it chosen after tests were undertaken to
compare it with other codec schemes of the day. The speech codec is based upon the regular
pulse excitation LPC with long term prediction. The basic scheme is related to two previous
speech codecs, namely: RELP, Residual Excited Linear Prediction and to the MPE-LPC,
Multi Pulse Excited LPC. The advantages of RELP are the relatively low complexity
resulting from the use of baseband coding, but its performance is limited by the tonal noise
produced by the system. The MPE-LPC is more complex but provides a better level of
performance. The RPE-LPC codec provided a compromise between the two, balancing
performance and complexity for the technology of the time.

Despite the work that was undertaken to provide the optimum performance, as technology
developed further, the RPE-LPC codec was viewed as offering a poor level of voice quality.
As other full rate audio codecs became available, these were incorporated into the system.

GSM EFR - Enhanced Full Rate codec

Later another vocoder called the Enhanced Full Rate (EFR) vocoder was added in response to
the poor quality perceived by the users of the original RPE-LPC codec. This new codec gave
much better sound quality and was adopted by GSM. Using the ACELP compression
technology it gave a significant improvement in quality over the original LPC-RPE encoder.
It became possible as the processing power that was available increased in mobile phones as
a result of higher levels of processing power combined with their lower current consumption.


GSM Half Rate codec

The GSM standard allows the splitting of a single full rate voice channel into two sub-
channels that can maintain separate calls. By doing this, network operators can double the
number of voice calls that can be handled by the network with very little additional
investment.

To enable this facility to be used a half rate codec must be used. The half rate codec was
introduced in the early years of GSM but gave a much inferior voice quality when compared
to other speech codecs. However it gave advantages when demand was high and network
capacity was at a premium.

The GSM Half Rate codec uses a VSELP codec algorithm. It codes the data around 20 ms
frames each carrying 112 bits to give a data rate of 5.6 kbps. This includes a 100 bps data rate
for a mode indicator which details whether the system believes the frames contain voice data
or not. This allows the speech codec to operate in a manner that provides the optimum
quality.

The Half Rate codec system was introduced in the 1990s, but in view of the perceived poor
quality, it was not widely used.

GSM AMR Codec

The AMR, Adaptive Multi-rate codec is now the most widely used GSM codec. The AMR
codec was adopted by 3GPP in October 1988 and it is used for both GSM and circuit
switched UMTS / WCDMA voice calls.

The AMR codec provides a variety of options for one of eight different bit rates as described
in the table below. The bit rates are based on frames that are 20 millisceonds long and contain
160 samples. The AMR codec uses a variety of different techniques to provide the data
compression. The ACELP codec is used as the basis of the overall speech codec, but other
techniques are used in addition to this. Discontinuous transmission is employed so that when
there is no speech activity the transmission is cut. Additionally Voice Activity Detection
(VAD) is used to indicate when there is only background noise and no speech. Additionally
to provide the feedback for the user that the connection is still present, a Comfort Noise
Generator (CNG) is used to provide some background noise, even when no speech data is
being transmitted. This is added locally at the receiver.

The use of the AMR codec also requires that optimized link adaptation is used so that the
optimum data rate is selected to meet the requirements of the current radio channel conditions
including its signal to noise ratio and capacity. This is achieved by reducing the source
coding and increasing the channel coding. Although there is a reduction in voice clarity, the
network connection is more robust and the link is maintained without dropout. Improvement
levels of between 4 and 6 dB may be experienced. However network operators are able to
prioritise each station for either quality or capacity.

The AMR codec has a total of eight rates: eight are available at full rate (FR), while six are
available at half rate (HR). This gives a total of fourteen different modes.



Mode Bit rate Full Rate (FR) /
(kbps) Half rate (HR)
AMR 12.2 12.2 FR
AMR 10.2 10.2 FR
AMR 7.95 7.95 FR / HR
AMR 7.40 7.40 FR / HR
AMR 6.70 6.70 FR / HR
AMR 5.90 5.90 FR / HR
AMR 5.15 5.15 FR / HR
AMR 4.75 4.75 FR / HR
AMR codec data rates

AMR-WB codec

Adaptive Multi-Rate Wideband, AMR-WB codec, also known under its ITU designation of
G.722.2, is based on the earlier popular Adaptive Multi-Rate, AMR codec. AMR-WB also
uses an ACELP basis for its operation, but it has been further developed and AMR-WB
provides improved speech quality as a result of the wider speech bandwidth that it encodes.
AMR-WB has a bandwidth extending from 50 - 7000 Hz which is significantly wider than
the 300 - 3400 Hz bandwidths used by standard telephones. However this comes at the cost
of additional processing, but with advances in IC technology in recent years, this is perfectly
acceptable.

The AMR-WB codec contains a number of functional areas: it primarily includes a set of
fixed rate speech and channel codec modes. It also includes other codec functions including:
a Voice Activity Detector (VAD); Discontinuous Transmission (DTX) functionality for
GSM; and Source Controlled Rate (SCR) functionality for UMTS applications. Further
functionality includes in-band signaling for codec mode transmission, and link adaptation for
control of the mode selection.

The AMR-WB codec has a 16 kHz sampling rate and the coding is performed in blocks of 20
ms. There are two frequency bands that are used: 50-6400 Hz and 6400-7000 Hz. These are
coded separately to reduce the codec complexity. This split also serves to focus the bit
allocation into the subjectively most important frequency range.

The lower frequency band uses an ACELP codec algorithm, although a number of additional
features have been included to improve the subjective quality of the audio. Linear prediction
analysis is performed once per 20 ms frame. Also, fixed and adaptive excitation codebooks
are searched every 5 ms for optimal codec parameter values.

The higher frequency band adds some of the naturalness and personality features to the voice.
The audio is reconstructed using the parameters from the lower band as well as using random
excitation. As the level of power in this band is less than that of the lower band, the gain is
adjusted relative to the lower band, but based on voicing information. The signal content of
the higher band is reconstructed by using an linear predictive filter which generates
information from the lower band filter.


Bit Notes
rate
(kbps)
6.60 This is the lowest rate for AMR-WB. It is used for circuit switched
connections for GSM and UMTS and is intended to be used only temporarily
during severe radio channel conditions or during network congestion.
8.85 This gives improved quality over the 6.6 kbps rate, but again, its use is only
recommended for use in periods of congestion or when during severe radio
channel conditions.
12.65 This is the main bit rate used for circuit switched GSM and UMTS, offering
superior performance to the original AMR codec.
14.25 Higher bit rate used to give cleaner speech and is particularly useful when
ambient audio noise levels are high.
23.05 Not suggested for full rate GSM channels.
23.85 Not suggested for full rate GSM channels, and provides speech quality
similar to that of G.722 at 64 kbps.

Not all phones equipped with AMR-WB will be able to access all the data rates - the different
functions on the phone may not require all to be active for example. As a result, it is
necessary to inform the network about which rates are available and thereby simplify the
negotiation between the handset and the network. To achieve this there are three difference
AMR-WB configurations that are available:

Configuration A: 6.6, 8.85, and 12.65 kbit/s
Configuration B: 6.6, 8.85, 12.65, and 15.85 kbit/s
Configuration C: 6.6, 8.85, 12.65, and 23.85 kbit/s

It can be seen that only the 23.85, 15.85, 12.65, 8.85 and 6.60 kbit/s modes are used. Based
on listening tests, it was considered that these five modes were sufficient for a high quality
speech telephony service. The other data rates were retained and can be used for other
purposes including multimedia messaging, streaming audio, etc.

GSM handover or handoff

- tutorial or overview of the essentials of GSM handover or handoff from one
cell to another and detailing types of handover and methodologies used.

One of the key elements of a mobile phone or cellular telecommunications system, is that the
system is split into many small cells to provide good frequency re-use and coverage.
However as the mobile moves out of one cell to another it must be possible to retain the
connection. The process by which this occurs is known as handover or handoff. The term
handover is more widely used within Europe, whereas handoff tends to be use more in North
America. Either way, handover and handoff are the same process.



Requirements for GSM handover

The process of handover or handoff within any cellular system is of great importance. It is a
critical process and if performed incorrectly handover can result in the loss of the call.
Dropped calls are particularly annoying to users and if the number of dropped calls rises,
customer dissatisfaction increases and they are likely to change to another network.
Accordingly GSM handover was an area to which particular attention was paid when
developing the standard.

Types of GSM handover

Within the GSM system there are four types of handover that can be performed for GSM only
systems:

Intra-BTS handover: This form of GSM handover occurs if it is required to change the
frequency or slot being used by a mobile because of interference, or other reasons. In this
form of GSM handover, the mobile remains attached to the same base station transceiver,
but changes the channel or slot.
Inter-BTS Intra BSC handover: This for of GSM handover or GSM handoff occurs when the
mobile moves out of the coverage area of one BTS but into another controlled by the same
BSC. In this instance the BSC is able to perform the handover and it assigns a new channel
and slot to the mobile, before releasing the old BTS from communicating with the mobile.
Inter-BSC handover: When the mobile moves out of the range of cells controlled by one
BSC, a more involved form of handover has to be performed, handing over not only from
one BTS to another but one BSC to another. For this the handover is controlled by the MSC.
Inter-MSC handover: This form of handover occurs when changing between networks. The
two MSCs involved negotiate to control the handover.

GSM handover process

Although there are several forms of GSM handover as detailed above, as far as the mobile is
concerned, they are effectively seen as very similar. There are a number of stages involved in
undertaking a GSM handover from one cell or base station to another.

In GSM which uses TDMA techniques the transmitter only transmits for one slot in eight,
and similarly the receiver only receives for one slot in eight. As a result the RF section of the
mobile could be idle for 6 slots out of the total eight. This is not the case because during the
slots in which it is not communicating with the BTS, it scans the other radio channels looking
for beacon frequencies that may be stronger or more suitable. In addition to this, when the
mobile communicates with a particular BTS, one of the responses it makes is to send out a
list of the radio channels of the beacon frequencies of neighbouring BTSs via the Broadcast
Channel (BCCH).


The mobile scans these and reports back the quality of the link to the BTS. In this way the
mobile assists in the handover decision and as a result this form of GSM handover is known
as Mobile Assisted Hand Over (MAHO).

The network knows the quality of the link between the mobile and the BTS as well as the
strength of local BTSs as reported back by the mobile. It also knows the availability of
channels in the nearby cells. As a result it has all the information it needs to be able to make a
decision about whether it needs to hand the mobile over from one BTS to another.

If the network decides that it is necessary for the mobile to hand over, it assigns a new
channel and time slot to the mobile. It informs the BTS and the mobile of the change. The
mobile then retunes during the period it is not transmitting or receiving, i.e. in an idle period.

A key element of the GSM handover is timing and synchronisation. There are a number of
possible scenarios that may occur dependent upon the level of synchronisation.

Old and new BTSs synchronised: In this case the mobile is given details of the new physical
channel in the neighbouring cell and handed directly over. The mobile may optionally
transmit four access bursts. These are shorter than the standard bursts and thereby any
effects of poor synchronisation do not cause overlap with other bursts. However in this
instance where synchronisation is already good, these bursts are only used to provide a fine
adjustment.
Time offset between synchronised old and new BTS: In some instances there may be a
time offset between the old and new BTS. In this case, the time offset is provided so that the
mobile can make the adjustment. The GSM handover then takes place as a standard
synchronised handover.
Non-synchronised handover: When a non-synchronised cell handover takes place, the
mobile transmits 64 access bursts on the new channel. This enables the base station to
determine and adjust the timing for the mobile so that it can suitably access the new BTS.
This enables the mobile to re-establish the connection through the new BTS with the correct
timing.

Inter-system handover

With the evolution of standards and the migration of GSM to other 2G technologies including
to 3G UMTS / WCDMA as well as HSPA and then LTE, there is the need to handover from
one technology to another. Often the 2G GSM coverage will be better then the others and
GSM is often used as the fallback. When handovers of this nature are required, it is
considerably more complicated than a straightforward only GSM handover because they
require two technically very different systems to handle the handover.

These handovers may be called intersystem handovers or inter-RAT handovers as the
handover occurs between different radio access technologies.

The most common form of intersystem handover is between GSM and UMTS / WCDMA.
Here there are two different types:

UMTS / WCDMA to GSM handover: There are two further divisions of this category of
handover:


o Blind handover: This form of handover occurs when the base station hands off the
mobile by passing it the details of the new cell to the mobile without linking to it and
setting the timing, etc of the mobile for the new cell. In this mode, the network
selects what it believes to be the optimum GSM based station. The mobile first
locates the broadcast channel of the new cell, gains timing synchronisation and then
carries out non-synchronised intercell handover.

o Compressed mode handover: using this form of handover the mobile uses the gaps
I transmission that occur to analyse the reception of local GSM base stations using
the neighbour list to select suitable candidate base stations. Having selected a
suitable base station the handover takes place, again without any time
synchronisation having occurred.

Handover from GSM to UMTS / WCDMA: This form of handover is supported within GSM
and a "neighbour list" was established to enable this occur easily. As the GSM / 2G network
is normally more extensive than the 3G network, this type of handover does not normally
occur when the mobile leaves a coverage area and must quickly find a new base station to
maintain contact. The handover from GSM to UMTS occurs to provide an improvement in
performance and can normally take place only when the conditions are right. The neighbour
list will inform the mobile when this may happen.


Gsm (an overview)

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