2. 2 Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly
Nonprofit organizations rely extensively on their full-time employees to achieve their
goals. Often, these employees are attracted to these kinds of organizations because of
their social missions and of the meaningfulness of their work (Macy, 2006). However,
there remain concerns about the ability of nonprofit organizations to retain qualified and
satisfied full-time employees (Light, 2000). Some of these issues are rooted in demo-
graphic trends such as the increasing number of Baby Boomers retiring from nonprofit
employment (J. L. Johnson, 2009). Other issues are related to the fact that nonprofit
organizations often have flat organizational hierarchies and scarce financial resources.
Consequently, they have limited ability to provide material extrinsic rewards such as
pay, benefits, and promotion (Handy & Katz, 1998; J. Johnson & Ng, 2016; Light, 2002).
Regardless of the reason, managing employee satisfaction and turnover under conditions
of economic scarcity is a critical contemporary concern (Nonprofit HR, 2016).
As an alternative to managing job satisfaction and turnover intentions through
expensive compensation and promotion-oriented human resource practices, we
explore a more holistic view of nonprofit employment that examines structural and
relational variables. From a structural perspective, we consider perceptions of core job
characteristics that reflect degrees of autonomy, feedback, skill variety, task identity,
and task significance (Hackman & Oldham, 1975). These kinds of perceptions are
judgments related to how tasks are organized. From a relational perspective, we con-
sider the perception of organizational support (POS). This kind of perception reflects
a judgment related to whether employees believe that their organization values their
contributions and cares about their individual well-being (Eisenberger, Huntington,
Hutchison, & Sowa, 1986). Interestingly, despite substantial theoretical differences
and bodies of empirical research that are distinct from each other, job characteristics
and POS are sometimes related to similar desirable employee outcomes (e.g.,
Humphrey, Nahrgang, & Morgeson, 2007; Kurtessis et al., in press).
Given nonprofit organizations’ practical need to manage under conditions of eco-
nomic scarcity, and given that job characteristics (a structural variable) and POS (a
relational variable) appear to be theoretically distinct predictors of desirable attitudes
and behaviors, we designed our research to explore two questions. First, do the percep-
tions of job characteristics and POS exhibit simultaneous predictive validity among
employees of nonprofit organizations for job satisfaction and turnover intentions?
Second, are perceptions of structural job characteristics or the perception of relational
POS the most robust predictor?
In our study, we seek to make several contributions. First, we develop and test a
more holistic understanding of nonprofit employment by bridging the research on
organizational job structures with the research on the employee-organization relation-
ship. More specifically, we examine and compare core job characteristics (structural)
and POS (relational) theories as potential explanations for predicting job satisfaction
and turnover for nonprofit employees. This contribution is particularly important
because both theories have been developed primarily in for-profit contexts and because
nonprofit and for-profit employment are dissimilar in a variety of ways (e.g., compen-
sation practices: J. Johnson & Ng, 2016; working conditions: Mirvis & Hackett, 1983;
and employee attitudes: Lee, 2016). Thus, we extend our understanding of how these
3. Knapp et al. 3
theories generalize across different employment sectors. Second, we not only intro-
duce the concept of POS to the nonprofit literature, but we also provide evidence that
it is a particularly robust and important predictor of job satisfaction and turnover inten-
tions. Relative importance analysis revealed that POS explained significantly more
variance in the dependent variables than any of our other measures. This finding sug-
gests that nonprofit employees may care more about their relationship with their orga-
nization than they do about how their work is structured. Third, we examine the
discrete predictive validity for all five core job characteristics. Through a combination
of hierarchical regression and post hoc mediation, we found that autonomy had a
direct relationship with job satisfaction and an indirect relationship with turnover
intentions that was fully mediated by job satisfaction. No significant relationships
were found for the other four core job characteristics when POS was controlled for.
These findings are meaningful because they imply that, despite previous research sug-
gesting broad applicability of job characteristics theory, the context of nonprofit work
may prove to be a partial boundary condition.
Job Characteristics and POS as Predictors of Job
Satisfaction and Turnover Intentions
The Perception of Job Characteristics
Hackman and Lawler (1971) observed that structuring jobs to promote efficiency
through simplification and specialization (i.e., scientific management) can demotivate
employees. They theorized that certain job characteristics facilitate recognition,
responsibility, and growth, thereby benefiting employees by fulfilling higher order
needs. Building on this idea, Hackman and Oldham (1974, 1975) theorized that five
core job characteristics—skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and
feedback—may lead to positive individual-level outcomes. Each component repre-
sents a structural element in the overall design of a job that makes it more interesting
and engaging. For example, jobs with high skill variety let employees use multiple
personal competencies. Employees who work in jobs with high task identity perceive
that they are completing a whole and identifiable piece of work. Employees in jobs
with high task significance believe their work is important. High autonomy jobs pro-
mote responsibility and independence. And finally, high feedback jobs provide infor-
mation that helps employees determine whether they are performing the job well.
Furthermore, Hackman and Lawlor (1971), Hackman and Oldham (1974), and
Hackman and Oldham (1975) suggested that when a job is designed to include optimal
levels of these five characteristics, the employee experiences meaningfulness,
increased accountability, and self-actualization, resulting in intrinsic motivation to
produce optimal work performance. Numerous researchers have built on this work by
exploring how the characteristics link to improved attitudes, intentions, and motiva-
tion (Humphrey et al., 2007).
Although a majority of job characteristics research has been conducted in the for-
profit context, similar research of nonprofit organizations tends to take one of three
4. 4 Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly
approaches. The first approach is primarily descriptive and examines quantitative job
characteristic levels without testing predictive relationships (e.g., Mirvis & Hackett,
1983; Oldham, Hackman, & Stepina, 1978). The second approach tests quantitative
predictive relationships but does so by combining individual job characteristic mea-
sures into a single composite measure (e.g., Jaskyte, 2008). The third approach draws
on job characteristics research as a theoretical mechanism but stops short of collecting
core characteristics data (e.g., Bassous, 2015; Benz, 2005). Although we know the job
characteristics model applies to the nonprofit workplace, researchers have not yet
empirically examined the predictive validity of each core characteristic, which limits
our understanding of how specific facets of job structure link to the attitudes and
intentions.
Using job characteristics to predict job satisfaction. Job satisfaction, a feeling of content-
ment resulting from having job expectations met (Bacharach, Bamberger, & Conley,
1991), is an important variable due to its negative relationship with outcomes detract-
ing from organizational functioning (e.g., withdrawal; Tett & Meyer, 1993), and posi-
tive relationships with outcomes supporting organizational functions (e.g., citizenship
behavior; Bateman & Organ, 1983). And, in for-profit organizations, past research has
already documented that all five individual core job characteristics are robust predic-
tors of job satisfaction through meta-analysis (e.g., Humphrey et al., 2007).
Given that we already know that job characteristics theory is applicable to non-
profit contexts when used for descriptive purposes (e.g., Mirvis & Hackett, 1983) and
when used for predictive purposes with aggregate measures (e.g., Jaskyte, 2008), we
expect the job characteristics-job satisfaction relationship to be generalizable from the
for-profit to the nonprofit context. Specifically, autonomy will have a positive rela-
tionship with job satisfaction because workers have higher order needs for responsibil-
ity and independence. Skill variety will have a positive relationship with job satisfaction
because employees prefer interesting jobs. Task identity will have a positive relation-
ship with job satisfaction because work becomes more meaningful to employees who
know how they are contributing to a larger whole. Task significance will have a posi-
tive relationship with job satisfaction because doing jobs that are important enhances
employees’ self-worth. Finally, feedback will have a positive relationship with job
satisfaction because employees will experience less ambiguity, be better able to gauge
the quality of their work, and better know how to improve.
Hypothesis 1 (H1): Perceptions of autonomy, skill variety, task identity, task sig-
nificance, and feedback will each have positive relationships with job satisfaction.
Using job characteristics to predict turnover intentions. Turnover intentions reflect
employees’ desire to leave their organization and represent one of the best predictors
of actual turnover (Griffeth, Hom, & Gaertner, 2000; Steel & Ovalle, 1984). Previous
research, often in for-profit contexts, has predicted a negative relationship between
turnover intentions and job characteristics. The logic suggests employees who have
engaging and important jobs should be less inclined to quit their jobs because they
5. Knapp et al. 5
fulfill higher order needs. Interestingly, even though the logic for using job character-
istics to predict turnover intentions is straightforward, documenting a robust empirical
relationship has been elusive in for-profit research. For example, Humphrey et al.’s
(2007) meta-analysis did not find a significant relationship between job characteristics
and turnover intentions, and Slattery, Selvaragjan, Anderson, and Sardessai’s (2010)
more recent study of temporary employees found only small significant relationships
with task identity, autonomy, and feedback.
One explanation for these previous findings is related to how the job’s larger con-
text influences the effects of job characteristics on turnover intentions (Oldham &
Hackman, 2010). For example, researchers have acknowledged variance contingent
on work type (Yan, Peng, & Francesco, 2011), organizational climates and structures
(Morgeson, Dierdorff, & Hmurovic, 2010), and national cultures (Huang & Van De
Vliert, 2003). Given variation based on context, the relationship between job charac-
teristics and turnover intentions may be muted among for-profit employees because
the choice to work in this sector tends to be motivated by economic rewards (Benz,
2005; Leete, 2000). Consequently, for-profit employees may be more willing to con-
tinue doing jobs with less desirable characteristics to receive desired extrinsic benefits
than their nonprofit counterparts who tend to choose employment based on the nature
of their work. Also, after the decision to work in a particular sector is made, nonprofit
employees may consider structural job characteristics to be more salient because of the
relatively lower pay and promotion opportunities they experience. Thus, for nonprofit
employees, we make a prediction that aligns with theory more than past empirical
findings: Perceptions of all five core job characteristics will have a negative relation-
ship with turnover intentions.
Hypothesis 2 (H2): Positive perceptions of autonomy, skill variety, task identity,
task significance, and feedback will each have negative relationships with turnover
intentions.
The POS
In contrast to structural job characteristics, POS captures a relational aspect of organi-
zational life. Employees who believe their organization values their contributions and
cares about their individual well-being (high POS) tend to act and think in a positive
manner, while employees who view their organization as uncaring (low POS) tend to
think and behave more negatively (Eisenberger, Armelli, Rexwinkel, Lynch, &
Rhoades, 2001; Eisenberger et al., 1986). As such, there is a significant body of empir-
ical literature that links higher levels of POS to greater job satisfaction and lower
turnover intentions (e.g., Kurtessis et al., in press; Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002;
Riggle, Edmondson, & Hansen, 2009) in for-profit contexts through three theoretical
dynamics.
First, POS improves employees’ sense of well-being by fulfilling relational and
socio-emotional needs for self-enhancement and belonging. Consequently, high
POS employees often report higher levels of job satisfaction and lower turnover
6. 6 Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly
intentions simply because they are receiving desired personal benefits (Kurtessis
et al., in press). Second, employees often feel obligated to return like-for-like in a
reactionary quid pro quo manner (i.e., the norm of reciprocity; Cropanzano &
Mitchell, 2005; Gouldner, 1960). As such, POS can inspire employees to reciprocate
in a positive manner (Eisenberger et al., 2001). For example, employees who have
been treated politely and fairly may loyally reciprocate by not seeking other employ-
ment opportunities. The opposite dynamic is also likely. The perception of unfair
and uncaring treatment can generate negative reciprocal reactions, such as with-
drawal and anger (Eisenberger, Lynch, Aselage, & Rohdieck, 2004). Third, employ-
ees often participate in social exchanges that reflect long-term sequences of actions
and reactions. As such, they may engage in mental accounting with an eye toward
repayment and investing (Blau, 1964; Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005). From this
perspective, employees who are treated well tend to think and act in a manner sup-
porting organizational functions not only because they feel obligated to “pay” for
social benefits already received but they also believe that they are earning additional
rewards that will be provided at some ambiguous time in the future. Conversely,
employees who are treated poorly will tend to become disgruntled and uncoopera-
tive because they feel that they are owed past-due rewards, and they do not trust that
further investment will result in future benefits.
Despite a lack of POS research among nonprofit workers, we believe that POS is
likely to be a highly salient issue because of limited opportunities to earn higher
wages and because frustration with management is often a key reason for leaving
(Brown & Yoshioka, 2003). Indeed, in an organization designed to be exceptionally
lean so as to better serve a social mission with limited resources, providing caring
support may be one of a few positive levers of influence the organization can imple-
ment on a regular basis. For example, nonprofit organizations can adopt a culture
that emphasizes open communication (M. W. Allen, 1995) and participative deci-
sion-making (D. G. Allen, Shore, & Griffeth, 2003). In this way, they show employ-
ees that they care enough to keep them informed and to ask their opinion. Also,
while it may be difficult to provide additional rewards, nonprofit organizations can
demonstrate care by establishing fair procedures that distribute rewards in a way that
accurately reflects work contributions (Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002). Finally,
although promotion opportunities may be limited, it is still possible to demonstrate
support by offering training opportunities that expand knowledge and skills in a
meaningful way (D. G. Allen et al., 2003).
Because POS fulfills socio-emotional needs, we hypothesize that POS will have a
positive relationship with job satisfaction. As POS inspires positive reciprocity and
encourages ongoing social exchange, we also hypothesize that nonprofit workers with
high POS will report lower turnover intentions.
Hypothesis 3 (H3): POS will have a positive relationship with job satisfaction.
Hypothesis 4 (H4): POS will have a negative relationship with turnover
intentions.
7. Knapp et al. 7
Establishing the Relative Importance of POS and Job Characteristics on
Outcomes
As already noted, the academic literature examining for-profit contexts contains paral-
lel bodies of empirical literature that separately link job characteristics and POS to the
outcomes of job satisfaction and turnover intentions. What has yet to be answered in
any context is whether these variables predict employee attitudes and intentions simul-
taneously and robustly.
We hypothesize that both kinds of variables offer valid and simultaneous predictors
of job satisfaction and turnover intentions, albeit for different reasons. While POS
predicts these criteria because it reflects employees’ perception of how they are being
treated by their organization, job characteristics predict because they reflect the struc-
tural design and organization of the tasks employees do. Although we predict simulta-
neous relationships, we also predict that POS will be the relatively more important
predictor. That is, POS will explain more variance in job satisfaction and turnover
intentions than any of the perceived job characteristics, and this difference will be
statistically significant (Tonidandel & LeBreton, 2011; Tonidandel, LeBreton, &
Johnson, 2009). This is because the choice to work (Preston, 1989) and continue to
work (Brown & Yoshioka, 2003) in nonprofit organizations is often driven by the
moral value (Frank, 1996) and social goals (Hull & Lio, 2006) of the organizational
mission rather than the nature of the specific job being done. Consequently, workers
who perceive that they are being treated well by an organization that they value so
highly have a particularly strong reason to be satisfied with their jobs (Benz, 2005) and
intend to continue working for them (Borzaga & Tortia, 2006).
Hypothesis 5 (H5): POS will be a relatively more important predictor of job satis-
faction and turnover intentions than perceived job characteristics.
Method
Participants and Procedure
We recruited participants and collected data online through Cint data collection ser-
vices (www.cint.com). This independent contractor provides access to research-quality
survey panels. This company verifies member demographics, ensuring that panel
members do not complete multiple surveys for the same study, and it removes mem-
bers who provide inappropriate responses.
An invitation to participate in a longitudinal academic study was e-mailed to mem-
bers of a panel who were pre-screened as full-time employees in nonprofit organiza-
tions. This invitation linked to a webpage explaining the purpose of the study and
informed consent. Only participants who acknowledged this disclosure could access
the survey.
Respondents were not initially informed that they were contacted based on the
nature of their employment, nor were they informed that participation was dependent
8. 8 Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly
on full-time employment in a nonprofit. Preliminary screening questions asked respon-
dents to identify their employment status. Respondents who did not self-identify as
full-time employees of nonprofits were informed that they did not qualify for partici-
pation and were blocked from the survey. This procedure helped corroborate the pre-
screening criteria and helped alleviate the potential for participants to misrepresent
themselves in an attempt to receive incentives.
Participants who completed the survey received noncash “points” from Cint as an
incentive. They can accumulate and redeem these points for an assortment of premi-
ums (e.g., entry into a sweepstakes, gift cards to retailers, charitable donations). The
actual value of points given for participating in this study was less than US$5.
Online questionnaires were hosted on Zoomerang.com. Separating the web-hosting
and data collection services from the recruitment services allowed us to keep respon-
dents completely anonymous. Only Cint had access to e-mail addresses of respon-
dents, and only we had access to responses on the Zoomerang website.
Research designs that use data from a single source run the risk of inflating rela-
tionships between variables due to common method variance (Podsakoff, Mackenzie,
Lee, & Podsakoff, 2003; Spector, 2006). This dynamic can create problems when a
single survey contains self-report measures. To avoid this risk, we collected data for
our independent and dependent variables in two different surveys, separated by a
3-month interval.
A unique aspect of using online data collection services is that the Time 1 sample
size is determined a priori. Data collection is stopped after the contracted number of
responses is attained. Using Green’s (1991) guidelines for adequate sample size in
multiple regression (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2013), we estimated that we would need at
least 130 nonprofit workers to complete both the Time 1 and Time 2 survey. Dropout
rates from longitudinal studies are sometimes large, so we contracted for 550 Time 1
participants. After eliminating cases with inappropriate or incomplete responses, we
retained 504 Time 1 participants. Then, 3 months later, these respondents were
e-mailed an invitation to participate in Time 2, and we received 216 responses. After
eliminating cases with inappropriate or incomplete responses, we had a final sample
size of 196 individuals who completed both surveys—a 35.63% completion rate.
Matching of responses from Times 1 and 2 was done by a respondent-specific code
embedded in the invitation e-mails sent out by Cint and identification numbers pro-
vided by respondents.
Respondents were 82.65% Caucasian and 71.93% female. Average organizational
tenure was 8.98 years, ranging from 1 to 43. Average age of respondents was 42.70
years, ranging from 19 to 67. A total of 67.3% of respondents earned less than
US$55,000 a year.
Measures
All independent and dependent variables were measured by using a 7-point Likert-
type scale. The perception of job characteristics was measured at Time 1 by using
Idaszak and Drasgow’s (1987) revised version of Hackman and Oldhams’s (1974) job
9. Knapp et al. 9
diagnostic survey. Respondents indicated the degree to which their job contained vari-
ous characteristics by answering three questions for each of the five job characteristic
scales. The skill variety measure (sample item: “The job requires me to use a number
of complex or high level skills”) had a Cronbach’s alpha = .85, the task identity mea-
sure (sample item: “The job is arranged so that I can do an entire piece of work from
beginning to end”) had a Cronbach’s alpha = .82, the task significance measure (sam-
ple item: “The job is one where a lot of people can be affected by how well the work
gets done”) had a Cronbach’s alpha = .87, the autonomy measure (sample item: “The
job gives me considerable opportunity for independence and freedom in how I do my
work”) had a Cronbach’s alpha = .83, and the feedback measure (sample item: “After
I finish a job, I know whether I performed well”) had a Cronbach’s alpha = .84. We
measured POS at Time 1 by using Eisenberger, Fasolo, and Davis-LaMastro’s (1990)
9-item short-form measure. Respondents indicated their level of agreement with state-
ments, such as “The organization strongly considers my goals and values” and “The
organization really cares about my well-being.” Cronbach’s alpha = .97.
Job satisfaction was measured at Time 2 by using Bacharach et al.’s (1991) 5-item
measure. This measure asks respondents to indicate the degree to which they are satis-
fied with various aspects of their job, including “your present job when you compare
it to jobs in other organizations” and “the progress you are making toward the goals set
for yourself in your present position.” Cronbach’s alpha = .96. Turnover intentions
were measured at Time 2 by using 4 items reflecting employees’ intention to leave
their current employer (e.g., Bluedorn, 1982). Respondents indicated their level of
agreement with statements, such as “I will still be working for this organization six
months from now” and “I would like to quit this organization within the next six
months.” Cronbach’s alpha = .92.
The control variables of age, gender, tenure, and salary were measured using sin-
gle-item questions. Age data were reported in years and were collected so as to par-
tially alleviate the concern that generational differences in work values (e.g., Twenge,
Campbell, Hoffman, & Lance, 2010) could confound our results. Gender data were
indicated by a check box and were collected to account for the tendency of nonprofit
organizations to employ more women than men (Themudo, 2009). Tenure data were
reported in years and were collected to account for previously known relationships
with job satisfaction (Bedeian, Ferris, & Kacmar, 1992) and turnover (Griffeth et al.,
2000). Salary data were indicated by marking a check box and were collected to
account for nonprofit organizations’ tendency to compensate at lower levels than for-
profit organization (Handy & Katz, 1998) and as a proxy for organizational position.
Analyses and Results
Table 1 reports means, standard deviations, and correlations. Prior to hypotheses test-
ing, we evaluated the validity of our measures by using confirmatory factor analysis
(CFA). The standards for evaluating our CFA were root-mean-square error of approxi-
mation (RMSEA; Steiger, 1990) using a standard of < .08, comparative fit index (CFI;
Bentler, 1990) using a standard of > .90, and standardized root-mean-square residual
11. Knapp et al. 11
(SRMSR, Hu Bentler, 1999) using a standard of .10. Error terms for within-mea-
sure reverse coded items were allowed to covary a priori. All items loaded on the
intended factor, and the model exceeded our criteria for good fit, RMSEA = .066,
CFI = .925, and SRMR = .057.
We tested H1 through H4 using hierarchical regression. We entered control vari-
ables in step one, job characteristics measures in step two, and the POS measure in
step three. Table 2 reports results. When job satisfaction was examined as the criterion
without analyzing POS, only skill variety and autonomy were significant predictors in
step two. When POS was considered in conjunction with job characteristics in step 3,
only tenure, autonomy, and POS were significant predictors. There was a total R2 of
.48. When turnover intentions were examined, only tenure and POS had significant
relationships, and there was a total R2 of .33. These results provide partial support for
H1: Perceived job autonomy and perceived skill variety each explained variance in job
satisfaction in step two of the hierarchical regressions, but only autonomy remained a
significant predictor in Step 3. H2 was not supported: Job characteristics were not
significant predictors of turnover intentions. H3 and H4 were both fully supported in
that POS was a consistent predictor.
We tested H5 by doing a relative importance analysis using the web-based tool
recommended by Tonidandel and LeBreton (2015) at http://relativeimportance.david-
son.edu. This methodology holds two advantages over an examination of standardized
Table 2. Results of Hierarchical Regression for POS and Job Characteristics.
Job satisfaction Turnover intentions
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 1 Step 2 Step 3
Age .05 −.08 −.06 −.08 .01 −.01
Sex .16* .06 .07 −.10 −.03 −.05
Tenure .07 .07 .12 −.16 −.16* −.21**
Salary .11 −.04 −.02 −.12 −.02 −.03
Skill Variety .22** .11 −.13 −.03
Task Identity .03 −.02 −.03 .02
Task Significance .06 .08 −.09 −.11
Autonomy .28** .21** −.19 −.11
Feedback .14 −.02 −.05 .10
POS .47** −.46**
R2 .04 .35 .48 .06 .20 .33
Adjusted R2 .02 .32 .45 .04 .16 .29
ΔR2 .31 .13 .14 .13
df 4 9 10 4 9 10
F 1.87 10.73** 16.56** 3.05* 5.03** 8.80**
ΔF 17.17** 45.41** 6.28** 34.42**
Note. Standardized coefficients reported. POS = perception of organizational support.
*p ≤ .05. **p ≤ .01.
12. 12 Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly
regression weights. First, regression can exaggerate differences among independent
variables when they are correlated. Relative importance analysis overcomes this issue
by transforming independent variables so that their predictive relationships are orthog-
onal (Tonidandel LeBreton, 2004, 2011). Second, regression procedures assume
that data exhibits multivariate normality. Relative importance analysis does not con-
tain this assumption as it uses bootstrapping techniques to test for significant differ-
ences in variance explained among predictors (Tonidandel, LeBreton, Johnson,
2009). Our analysis supported H5 as POS was found to explain significantly more
variance in job satisfaction and turnover intentions than any of the job characteristics
variables as indicated by comparative bootstrapping confidence intervals that were
universally below 0 (see Table 3). Results were based on 10,000 bootstrapping replica-
tions and tested at alpha .05.
Discussion
In an effort to better understand full-time workers in nonprofit organizations, we
examined how structural (core job characteristics) and relational (POS) perceptions
predict job satisfaction and turnover intentions. Contrary to our expectations and some
previous empirical findings in for-profit settings (e.g., Humphrey et al., 2007; Slattery
et al., 2010), we found that job characteristics had limited predictive validity, particu-
larly in the presence of POS. More in line with expectations, we found POS was a
consistent and robust predictor. These findings suggest that employees of nonprofits
may care more about how they are treated than about their jobs. These findings raise a
number of issues for discussion.
Table 3. Test of Significant Differences in Relative Importance Between POS and Job
Characteristics.
Job satisfaction Turnover intentions
Lower boundary Upper boundary Lower boundary Upper boundary
Age −.29 −.13 −.24 −.07
Sex −.29 −.12 −.24 −.07
Tenure −.29 −.12 −.21 −.03
Salary −.29 −.13 −.23 −.07
Skill Variety −.24 −.03 −.20 −.01
Task Identity −.28 −.11 −.23 −.06
Task Significance −.26 −.08 −.22 −.04
Autonomy −.22 −.03 −.20 −.02
Feedback −.24 −.08 −.22 −.06
Note. If 0 is not included within confidence intervals, significant differences in relative importance exist.
Negative signs indicate relationship with the criterion is smaller than relationship POS has with the
criterion. Results based on 10,000 bootstrapping replications. Tested at alpha .05. POS = perception of
organizational support.
13. Knapp et al. 13
Post Hoc Examination of Mediation
While not addressed by our initial hypotheses and analyses, job satisfaction can
mediate the relationship between predictors and turnover intentions (e.g., Côté
Morgan, 2002), and we examined this dynamic post hoc. We used the bootstrapping
techniques of Preacher and Hayes (2004) to identify two significant relationships.
First, autonomy had a significant indirect relationship with turnover intentions that
was fully mediated by job satisfaction. Bias-corrected estimate of indirect effects
was −.27, with the 95% confidence interval lower boundary being −.49 and the
upper boundary being −.05. Second, the previously identified relationship between
POS and turnover intentions was partially mediated by job satisfaction. Bias-
corrected estimate of indirect effects operating through job satisfaction was −.45,
with the 95% confidence interval lower boundary being −.63 and the upper bound-
ary being −.26. These findings lend support to a growing body of literature that
identifies job satisfaction as an important mediator that sometimes intervenes
between independent and dependent variables.
Implications of Findings Related to Core Job Characteristics
When controlling for POS, skill variety, task identity, task significance, and feed-
back did not predict either job satisfaction or turnover intentions. Only autonomy
was found to be a significant predictor in that it had a direct relationship with job
satisfaction and an indirect relationship with turnover intentions (identified post
hoc) that was fully mediated by job satisfaction. To some extent, these findings are
consistent with past research in for-profit settings that has found difficulty identify-
ing a theorized relationship between job characteristics and turnover intentions (e.g.,
Humphrey et al., 2007; Slattery et al., 2010). However, the lack of findings related
to satisfaction contrasts with previous research in the for-profit context and suggests
that the nonprofit context may be a partial boundary condition to job characteristics
theory. Future researchers seeking to determine the extent to which nonprofit
employees are truly unique in this regard may benefit from following the example of
researchers who collect data in both for-profit and nonprofit contexts so as to pro-
vide a more direct comparison (Benz, 2005: Borzaga Tortia, 2006; Brown
Yoshioka, 2003).
Beyond the nonprofit context, our results also suggest the importance of separately
examining the relationships among the five job characteristics. Researchers often
expect each of the characteristics to have similar relationships with other variables
(e.g., Humphrey et al., 2007), and some researchers have combined the five into a
single, aggregated measure (e.g., Jaskyte, 2008; Piccolo Colquitt, 2006). However,
only autonomy was a consistent and significant predictor in our data. Thus, we suggest
that future researchers design their studies to separately measure each characteristic.
By following this advice, they can gain a more finely grained understanding of the
relationships and better identify the specific perception(s) that explain variance in their
dependent variables.
14. 14 Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly
Closing the Gap Between Structural and Relational Research
Consistent with research suggesting that nonprofit employees who feel unappreciated
leave their organizations (Kim Lee, 2007), we found POS to be a consistent (as
determined by hierarchical regression) and important (as determined by relative
weight analysis) predictor of higher job satisfaction and lower turnover intentions in
our data. Thus, POS appears to be an overlooked but critical predictor of nonprofit
employee satisfaction and turnover. Even further, these results provide initial evidence
that relational aspects of the work environment may matter more than structural
aspects when predicting outcomes in the nonprofit sector.
However, our work is only an initial step to future research on bridging the gap
between structural and relational theories. Future researchers will want to examine a
variety of structure-related knowledge, social environment, and general context vari-
ables (Humphrey et al., 2007; Morgeson Humphrey, 2006), each of which has the
potential to be a more consistent and important predictor than relational variables.
Furthermore, POS represents only one of many relational constructs and may not
maintain primacy when examined in conjunction with variables related to employee
belonging and need fulfillment (Knapp, Smith, Sprinkle, 2014; Masterson
Stamper, 2003). Finally, it is important for future researchers to examine the relative
importance of structural and relational aspects of the work environment with a variety
of different outcomes, including performance and discretionary behavior (Organ,
1997). Only after these kinds of contingencies are systematically examined will we
fully understand how the nature of work structure and the nature of work relationships
co-influence employees.
Methodological Considerations
One strength of our study is the collection of data over two time periods separated by
3 months, which alleviated issues related to common method variance (Podsakoff
et al., 2003; Spector, 2006). This longitudinal design is an improvement over many of
the cross-sectional tests of job satisfaction and turnover in for-profit and nonprofit set-
tings. However, we do acknowledge that a two-stage design is not robust enough to
draw conclusions regarding causal influence (Cole Maxwell, 2003). Future research-
ers may want to address issues of causality by designing field experiments or collect-
ing data over three (or more) time periods.
Another strength of our study is that we controlled for variation in age, gender,
tenure, and salary, thereby helping to alleviate concerns that our results might be
driven by extraneous individual-level variables. Nonetheless, organizations in the
nonprofit sector are diverse, and the relationships we have identified may vary accord-
ingly. For example, future researchers may find that the perceptions of job character-
istics predict satisfaction among employees at larger nonprofits that have
corporation-like rewards, cultures, and governance. Researchers who want to examine
this potential variation may want to collect and consider additional organizational data
related to specific sub-sectors and organizational characteristics.
15. Knapp et al. 15
Another methodological issue worth noting is our choice to use hierarchical regres-
sion rather than structural equation modeling (SEM) to test hypotheses. Because H1 to
H4 predict direct relationships with a single dependent variable, we felt that regression
provided a parsimonious and robust analysis of the data. In contrast, we were con-
cerned about the use of SEM because it requires large samples when effect sizes are
small. The online calculator (at www.danielsoper.com/statcalc/calculator.aspx?id=89)
estimated that we would need 444 respondents to identify an effect size of .2 with a
probability level of .05. These concerns being noted, we did perform exploratory SEM
analysis and found that the overall pattern of results remained largely the same; the
only meaningful difference was that the p value for autonomy’s relationship with sat-
isfaction went from being significant at the p .01 level using hierarchical regression
to being nonsignificant at the p .06 level using SEM. This change is consistent with
our sample size concerns.
Practical Implications
Managers of nonprofit organizations should generally be cautious when applying pre-
scriptions commonly used in for-profit organizations because the nature of the work
and work environment may be considerably different. However, we did find POS
theory to be generalizable in our sample of nonprofit workers, and we believe that
management techniques related to POS should be effective at improving job satisfac-
tion and decreasing turnover. Interestingly, many of these techniques require very few
economic resources to implement, thereby making them ideal for application in non-
profit organization. For example, encouraging open communication (M. W. Allen,
1995), engaging in participative decision-making (D. G. Allen et al., 2003), and estab-
lishing fair procedures (Rhoades Eisenberger, 2002) require only a commitment of
time and effort.
Given that we found few significant relationships related to perceived job charac-
teristics, we are more cautious when it comes to prescriptions for job design and
enrichment. Autonomy related directly to job satisfaction and indirectly to turnover
intentions; thus, a well-executed plan to increase employee independence and respon-
sibility should benefit morale and retention. Yet, we caution against a global approach
of manipulating all characteristics of every job because none of the other job charac-
teristics were significant predictors. These (non)findings suggest that changing other
aspects of job structure may have limited benefits. However, it is worth remembering
that nonprofit organizations are diverse, and our study did lack controls for organiza-
tional variables. Thus, managers will still want to consider the applicability of job
enrichment activities in their own context, particularly if their organization contains a
large number of menial or repetitive jobs.
Conclusion
Our pattern of results suggests that researchers and managers would benefit from a
more complete understanding of how organizational structures and organizational
16. 16 Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly
relationships differentially predict and influence employee outcomes. POS was an
important and consistent predictor of job satisfaction and turnover intentions in our
study. Job characteristics exhibited limited predictive validity. Thus, it appears that
nonprofit employees care more about how they are treated than about the jobs they do,
and it is possible that nonprofit organizations represent a partial boundary condition
for job characteristics theory. Given these results and potential implications, we
believe there is a critical need for additional empirical research aimed at bridging the
gap between structural and relational theories.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship,
and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of
this article.
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Author Biographies
Joshua R. Knapp is Associate Professor of Human Resources and Organizational Behavior at
the University of Wisconsin–Whitewater. His PhD was granted by the University of Cincinnati.
His primary research interests relate to understanding how employees navigate the organiza-
tional environment, including topics related to social exchange, social cognition, and employee-
organization relationships.
Brett R. Smith is Professor of Entrepreneurship and Founding Director, Center for Social
Entrepreneurship, at the Farmer School of Business, Miami University (Ohio). His research
interests focus on social entrepreneurship with specific emphases on identity, scaling, and
development models.
Therese A. Sprinkle is Assistant Professor of Management at Quinnipiac University. She
received her PhD from the University of Cincinnati after a long corporate career. She is keenly
interested in organizational justice, leadership, and roles/role behavior.
