stress management

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UNIVERSITY OF MUMBAI
PROJECT REPORT
ON
STRESS MANAGEMENT
BY
MR. JITEN H MENGHANI
ROLL NO 28
M.COM. (PART-2)
ACADEMIC YEAR 2014-2015
PROJECT GUIDE
PROF.MRS SUDHA SUBRAMANIAM
PARLE TILAK VIDYALAYA ASSOCIATION’S
M.L.DAHANUKAR COLLEGE OF COMMERCE
DIXIT ROAD, VILE PARLE (EAST)
MUMBAI-400 057

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DECLARATION
I, MR. JITEN H MENGHANI OF PARLE TILAK VIDYALAYA
ASSOCIATION’S, M.L.DAHANUKAR COLLEGE OF
COMMERCE of M.COM (PART-2) (Semester 4) hereby
Declare that I have completed this project on
STRESS MANAGEMENT
in
The Academic year 2014-2015. The information
Submitted is true & original to the best of knowledge.
-----------------------
(Signature of student)

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ACKNOWLEGEMENT
To list who all have helped me is difficult because they are so
numerous and the depth is so enormous.
I would like to acknowledge the following as being idealistic
channels and fresh dimensions in the completion of this
project
I take this opportunity to thank the University of Mumbai for
giving me chance to do this project.
I would like thank my Principal, Dr. Madhavi.S.Pethe
for providing the necessary facilities required for completion of
this project.
I would also like to express my sincere gratitude towards my
project guide PROF. SUDHA SUBRAMANIAM
whose guidance and care
made the project successful.
I would like to thank my college library, for having provided
Various reference books and magazines related to my project.
Lastly I would like to thank each & every person who directly
or indirectly helped me in completion of the project especially
my parents & peers who supported me throughout my project.

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Content
1. Introduction
2. History
3. Types of stress
 Acute stress
 Chronic stress
 In the workplace
 Medical environment stress
 Stress management programs
 Burnout
 Occupational health psychology
 Psychological resilience
 Work – life Balance
 Mental toughness
4.Groups That Need Anger Management
 People with violent Backgrounds
 People with intellectual disabilities
 Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) individuals
 People with traumatic brain injuries
 Bullies
 Substance abusers
5. Ways To Plan Ahead For Reduced Chance Of Anger Management
 Child psychologists
 Potential causes of development of anger problems
 Migraines
 Physical exercise

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6. Targeted Populations
 Adults
 Professionals
 Children and adolescents
 Individuals with intellectual disabilities
 Impediments
 Benefits
7. Types of treatment
 Prevention and Relationship Enchantment Program
 Cognitive behavioural treatment and personal development
 Anger diary
8. Techniques used by Individual
 Autogenic training
 Meditation
 Diaphragmatic breathing
 Conflict resolution
 Hobby
 Mindfulness
 Relaxation Technique
 Physical Exercise
 Attention Restoration Theory (ART)
 Stress ball
 Naturopathy
 Time Management
9. Techniques used by Organisation
 Preventing Job Stress
10.Impact of Stress on Employee Performance

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 Stress, Threat, and "Numbing Out"
 Implications for the Workplace
 Stress and the Loss of Creativity
 Uncontrollable Stress and the Dumbing Down Process
 Implications for the Workplace
 The Stress Response Curve
 Positive Effects
 Negative Effects
 Pressure and Performance
11.Conclusion
12.Bibliography

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Introduction
Stress management refers to the wide spectrum of techniques and psychotherapies aimed at controlling a
person's levels of stress, especially chronic stress, usually for the purpose of improving everyday
functioning.
In this context, the term 'stress' refers only to a stress with significant negative consequences,
or distress in the terminology advocated by Hans Selye, rather than what he calls eustress, a stress
whose consequences are helpful or otherwise positive.
Stress produces numerous physical and mental symptoms which vary according to each individual's
situational factors. These can include physical health decline as well as depression. The process of stress
management is named as one of the keys to a happy and successful life in modern society.[1] Although
life provides numerous demands that can prove difficult to handle, stress management provides a
number of ways to manage anxiety and maintain overall well-being.
Despite stress often being thought of as a subjective experience, levels of stress are readily measurable,
using various physiological tests, similar to those used in polygraphs.
Many practical stress management techniques are available, some for use by health professionals and
others, for self-help, which may help an individual reduce their levels of stress, provide positive feelings
of control over one's life and promote general well-being.
Evaluating the effectiveness of various stress management techniques can be difficult, as limited
research currently exists. Consequently, the amount and quality of evidence for the various techniques
varies widely. Some are accepted as effective treatments for use in psychotherapy, whilst others with
less evidence favouring them are considered alternative therapies. Many professional organisations exist
to promote and provide training in conventional or alternative therapies.
There are several models of stress management, each with distinctive explanations of mechanisms for
controlling stress. Much more research is necessary to provide a better understanding of which
mechanisms actually operate and are effective in practice.

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History
The current usage of the word stress arose out of Selye's 1930s experiments. He started to use the term
to refer not just to the agent but to the state of the organism as it responded and adapted to the
environment. His theories of a universal non-specific stress response attracted great interest and
contention in academic physiology and he undertook extensive research programs and publication
efforts.
While the work attracted continued support from advocates of psychosomatic medicine, many in
experimental physiology concluded that his concepts were too vague and immeasurable. During the
1950s, Selye turned away from the laboratory to promote his concept through popular books and
lecture tours. He wrote for both non-academic physicians and, in an international bestseller
entitled Stress of Life, for the general public.
A broad bio psychosocial concept of stress and adaptation offered the promise of helping everyone
achieve health and happiness by successfully responding to changing global challenges and the
problems of modern civilization. Selye coined the term "eustress" for positive stress, by contrast
to distress. He argued that all people have a natural urge and need to work for their own benefit, a
message that found favour with industrialists and governments. He also coined the term stressor to
refer to the causative event or stimulus, as opposed to the resulting state of stress.
From the late 1960s, academic psychologists started to adopt Selye's concept; they sought to quantify
"life stress" by scoring "significant life events," and a large amount of research was undertaken to
examine links between stress and disease of all kinds. By the late 1970s, stress had become the
medical area of greatest concern to the general population, and more basic research was called for to
better address the issue. There was also renewed laboratory research into
the neuroendocrine, molecular, and immunological bases of stress, conceived as a useful heuristic not
necessarily tied to Selye's original hypotheses. The US military became a key center of stress research,
attempting to understand and reduce combat neurosis and psychiatric casualties.
The psychiatric diagnosis post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) was coined in the mid-1970s, in part
through the efforts of anti-Vietnam War activists and the Vietnam Veterans Against the War,
and Chaim F. Shatan. The condition was added to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders as posttraumatic stress disorder in 1980. PTSD was considered a severe and ongoing
emotional reaction to an extreme psychological trauma, and as such often associated with soldiers,
police officers, and other emergency personnel. The stressor may involve threat to life (or viewing the
actual death of someone else), serious physical injury, or threat to physical or psychological integrity.
In some cases, it can also be from profound psychological and emotional trauma, apart from any actual
physical harm or threat. Often, however, the two are combined.
By the 1990s, "stress" had become an integral part of modern scientific understanding in all areas of
physiology and human functioning, and one of the great metaphors of Western life. Focus grew on
stress in certain settings, such as workplace stress, and stress management techniques were developed.
The term also became a euphemism, a way of referring to problems and eliciting sympathy without
being explicitly confessional, just "stressed out." It came to cover a huge range of phenomena from
mild irritation to the kind of severe problems that might result in a real breakdown of health. In
popular usage, almost any event or situation between these extremes could be described as stressful.
A key to the understanding of the negative aspects of stress is the concept of milieu interieur (the
internal environment of the body), which was first advanced by the French physiologist Claude
Bernard. In this concept, he described the principles of dynamic equilibrium. In dynamic equilibrium,
constancy, a steady state (situation) in the internal bodily environment, is essential to survival.

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Therefore, external changes in the environment or external forces that change the internal
balance must be reacted to and compensated for if the organism is to survive. Examples of such
external forces include temperature, oxygen concentration in the air, the expenditure of energy, and the
presence of predators. In addition, diseases are also stressors that threaten the constancy of the milieu
interieur.
The neurologist Walter Cannon coined the term homeostasis to further define the dynamic equilibrium
that Bernard had described. He also was the first credited with recognizing that stressors could be
emotional, as well as physical. Through his experiments, he demonstrated the "fight or flight" response
that man and other animals share when threatened. Further, Cannon traced these reactions to the
release of powerful neurotransmitters from a part of the adrenal gland, the medulla. (Neurotransmitters
are the body's chemicals that carry messages to and from the nerves.) The adrenal medulla secretes two
neurotransmitters, epinephrine (also called adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline), in the
response to stress. The release of these neurotransmitters leads to the physiologic effects seen in the
fight or flight response, for example, a rapid heart rate, and increased alertness.
Hans Selye, another early scientist who is known for his studies of stress, extended Cannon's
observations. He included the pituitary gland, a small gland at the base of the brain, as part of the
body's stress response system. He described how this gland controls the secretion of hormones (for
example, cortisol) that are important in the physiological response to stress. Additionally, Selye
actually introduced the term stress from physics and engineering and defined it as "mutual actions of
forces that take place across any section of the body, physical or psychological."
In his experiments, Selye induced stress in rats in a variety of ways. He found typical and constant
psychological and physical responses to the adverse situations that were imposed on the rats. In rats
exposed to constant stress, he observed enlargement of the adrenal glands, gastrointestinal ulcers, and
a wasting away (atrophy) of the immune (defense) system. He called these responses to stress the
general adaptation (adjustment) or stress syndrome. He discovered that these processes, which were
adaptive (healthy, appropriate adjustment) and normal for the organism in warding off stress, could
become much like illnesses. That is, the adaptive processes, if they were excessive, could damage the
body. This observation, then, was the beginning of an understanding of why stress, really overstress,
can be harmful, and why the word stress has earned such a bad name.

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Types of Stress
Acute stress
Acute stress is the most common form of stress among humans worldwide. Acute stress deals with the
pressures of the near future or dealing with the very recent past. This type of stress is often
misinterpreted for being a negative connotation. While this is the case in some circumstances, it is also
a good thing to have some acute stress in life. Running or any other form of exercise is considered an
acute stressor. Some exciting or exhilarating experiences such as riding a roller coaster is an acute
stress but is usually very fun. Acute stress is a short term stress and in result, does not have enough
time to do the damage that long term stress causes.
Chronic stress
Chronic stress is unlike acute stress. It has a wearing effect on people that can become a very serious
health risk if it continues over a long period of time. Chronic stress can lead to memory loss, damage
special recognition and produce a decreased drive of eating. The severity varies from person to person
and also sex difference can be an underlying factor. Women are able to take longer durations of stress
than men without showing the same maladaptive changes. Men can deal with shorter stress duration
better than women can but once males hit a certain threshold, the chances of them developing mental
issues increases drastically.
In the workplace
Stress in the workplace is a commonality throughout the world in every business. Managing that stress
becomes vital in order to keep up job performance as well as relationship with co-workers and
employers. For some workers, changing the work environment relieves work stress. Making the
environment less competitive between employees decreases some amounts of stress. However, each
person is different and some people like the pressure to perform better.
Salary can be an important concern of employees. Salary can affect the way people work because they
can aim for promotion and in result, a higher salary. This can lead to chronic stress.
Cultural differences have also shown to have some major effects on stress coping problems. Eastern
Asian employees may deal with certain work situations differently from how a Western North
American employee would.
In order to manage stress in the workplace, employers can provide stress managing programs such
as therapy, communication programs, and a more flexible work schedule.
Medical environment stress
A study was done on the stress levels in general practitioners and hospital consultants in 1999. Over
500 medical employees participated in this study done by Dr. R.P Caplan. These results showed that
47% of the workers scored high on their questionnaire for high levels of stress. 27% of the general

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practitioners even scored to be very depressed. These numbers came to a surprise to Dr.
Caplan and it showed how alarming the large number of medical workers become stressed out because
of their jobs. Managers stress levels were not as high as the actual practitioners themselves. An eye
opening statistic showed that nearly 54% of workers suffered from anxiety while being in the hospital.
Although this was a small sample size for hospitals around the world, Caplan feels this trend is
probably fairly accurate across the majority of hospitals.
Stress management programs
Many businesses today have begun to use stress management programs for employees who are having
trouble adapting to stress at the workplace or at home. Many people have spill over stress from home
into their working environment. There are a couple of ways businesses today try to alleviate stress on
their employees. One way is individual intervention. This starts off by monitoring the stressors in the
individual. After monitoring what causes the stress, next is attacking that stressor and trying to figure
out ways to alleviate them in any way. Developing social support is vital in individual intervention,
being with others to help you cope has proven to be a very effective way to avoid stress. Avoiding the
stressors all together is the best possible way to get rid of stress but that is very difficult to do in the
workplace. Changing behavioural patterns, may in turn, help reduce some of the stress that is put on at
work as well.
Employee assistance programs can include in-house counselling programs on managing stress.
Evaluative research has been conducted on EAPs that teach individual stress control and inoculation
techniques such as relaxation, biofeedback, and cognitive restructuring. Studies show that these
programs can reduce the level of physiological arousal associated with high stress. Participants who
master behavioural and cognitive stress-relief techniques report less tension, fewer sleep disturbances,
and an improved ability to cope with workplace stressors.
Another way of reducing stress at work is by simply changing the workload for an employee. Some
may be too overwhelmed that they have so much work to get done, or some also may have such little
work that they are not sure what to do with themselves at work. Improving communications between
employees also sounds like a simple approach, but it is very effective for helping reduce stress.
Sometimes making the employee feel like they are a bigger part of the company, such as giving them a
voice in bigger situations shows that you trust them and value their opinion. Having all the employees
mesh well together is a very underlying factor which can take away much of workplace stress. If
employees fit well together and feed off of each other, the chances of lots of stress is very minimal.
Lastly, changing the physical qualities of the workplace may reduce stress. Changing things such as
the lighting, air temperature, odour, and up to date technology.
Intervention is broken down into three steps: primary, secondary, tertiary. Primary deals with
eliminating the stressors all together. Secondary deals with detecting stress and figuring out ways to
cope with it and improving stress management skills. Finally, tertiary deals with recovery and
rehabbing the stress all together. These three steps are usually the most effective way to deal with
stress not just in the workplace, but overall.
Burnout
Burnout is a psychological term that refers to long-term exhaustion and diminished interest in work.
Burnout has been assumed to result from chronic occupational stress (e.g., work overload). However,
there is growing evidence that its aetiology is multifactorial in nature, with dispositional factors
playing an important role. Although it is widespread, burnout is not recognized as a distinct disorder,
in the DSM-5, due to the fact that burnout is problematically close to depressive disorders but it is
included in the ICD-10, and can be found under Problems related to life-management difficulty (Z73).

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The symptoms of burnout are similar to those of clinical depression; in a study that
directly compared depressive symptoms in burned out workers and clinically depressed patients, no
diagnostically significant differences were found between the two groups: burned out workers reported
as many depressive symptoms as clinically depressed patients. Moreover, a study by Bianchi,
Schonfeld, and Laurent (2014) showed that about 90% of burned out workers meet diagnostic criteria
for depression, suggesting that burnout may be a depressive syndrome rather than a distinct entity. The
view that burnout is a form of depression has found support in several recent studies.
Industrial and organizational psychology (also known as I–O psychology, occupational
psychology, work psychology, WO psychology, IWO psychology and business psychology) is the
scientific study of human behaviour in the workplace and applies psychological theories and principles
to organizations. I-O psychologists are trained in the scientist–practitioner model. I-O psychologists
contribute to an organization's success by improving the performance, satisfaction, safety, health and
well-being of its employees. An I–O psychologist conducts research on employee behaviours and
attitudes, and how these can be improved through hiring practices, training programs, feedback, and
management systems. I–O psychologists also help organizations and their employees transition among
periods of change and organization development.
I-O psychology is one of the 14 recognized specialties and proficiencies in professional psychology in
the United States and is represented by Division 14 of the American Psychological Association (APA),
known formally as the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP). In the UK,
industrial and organizational psychologists are referred to as occupational psychologists and one of 7
'protected titles' and specializations in psychology regulated by the Health and Care Professions
Council. In Australia, the title organizational psychologist is also protected by law and is regulated by
the Australian Health Practitioner Regulation Agency (AHPRA). Organizational psychology is one of
nine areas of specialist endorsement for psychology practice in Australia. Graduate programs at both
the Master’s and Doctorate level are offered worldwide. In the UK graduate degrees are accredited by
the British Psychological Society and required as part of the process to become an occupational
psychologist. In Europe someone with a specialist Euro Pay Certificate in Work and Organisational
Psychology is a fully qualified psychologist and an expert in the work psychology field with further
advanced education and training.
Occupational health psychology
Occupational health psychology (OHP) is an interdisciplinary area of psychology that is concerned
with the health and safety of workers. Houdmont and Leka noted seven major topics of occupational
stress, occupational burnout, work-family conflict,workplace violence and other forms of
mistreatment, safety, employment issues, and health issues. OHP emerged from two distinct applied
psychology disciplines, health psychology and industrial and organizational (I/O) psychology, and has
been informed by other disciplines including industrial sociology, industrial engineering, economics,
preventive medicine, public health, and occupational health OHP is concerned with psychosocial
factors in the work environment and the development, maintenance, and promotion of employee
health and that of their of families . The filed focuses on factors in the workplace that can lead to
injury, diseases and distress.
Psychological resilience
Psychological resilience is defined as an individual's ability to properly adapt to stress and adversity.
Stress and adversity can come in the shape of family or relationship problems, health problems,
or workplace and financial stressors, among others. Individuals demonstrate resilience when they can
face difficult experiences and rise above them with ease. Resilience is not a rare ability; in reality, it is

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found in the average individual and it can be learned and developed by virtually anyone.
Resilience should be considered a process, rather than a trait to be had. There is a common
misconception that people who are resilient experience no negative emotions or thoughts and display
optimism in all situations. Contrary to this misconception, the reality remains that resiliency is
demonstrated within individuals who can effectively and relatively easily navigate their way around
crises and utilize effective methods of coping. In other words, people who demonstrate resilience are
people with positive emotionality; they are keen to effectively balance negative emotions with positive
ones.
Resilience is composed of particular factors attributed to an individual. There are numerous factors,
which cumulatively contribute to a person's resilience. The primary factor in resilience is having
positive relationships inside or outside one's family. It is the single most critical means of handling
both ordinary and extraordinary levels of stress. These positive relationships include traits such as
mutual, reciprocal support and caring. Such relationships aid in bolstering a person's resilience. Studies
show that there are several other factors which develop and sustain a person's resilience:
The ability to make realistic plans and being capable of taking the steps necessary to follow through
with them
A positive self-concept and confidence in one’s strengths and abilities
Communication and problem-solving skills
The ability to manage strong impulses and feelings
These factors are not necessarily inherited; they can be developed in any individual and they promote
resiliency.
Recently there has also been evidence that resilience can indicate a capacity to resist a sharp decline in
other harm even though a person temporarily appears to get worse.
There is also controversy about the indicators of good psychological and social development when
resilience is studied across different cultures and contexts. The American Psychological Association's
Task Force on Resilience and Strength in Black Children and Adolescents, for example, notes that
there may be special skills that these young people and families have that help them cope, including
the ability to resist racial prejudice. Researchers of indigenous health have shown the impact of
culture, history, community values, and geographical settings on resilience in indigenous
communities. People who cope may also show "hidden resilience" when they don't conform with
society’s expectations for how someone is supposed to behave (in some contexts, aggression may be
required to cope, or less emotional engagement may be protective in situations of abuse).
In all these instances, resilience is best understood as a process. It is often mistakenly assumed to be a
trait of the individual, an idea more typically referred to as "resiliency". Most research now shows that
resilience is the result of individuals being able to interact with their environments and the processes
that either promote well-being or protect them against the overwhelming influence of risk factors.
These processes can be individual coping strategies, or may be helped along by good families, schools,
communities, and social policies that make resilience more likely to occur. In this sense "resilience"
occurs when there are cumulative "protective factors". These factors are likely to play a more and more
important role the greater the individual’s exposure to cumulative "risk factors". The phrase "risk and
resilience" in this area of study is quite common.
Commonly used terms, which are closely related within psychology, are "psychological resilience",
"emotional resilience", "hardiness", "resourcefulness", and "mental toughness". The earlier focus on
individual capacity which Anthony described as the "invulnerable child" has evolved into a more
multilevel ecological perspective that builds on theory developed by Uri Bronfenbrenner (1979), and
more recently discussed in the work of Michael Ungar (2004, 2008), Ann Masten (2001), and Michael
Rutter (1987, 2008). The focus in research has shifted from "protective factors" toward protective

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"processes"; trying to understand how different factors are involved in both promoting
well-being and protecting against risk. A related concept to psychological resilience is family
resilience.
Work – life Balance
Work-life conflict is not gender-specific. According to the Center for American Progress, 90 percent of
working mothers and 95 percent of working fathers report work-family conflict. However, because of
the social norms surrounding each gender role, and how the organization views its ideal worker, men
and women handle the work-life balance differently. Organizations play a large part in how their
employees deal with work-life balance. Some companies have taken proactive measures in providing
programs and initiatives to help their employees cope with work-life balance (see: Responsibility of the
employer).
Work-life conflict may come from organizational norms and ideologies. As a macro structure, the
organization maintains the locus of power. Organizations, through its structure, practices, symbols and
discourse, create and reproduce a dominant ideology. The dominant ideology is what drives
organizational power and creates organizational norms.
At the top of the organizational hierarchy, the majority of individuals are males, and assumptions can be
made regarding their lack of personal experience with the direct and indirect effects of work-family
conflict. For one, they may be unmarried and have no thought as to what "normal" family
responsibilities entail. On the other hand, the high-level manager may be married, but his wife, due to
the demands of the husband’s position, has remained at home, tending solely to the house and children.
Ironically, these are the individuals creating and reforming workplace policies.
Workplace policies, especially regarding the balance between family/life and work, create an
organizational norm in which employees must fall into. This type of organizational behaviour, according
to Dennis Mumby, "contribut[es] in some ways to the structuring of organizational reality, and hence
organizational power."
The reality of what employees experience, specifically in regards to work-life balance, is a direct result
of power operating covertly through ideological controls. This is seen in the ideological norm of the
"ideal worker." Many organizations view the ideal worker as one who is "committed to their work above
all else"."Ideal workers" are those that demonstrate extra-role behaviours, which are seen as positive
attributes.
Alternatively, those who are perceived as having to divide their time (and their commitments) are seen
not as dedicated to the organization. As research has shown, a manager’s perception of a subordinate’s
commitment to the organization is positively associated with the individual’s promo ability. Hoobler et
al.’s (2009) findings mirrored the perceived commitment-to-promo ability likelihood.
Often, these perceptions are placed on the female worker. Managers who perceived their female
employees of maintaining high work-family conflict were presumed as not as committed to the
organization, therefore not worthy of advancement. This negatively impacts working mothers as they
may be "inaccurately perceived to have less commitment to their organizations than their counterparts,
their advancement in organizations may be unfairly obstructed".
Working mothers often have to challenge perceptions and stereotypes that evolve as a working woman
becomes a working mother. Working mothers are perceived as less competent and less worthy of
training than childless women. Another study, focusing on professional jobs, found that mothers were
79 percent less likely to be hired and are typically held to a higher standard of punctuality and
performance than childless women. The moment when she becomes a mother, a working woman is held
at a completely different norm than her childless colleagues. In the same Cuddy et al. (2004) study, men

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who became fathers were not perceived as any less competent, and in fact, their perceived
warmth increased.
The ways in which corporations have modelled the "ideal worker" does not compliment the family
lifestyle, nor does it accommodate it. Long hours and near complete devotion to the profession makes it
difficult for working mothers to participate in getting ahead in the workplace. A Fortune article found
that among the most powerful women in business (female CEOs, presidents and managing directors of
major corporations), 29 percent were childless compared to 90 percent of men who were parents.
Should a woman seek a position of power within an organization, she must consider the toll on other
facets of her life, including hobbies, personal relationships and families. As Jeffrey Pfeffer states: "Time
spent on the quest for power and status is time you cannot spend on other things, such as …
family…The price seems to be particularly severe for women".[20] Many executive jobs require a
substantial amount of overtime, which as a mother, many cannot devote because of family obligations.
Consequently, it is nearly impossible for a working mother in a top management position to be the
primary caretaker of her child. Work life balance should be maintained for an efficient and effective life.
Mental toughness
Mental toughness is a collection of attributes that allow a person to persevere through difficult
circumstances (such as difficult training or difficult competitive situations in games) and emerge
without losing confidence. In recent decades, the term has been commonly used by coaches, sport
psychologists, sport commentators, and business leaders.
Mental toughness is a controversial term, in that many people use the term liberally to refer to any set of
positive attributes that helps a person to cope with difficult situations. Coaches and sport commentators
freely use the term mental toughness to describe the mental state of athletes who persevere through
difficult sport circumstances to succeed. For example, it is often simply applied as a default explanation
for any victory, which is highly problematic as an attribution. Only within the past ten years has
scientific research attempted a formal definition of mental toughness as a psychological construct and
criticisms about the lack of specificity of this umbrella term abound. For example, Moran (2012) states
that considerable caution is required in attempting to draw conclusions about the nature, characteristics,
determinants and development of mental toughness in sport because of the theoretical nature of the
definitions, which owe more to anecdotal plausibility than to empirical research.
Dr. Jim Loehr of the Human Performance Institute, in his book The New Toughness Training for Sports,
defined mental toughness as "the ability to consistently perform towards the upper range of your talent
and skill regardless of competitive circumstances."
Psychologists and sport psychologists have attempted to form a definition and a stronger
conceptualization of mental toughness as a psychological construct. In particular, three research teams
have produced both a definition and a construct definition for mental toughness.

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Groups That Need Anger Management
Listed below are several different categories of people who would benefit from having anger
management courses and or training:
People with violent Backgrounds
This is the easiest group to think of but is not a group of people you can skip right over. Just because
someone has a violent past does not mean they would not benefit from an anger management (AM)
program. One such study found that offenders who were currently in high security hospitals that went
through a self-report 20 class training program actually had very positive results. Results of the self-
report showed a decrease in aggression and a lack of responding when angry. There were two issues to
keep in mind though; a hospital setting and a setting in which the researchers did not want to provoke
much anger due to the instability of the patients.
When it comes to previous anger offenders, the normal course of action focuses on how to not respond
when feeling angry. Few studies focus on forensic mental health settings like the one previously
mentioned. More tend to focus on understanding the person’s mental health could lead to understanding
what specific AM strategy would be most effective.
People with intellectual disabilities
This is a group that a majority of the population might not associate with having AM problems, but
research shows over half of the population of Americans with intellectual disabilities displays violent
and aggressive actions somewhat regularly. People with a learning disability tend to express anger and
aggression to even those who help them on a daily basis. Adults with intellectual disabilities are at high
risk of acting aggressive and being send to clinics due to their actions.
The “theory of the mind” approach states that people with anger management problems tend to be
unsteady mentally and are not able to internalize any blame for their actions. One of the main reasons
for anger outbursts is externalizing blame and having a quick impulse to lash out. These individuals
need to have a better understanding of what their actions mean and that they should understand that
blaming themselves for problems can sometimes be the right thing to do.
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) individuals
PTSD is a symptom that tends to lead people to act very violent and aggressive. People with this
condition are mentally fragile and people who interact with them need to be cautious. This group can
benefit from extended CBT dealing with anger management issues. One study dealing with 86 war
veterans found that during the 12 sessions of training, anger traits slightly dropped as well as small
reductions in expressing anger. Research also indicates that their antisocial personality traits upon return
can put them behind in society, so finding the right anger management courses is of vital importance.
There were not significant enough findings from this study to definitely recommend veterans with
PTSD to use CBT anger management courses.
People with traumatic brain injuries

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People with a traumatic brain injury (TBI) tend to display very aggressive and dangerous
actions. A study in the Brain Injury (journal) showed that one way to prevent such actions is a
community based treatment of people with TBI. Results indicated that the need to lash out diminished
after the 12-week program, and a series of post-treatment testing showed a decline in self-reported
frequency of angry actions. Other specific results included: significant decreases in the frequency of
experiencing angry feelings and the frequency of outward expression of anger as well as significant
increases in the frequency of controlling feelings of anger.
Bullies
This category of individuals needs to be helped because of the ongoing school shootings across the
United States. In a meta-analysis study composed of studies completed from 1979-2010, young school
aged children who were identified as portraying aggressive personalities were given several different
anger management classes. Overall, results showed slightly positive results for children receiving the
classes (less aggression). The courses aimed at reducing negative emotions in the children and trying to
help them with self-control. While no overarching conclusions could be made, researchers state that
children going through anger management courses are more prepared to combat their anger internally
and less likely to act out. This is such a prevalent issue in our society, and while the results were not
overwhelmingly positive, any reduction in bullying is a step in the right direction.
Substance abusers
There is no statistical information that shows people who substance abuse also have high rates of
aggressive actions. However, researchers believe this is a group of people that should be studied due to
their questionable decision-making and typically unstable mental health. Substance abusers could
benefit from an anger management class not only in preventing potential aggression, but potentially to
understand that they need to slowly work off the drugs in order to achieve a better mental state.

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Ways To Plan Ahead For Reduced Chance Of Anger
Management
Research is starting to show that the better individuals understand what anger management is and how it
can help them personally and in relationships, aggressive actions are less likely to occur. Specifically,
couples need to understand what to do about intimate partner violence, and the more knowledgeable the
individuals are on how to manage their anger, the better prepared they are when confronted with a
problem with another person.
Child psychologists
The ability for young children to understand their emotions and how to react in certain situations can
greatly increase their chance of expressing themselves in an appropriate manner. A 2010 study from
the Journal Of Applied School Psychology looked at four 4th grade boys who took part in different
activities with the school psychologist, ranging from how to deal with your emotions to practicing anger
reduction strategies. They found a positive correlation between partaking in these meetings and less
anger expressing in a multitude of locations (school, home, etc.).
This study also opens the question of what a school psychologist should be able to teach to their
children. Many schools do not put anger management under the issues child psychology deals with,
which means it is not always available to students. Having young children learn about methods that
would later prevent anger seems like a worthwhile issue.
Potential causes of development of anger problems
Things like heavy drinking, a mental disability, and PTSD can all lead to a person committing an
aggressive act against another person. Also not having any training on how to handle oneself in a time
of aggression can lead to very undesirable outcomes. These things are typically associated with a
heightened chance of anger, but there are other, less-known factors that can lead to people acting in a
negative way.
Migraines
Something as small as a frequent migraine can actually cause certain levels of aggression and the need
for anger management. A 2013 study examined migraines and its association with anger problems in
young children (m = 11.2 years of age). The patients in the study were split into low migraine attack
frequency (AF), intermediate AF, high frequency, and chronic migraine AF. The tendency for a
participant to inhibit their anger and not lash out was found more in children with higher AF. Children
that qualified for low migraine AF actually had more anger expression.
Physical exercise
Physical exercise is any bodily activity that enhances or maintains physical fitness and
overall health and wellness. It is performed for various reasons, including strengthening muscles and
the cardiovascular system, honingathletic skills, weight loss or maintenance, and merely enjoyment.
Frequent and regular physical exercise boosts the immune system and helps prevent the "diseases of
affluence" such as heart disease, cardiovascular disease,Type 2 diabetes, and obesity. It may also help
prevent depression, help to promote or maintain positive self-esteem, improve mental health generally,
and can augment an individual's sex appeal or body image, which has been found to be linked with
higher levels of self-esteem. Childhood obesity is a growing global concern, and physical exercise may
help decrease some of the effects of childhood and adult obesity.

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Targeted Populations
Empirically supported programs exist for a variety of people seeking anger management.
Adults
Anger management interventions are based in cognitive behavioural techniques and follow in a three
step process. First, the client learns to identify situations that can potentially trigger the feeling of anger.
A situation that elicits anger is often referred to as an anger cue. If a potential trigger can be avoided, the
individual can not only avoid unwanted outbursts, but also avoid internal conflict. Often anger occurs
through automatic thought and irrational beliefs. This poses a problem for treatment because the patient
may respond too quickly to change the thought or behaviour. Wright, Day, & Howells referred to this
phenomenon as the "hijacking of the cognitive system by the emotional system". Second, relaxation
techniques are taught as appropriate responses to the identified situations. Common techniques include
regulating breathing and physically removing yourself from the situation. Finally, role-play is used to
practice the application of the learned techniques for future encounters with anger-inducing situations in
the individual’s life. The end result of repetition is an automatic response of learned beneficial
techniques. Modifications of each general step result in distinctive programs. Additionally, different
fields of psychology will change aspects of the above three step process, which is primarily based in
cognitive-behavioural therapy. Group, family, and relaxation only therapies each contribute to the wider
range of available anger management programs. Successful interventions can result in not only a
reduction of the outward display of aggression, but also a decrease in the internal level of anger.
Relaxation therapy can reduce cognitions and motivations to act out, and through relaxation, clients gain
coping skills to better manage their anger. This therapy addresses various aspects of anger such as
physiological, cognitive, behavioural, and social. These aspects combined are what make relaxation an
effective treatment for anger. The Mindfulness therapy technique attempts to teach clients acceptance of
bodily sensations and emotions. Mindfulness originated in Eastern spiritual traditions that are practiced
through meditation. A two-prong component of Mindfulness includes: self-regulation and orientation
toward the present moment. The centre of this therapy technique is experiencing the present moment in
a non-judgmental manner that is reflective of meditation. In practice, clients observe breathing, sitting
and walking during meditations. The goal is for clients to understand that his or her thoughts of anger
are merely thoughts rather than reality. Mindfulness is also a technique used in the relaxation approach,
because the technique reduces physiological arousal. Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy explains
anger through the client's beliefs and emotion, rather than the event itself. The concept involves clients
interpreting events in a rational manner in order to avoid irrational thoughts that lead to anger. Delayed
reaction technique is when clients attempt to uncover what is making them angry before acting out on
their anger. This allows them to have time to change what is making them angry and increase time
before their response; this encourages thought on a more rational level. In addition, clients are also
encouraged to avoid demands in order to avoid anger. An example of a demand placed on a client may
be that, "I have to have this done by my standards". Diet treatments, reflexology, and acupuncture are
methods of treating anger that have mental health practitioners skeptical. The diet or nutritional
treatments are aimed at uncovering the problem that is at the source of their anger. The process of
uncovering the problem is done by researching biochemical imbalances that have an influence on mental
health. For example, an individual who consumes gluten rich foods may be negatively influenced
because his or her body is unable to process gluten properly. This negative influence may result in an
increase in aggression, irrational thought process, and ultimately anger.

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Anger treatments success rate can be difficult to estimate because anger is not a recognized
disorder in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. This manual is used as a
reference for mental health professionals. Some research does exist on comparing various treatments for
anger, but they also describe methodological difficulties in making accurate comparisons. The most
concrete evidence for anger treatment is that multiple techniques have proven to be more successful than
a single technique. The relaxation approach had the highest success rate as a standalone treatment. The
effectiveness of the CBT-based anger management therapies has been evaluated by a number of meta-
analyses. In a 1998 meta-analysis with 50 studies and 1640 individuals, measures of anger and
aggression were used to compare the effects of the anger management intervention with no treatment. A
significant effect for anger management was found with a 67% chance of improvement for individuals
having received the anger management as compared to the individuals without the therapy.[14] In
addition, a 2009 META-analysis compared psychological treatments for anger across 96 studies. After
an average of 8 sessions, a significant improvement in anger reduction resulted. Overall, the completion
of an anger management program is likely to result in long lasting positive changes in behaviour.
Professionals
One motivation for seeking anger management can be career related. As both a preventative and
corrective tool, anger management is available to help individuals cope with potentially anger-inducing
aspects of their jobs. One such situation applies to caretakers of individuals with mental illness. The
daily stress combined with slow or no progress with the people under their care can create a high level
of frustration. Skills training for caretakers of relatives with dementia has been developed to help cope
with these feelings of frustration in a positive manner.
Anger management is also beneficial in law enforcement. The role of police officers is to protect
civilians, however conflicts between the police and the general public can develop. The goal of anger
management would be to reduce such occurrences like police brutality from negatively impacting the
relation between law enforcement and citizens. Anger management programs tailored towards this goal
could orient themselves towards these means by focusing on conflict resolution and including specific
law enforcement scenarios in the training. This need was noticed by Novaco, who originally designed an
intervention for anger management based on cognitive behavioural therapy, resulting in a specialized
skills training program for law enforcement.
Children and adolescents
Anger management programs with a cognitive-behavioural basis have been modified for children and
adolescents. There are three common types of CBT aimed at the youth. First, skills development
(Communication, negotiation, rationalization, etc.) uses modelling to teach appropriate reactions to
anger. Second, effective education focuses on identifying the feelings of anger and relaxation. Finally,
problem solving conveys a view of cause and effect for situations as an alternative to anger. A wide
range of methods can be used to convey these three components, with both age and severity being
important factors. For younger children, involvement can be increased by presenting anger management
in more of a fun format with educational games and activities being available. For adolescents, group
therapy can be an effective form given the resemblance to the individual's natural social environment.
The severity of expressed anger issues often relates to the intensity of the subsequent anger management
program. A few violent outbursts in a classroom setting could result in several sessions with the school's
counsellor. However, more severe juvenile delinquency could result in court mandated anger
management sessions in a juvenile correctional facility.
The effectiveness of anger management has been studied in children and adolescents for the purpose of
evaluating existing programs and designing more effective programs. In a meta-analyses of 40 studies,

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an overall effect size of 0.67 was found for CBT anger management treatment, suggesting
anger management as a legitimate approach to problematic levels of anger. Skills development (0.79)
and problem solving (0.67) both had a higher impact than affective education (0.36). This was believed
to be due to behavioural aspects being more easily conveyed than cognitive for children. The true value
from early interventions aimed at youths comes from the preventative aspect. Curbing negative
behaviours early in life could lead to a more positive outlook as an adult.
Individuals with intellectual disabilities
Individuals with intellectual disabilities can struggle with managing anger. When faced with aggression
from individuals with an intellectual disability, caretakers often employ a combination of four different
strategies. Depending on both the setting and individual, the following strategies for aggression
minimization present in different ways.
1. Reactive strategies - Aim to minimize impact of overtly aggressive behaviour by using
established protocols. Ex. Enforced isolation after the start of a violent outburst.
2. Ecological interventions - Attempt to reduce aggression level by changing an aspect of the
environment for a more calming effect. Ex. Reducing ambient noise to lower irritation.
3. Contingency management - Focuses on modifying behaviour through a combination of
reinforcement and punishment. Ex. Using a token economy to enforce rules concerning
behaviour.
4. Positive programming - Teaches life skills as an alternative to aggression. Ex. Anger
management with a CBT background.
The need for anger management is also evident in situations where individuals with intellectual
disabilities are prescribed psychotropic medication as the result of aggressive and/or self-injurious
behaviour. The medication’s role as a chemical restraint does not help modify the underlying cause of
aggression. Sedation is best used as an emergency measure with skills training as a long term solution to
decreasing the overall rate of violent incidents. In a meta-analysis reviewing 80 studies, behavioural
based interventions were found to be generally effective in modifying behavior.[33] Additionally,
cognitive behavioural therapy as administered by lay therapists was found to be effective, which
supports the feasibility of such anger management programs.
Impediments
There are a number of factors that can lower the probability of a successful anger management
intervention. One such obstacle is the level of the individual's motivation. Overall low readiness is an
impediment to the effectiveness of anger management due to the lower attendance rates and negative
effect on the therapeutic alliance. Involuntary assignment to an anger management program, for
example court mandated sessions, will result in a lower average motivation level than voluntary
admission. In one study with incarcerated inmates, there was a correlation found between individual
readiness and improvement.
Additionally, given the component of anger as a social construct, difficulty with communication
between cultures can serve as another impediment. What is deemed an appropriate expression of anger
is culturally dependent? Therefore, a mismatch between client and therapist could result in a
misunderstanding as to the end goal of the program. For example, a client could only wish to decrease

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physical violence, while the therapist aims to decrease both verbal and physical outbursts.
Gender dependent expectations of anger expression can contribute as well to societal standards. The
same violent outburst for a man and woman is subject to different interpretations due to anger being
seen as more permissible in males.
The cost of taking anger management could also be a significant obstacle. The time required for anger
management depends on the program. Weekly one hour sessions with 8-12 sessions per program are
common, but a single intensive all day session variety exists as well. The monetary cost can amount to
$30–$50 per session for general therapy, or much higher fees for specialized coaching. The availability
of anger management programs locally can be problematic for more isolated areas, creating an
additional cost for travel. However, online options can follow the same structure as an in person
intervention with similar outcomes.
Benefits
The benefits of undergoing anger management centre around the successful reduction in anger and
violent outbursts. Personal relationships that have been previously strained by a high level of aggression
are likely to undergo improvement. Professionally, workplace relationships have a similar outcome that
are beneficial to an individual's career and personal sense of satisfaction. Legally, continued attendance
to anger management programs, mandated or not, can be seen as a sign of good faith. For incarcerated
individuals, an earlier parole time can be the result of good behaviour learned from anger management
classes. From an emotional standpoint, reducing the internal level of anger results in a decrease in stress
and an increase in overall happiness as a result.
From a medical standpoint, physical illnesses also improve from positive emotional and behavioural
changes. Anger management style and overall level of anger has been associated with both acute and
chronic pain sensitivity. Blood pressure is another physiological aspect effected by anger, with increased
levels of anger being correlated with higher blood pressure. The implications of an effect on blood
pressure for overall health is made evident by the link between high blood pressure and the increased
risk of cardiovascular disease. An increase in the immune system's efficacy has also been observed as a
result of the increased level of relaxation Successful anger management could also lead to an overall
longer life span due to the decrease in reckless behaviour and violent altercations.

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Types of treatment
Here is a look at specific types of anger management treatment options that have been studied and
conducted in experiments. Several of the studies examined used self-report, which is some psychologists
feel could be a limitation for results. People do not want others to think of them as angry individuals, so
their answers could be changed to fit how society wants them to behave.
Prevention and Relationship Enchantment Program
The Prevention and Relationship Enchantment Program (PREP) is a program that was used in a study
consisting of Air Force families. The families were assigned to either a traditional multi-couple group
format or a self- directed book version focusing on relationship satisfaction and anger management
skills. There was a significant main effect for time related to both relationship satisfaction (pretest M =
49.8, SD = 17.6; post-test M = 53.8, SD = 17.6, F(1, 76) = 6.91, p < .01), and anger management skills,
(pretest M = 32.2, SD = 4.2; post-test M = 34.6, SD = 4.0, F(1, 74) = 31.79, p < .001).
The self-directed book version did not show as positive of results. Improving a couple’s anger
management skills can be a vital step in ensuring there are no violent outbreaks throughout the
relationship.
Positive therapy
This is a style that is commonly used in elementary schools for students expressing anger outbreaks.
Researchers who have looked into the reason for young student anger have found that one common
reason could be the inability to adjust socially. Students that were selected for this study received a daily
one-hour session throughout one week of school. The leaders of the therapy talked with the children and
tried to do activities that put the child in a positive mood while interacting. At the end of the week,
research showed that there was a negative correlation between anger and social adjustment. This therapy
lowered the overall anger levels of the students involved while raising them in social adjustment.
Cognitive behavioural treatment and personal development
The use of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) is something that many anger management therapies
incorporate. By trying to get a patient to open up about their emotions and feelings and being driven to
accomplish a specific task (in this case controlling anger), a person can see positive results in their
behaviour.
A specific study found in the Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry focused on using a mix of CBT
as well as trying to use personal development (PD) the patient. The conclusion of the study found that
the participants increased their usage of the anger management techniques and that they also felt more in
control of their own anger. On top of that, the PD led to higher views of themselves and more positive
self-esteem. Aggression has been shown to be a result of poor self-worth as well as thinking that those
around you do not care or support you, so this PD is vital in helping change a person’s self-
perception. Personal changes like these can lead to less aggression and cut down on violent acts.
Anger diary
Understanding your own emotions can be a crucial piece of learning how to deal with your anger.
Children who wrote down their negative emotions in an “anger diary” actually ended up improving their

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emotional understandings, which in turn lead to less aggression. When it comes to dealing
with their emotions, children show the ability to learn best by seeing direct examples of instances that
led to certain levels of anger. By seeing the reasons why they got angry, they can in the future try to
avoid those actions or be prepared for the feeling they experience if they do find themselves doing
something that typically results in them being angry.
There is not sufficient evidence of this needing to be implemented in elementary schools, but activities
like this could lead to children writing down their negative feelings and anger and taking time to cool
down instead of lashing out and doing aggressive actions in person.

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Techniques used by Individual
High demand levels load the person with extra effort and work. A new time schedule is worked up, and
until the period of abnormally high, personal demand has passed, the normal frequency and duration of
former schedules is limited.
Many techniques cope with the stresses life brings. Some of the following ways induce a lower than
usual stress level, temporarily, to compensate the biological tissues involved; others face the stressor at a
higher level of abstraction:
 Autogenic training
 Social activity
 Cognitive therapy
 Conflict resolution
 Cranial release technique
 Getting a hobby
 Meditation
 Mindfulness (psychology)
 Deep breathing
 Yoga Nidra
 Nootropics
 Reading novels
 Prayer
 Relaxation techniques
 Artistic expression
 Fractional relaxation
 Homour
 Physical exercise
 Progressive relaxation
 Spas
 Somatics training
 Spending time in nature
 Stress balls
 Natural medicine
 Clinically validated alternative treatments
 Time management
 Planning and decision making
 Listening to certain types of relaxing music[8]
 Spending quality time with pets
Autogenic training

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Autogenic training is a relaxation technique developed by
the German psychiatrist Johannes Heinrich Schultz and first published in 1932. The technique involves
the daily practice of sessions that last around 15 minutes, usually in the morning, at lunch time, and in
the evening. During each session, the practitioner will repeat a set of visualisations that induce a state
of relaxation. Each session can be practiced in a position chosen amongst a set of recommended
postures (for example, lying down, sitting meditation, sitting like a rag doll). The technique can be used
to alleviate many stress-induced psychosomatic disorders
Autogenic training was popularized in North America particularly among practitioners by Wolfgang
Luthe, who co-authored, with Schultz, a multi-volume tome on autogenic training. In 1963 Luthe
discovered the significance of "autogenic discharges", paroxysmic phenomena of motor, sensorial,
visual and emotional nature related to the traumatic history of the patient, and developed the method of
"autogenic abreaction". His disciple Luis de Rivera, aMcGill University-trained psychiatrist,
introduced psychodynamic concepts[1] into Luthe's approach, developing "autogenic analysis"as a new
method for uncovering the unconscious.
There are many parallels between autogenic training and progressive relaxation. Herbert Benson, MD, a
Harvard professor, also did significant research in the area and wrote an influential book, The
Relaxation Response.
Abbé Faria and Émile Coué are the forerunners of Schultz.
Like many techniques (progressive relaxation, yoga, qigong, varieties of meditation) which have been
developed into advanced, sophisticated processes of intervention and learning, autogenic training, as
Luthe and Schultz wrote in their master tome, took well over a year to learn to teach and over a year to
learn. But some biofeedback practitioners took the most basic elements of autogenic imagery and
developed "condensed" simplified versions that were used in combination with biofeedback. This was
done at the Menninger Foundation by Elmer Green, Steve Fahrio, Patricia Norris, Joe Sargent, Dale
Walters and others, where they took the hand warming imagery of autogenic training and used it as an
aid to develop thermal biofeedback.
Meditation
Meditation is a practice in which an individual trains the mind or induces a mode of consciousness,
either to realize some benefit or for the mind to simply acknowledge its content without becoming
identified with that content, or as an end in itself.
The term meditation refers to a broad variety of practices that includes techniques designed to promote
relaxation, build internal energy or life force (qi, ki, prana, etc.) and develop compassion, love, patience,
generosity and forgiveness. A particularly ambitious form of meditation aims at effortlessly sustained
single-pointed concentration meant to enable its practitioner to enjoy an indestructible sense of well-
being while engaging in any life activity.
The word meditation carries different meanings in different contexts. Meditation has been practiced
since antiquity as a component of numerous religious traditions and beliefs. Meditation often involves
an internal effort to self-regulate the mind in some way. Meditation is often used to clear the mind and
ease many health concerns, such as high blood pressure, depression, and anxiety. It may be done sitting,
or in an active way—for instance, Buddhist monks involve awareness in their day-to-day activities as a
form of mind-training. Prayer beads or other ritual objects are commonly used during meditation in
order to keep track of or remind the practitioner about some aspect of the training.

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Meditation may involve generating an emotional state for the purpose of analyzing that
state—such as anger, hatred, etc.—or cultivating a particular mental response to various phenomena,
such as compassion. The term "meditation" can refer to the state itself, as well as to practices or
techniques employed to cultivate the state. Meditation may also involve repeating a mantra and closing
the eyes. The mantra is chosen based on its suitability to the individual mediator. Meditation has a
calming effect and directs awareness inward until pure awareness is achieved, described as "being
awake inside without being aware of anything except awareness itself." In brief, there are dozens of
specific styles of meditation practice, and many different types of activity commonly referred to as
meditative practices.
Diaphragmatic breathing
Diaphragmatic breathing, abdominal breathing, belly breathing or deep breathing is breathing that is
done by contracting the diaphragm, a muscle located horizontally between the chest cavity and stomach
cavity. Air enters the lungs and the belly expands during this type of breathing.
This deep breathing is marked by expansion of the abdomen rather than the chest when breathing. It is
considered by some to be a healthier way to breathe, and is considered by some a useful form
of complementary and alternative treatment.
Conflict resolution
Conflict resolution, otherwise known as reconciliation, is conceptualized as the methods and processes
involved in facilitating the peaceful ending of conflict and retribution. Often, committed group members
attempt to resolve group conflicts by actively communicating information about their conflicting
motives or ideologies to the rest of the group (e.g., intentions; reasons for holding certain beliefs), and
by engaging in collective negotiation. Dimensions of resolution typically parallel the dimensions of
conflict in the way the conflict is processed. Cognitive resolution is the way disputants understand and
view the conflict, with beliefs and perspectives and understandings and attitudes. Emotional resolution
is in the way disputants feel about a conflict, the emotional energy. Behavioural resolution is how one
thinks the disputants act, their behaviour. Ultimately, a wide range of methods and procedures for
addressing conflict exist, including but not limited to negotiation, mediation, diplomacy, and
creative peace building.
The term conflict resolution may also be used interchangeably with dispute resolution, where arbitration
and litigation processes are critically involved. Furthermore, the concept of conflict resolution can be
thought to encompass the use of nonviolent resistance measures by conflicted parties in an attempt to
promote effective resolution. Conflict resolution as an academic field is relatively new. George Mason
University in Fairfax, VA, was the first university to offer a PhD program.
Hobby
A hobby is a regular activity that is done for pleasure, typically during one's leisure time. Hobbies can
include collecting themed items and objects, engaging in creative and artistic pursuits, playing sports, or
pursuing other amusements. By continually participating in a particular hobby, one can acquire
substantial skill and knowledge in that area.
Generally speaking, a person who engages in an activity solely for fun is called a 'hobbyist', whereas a
'professional' generally engages in an activity for reward and an 'amateur' (from French for "lover of")
does so out of personal interest in an activity. While an amateur may be as skilled as a professional, a
professional receives compensation while an amateur generally does not.

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Mindfulness
Mindfulness is "the intentional, accepting and non-judgmental focus of one's attention on the emotions,
thoughts and sensations occurring in the present moment", which can be trained by meditational
practices derived from Buddhist anapanasati. It has been popularized in the West by Jon Kabat-
Zinn with his Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) program. Mindfulness is also an attribute of
consciousness long believed to promote well-being.
Clinical psychology and psychiatry since the 1970s have developed a number of therapeutic applications
based on mindfulness for helping people who are experiencing a variety of psychological conditions.
Clinical studies have documented the physical and mental health benefits of mindfulness in general, and
MBSR in particular. Programs based on MBSR and similar models have been widely adapted in
schools, prisons, hospitals, veterans centers, and other environments.
Relaxation Technique
A relaxation technique (also known as relaxation training) is any method, process, procedure, or activity
that helps a person to relax; to attain a state of increased calmness; or otherwise reduce levels
of pain, anxiety, stress or anger. Relaxation techniques are often employed as one element of a
wider stress management program and can decrease muscle tension, lower the blood pressure and slow
heart and breath rates, among other health benefits.
People respond to stress in different ways, namely, by becoming overwhelmed, depressed or both.
Yoga, QiGong, Taiji, and Pranayama that includes deep breathing tend to calm people who are
overwhelmed by stress, while rhythmic exercise improves the mental and physical health of those who
are depressed. People who encounter both symptoms simultaneously, feeling depressed in some ways
and overexcited in others, may do best by walking or performing yoga techniques that are focused on
strength.
Physical Exercise
Physical exercise is any bodily activity that enhances or maintains physical fitness and
overall health and wellness. It is performed for various reasons, including strengthening muscles and
the cardiovascular system, honingathletic skills, weight loss or maintenance, and merely enjoyment.
Frequent and regular physical exercise boosts the immune system and helps prevent the "diseases of
affluence" such as heart disease, disease, Type, and obesity. It may also help prevent depression, help to
promote or maintain positive self-esteem, improve mental health generally, and can augment an
individual's sex appeal or body image, which has been found to be linked with higher levels of self-
esteem. Childhood obesity is a growing global concern, and physical exercise may help decrease some
of the effects of childhood and adult obesity. Health care providers often call exercise the "miracle" or
"wonder" drug—alluding to the wide variety of proven benefits that it can provide.
Attention Restoration Theory (ART)
Attention Restoration Theory (ART) asserts that people can concentrate better after spending time in
nature, or even looking at scenes of nature. Natural environments abound with "soft fascinations" which
a person can reflect upon in "effortless attention", such as clouds moving across the sky, leaves rustling
in a breeze or water bubbling over rocks in a stream. The theory was developed by Rachel and Stephen
Kaplan in the 1980s in their book The experience of nature: A psychological perspective, and has since
been found by others to hold true in medical outcomes as well as intellectual task attention, as described
below. Berman et al. discuss the foundation of the Attention Restoration Theory (ART). "ART is based

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on past research showing the separation of attention into two components: involuntary
attention, where attention is captured by inherently intriguing or important stimuli, and voluntary or
directed attention, where attention is directed by cognitive-control processes."
Stress ball
A stress ball is a malleable toy, usually not more than 7 cm in diameter. It is squeezed in the hand and
manipulated by the fingers, ostensibly to either help relieve stress and muscle tension or to exercise the
muscles of the hand.
There are many different types of stress balls. Some are made from closed-cell polyurethane foam
rubber. This type of stress ball is made by injecting the liquid components of the foam into a mould. The
resulting chemical reaction creates carbon dioxide bubbles as a by product, which in turn creates the
foam.
Stress balls, especially those used in physical therapy, can also contain gel of different densities inside a
rubber or cloth skin. Another type uses a thin rubber membrane surrounding a fine powder. The latter
type can be made at home by filling a balloon with baking soda. Some balls similar to a foot bag are
marketed and used as stress balls.
Despite the name, many stress balls are not spherical. Many stress toys are moulded in amusing shapes
and screen or transfer printed with corporate logos. They are presented to employees and clients as
promotional gifts. Stress balls are the third most popular promotional gift in the UK Stress toys are a
staple of cubicles where repetitive stress injuries such as carpal tunnel syndrome are common. Because
of the many shapes now available, stress balls are generically known as stress relievers.
Naturopathy
Naturopathy or naturopathic medicine is a form of alternative medicine employing a wide array of
"natural" treatments, including homeopathy, herbalism, and acupuncture, as well as diet and lifestyle
counselling. Naturopaths favour a holistic approach with non-invasive treatment and generally avoid the
use of surgery and drugs. Naturopathic philosophy is based on a belief in vitalize and self-healing, and
practitioners often prefer methods of treatment that are not compatible with evidence-based medicine.
Naturopathic medicine is replete with pseudoscientific, ineffective, unethical, and possibly dangerous
practices.
The term "naturopathy" was created from "nature" (Latin root for birth) and "pathos" (the Greek root for
suffering) to suggest "natural healing". Modern naturopathy grew out of the Natural Cure
movement of Europe. The term was coined in 1895 by John Scheel and popularized by Benedict Lust,
the "father of U.S. naturopathy". Beginning in the 1970s, there was a revival of interest in the United
States and Canada, in conjunction with the holistic health movement.
Naturopathic practitioners in the United States can be divided into three categories: traditional
naturopaths; naturopathic physicians; and other healthcare providers that provide naturopathic services.
The scope of practice varies widely between jurisdictions, and naturopaths in unregulated jurisdictions
may use the Naturopathic Doctor designation or other titles regardless of level of education.
Naturopathic physicians employ the principles of naturopathy within the context of conventional
medical practices.
Much of the ideology and methodological underpinnings of naturopathy are in conflict with the
paradigm of evidence-based medicine. Their training adds up to a very small amount of that of primary
care doctors. Many naturopaths oppose vaccination based in part on the early views that shaped the

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profession. According to the American Cancer Society, "scientific evidence does not
support claims that naturopathic medicine can cure cancer or any other disease, since virtually no studies
on naturopathy as a whole have been published."
Time Management
Time management is the act or process of planning and exercising conscious control over the amount of
time spent on specific activities, especially to increase effectiveness, efficiency or productivity.
It is a meta-activity with the goal to maximize the overall benefit of a set of other activities within the
boundary condition of a limited amount of time.
Time management may be aided by a range of skills, tools, and techniques used to manage time when
accomplishing specific tasks, projects, and goals complying with a due date. Initially, time management
referred to just business or work activities, but eventually the term broadened to include personal
activities as well. A time management system is a designed combination of processes, tools, techniques,
and methods. Time management is usually a necessity in any project development as it determines the
project completion time and scope.
The major themes arising from the literature on time management include the following:
 Creating an environment conducive to effectiveness
 Setting of priorities
 Carrying out activity around those priorities
 The related process of reduction of time spent on non-priorities
 Incentives to modify behaviour to ensure compliance with time-related deadlines.
Time management has been considered to be a subset of different concepts such as:
 Project management. Time Management can be considered to be a project management subset and
is more commonly known as project planning and project scheduling. Time Management has also
been identified as one of the core functions identified in project management.
 Attention management: Attention Management relates to the management of cognitive resources,
and in particular the time that humans allocate their mind (and organize the minds of their
employees) to conduct some activities.

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Techniques used by Organisation
Stress management refers to a wide spectrum of techniques and therapies that aim to control a person's
levels of stress, especially chronic stress, to improve everyday functioning.
Preventing Job Stress
If employees are experiencing unhealthy levels of stress, a manager can bring in an objective outsider,
such as a consultant, to suggest a fresh approach. But there are many ways managers can prevent job
stress in the first place. A combination of organizational change and stress management is often the
most effective approach. Among the many different techniques managers can use to effectively prevent
employee stress, the main underlying themes are awareness of possibly stressful elements of the
workplace and intervention when necessary to mitigate any stress that does arise.
Specifically, organizations can prevent employee stress in the following ways:
Intentional Job Design
 Design jobs that provide meaning and stimulation for workers as well as opportunities for them to
use their skills.
 Establish work schedules that are compatible with demands and responsibilities outside the job.
 Consider flexible schedules—many organizations allow telecommuting to reduce the pressure of
being a certain place at a certain time (which enables people to better balance their personal lives).
 Monitor each employee's workload to ensure it is in line with their capabilities and resources.
Clear and Open Communication
 Teach employees about stress awareness and promote an open dialogue.
 Avoid ambiguity at all costs—clearly define workers' roles and responsibilities.
 Reduce uncertainty about career development and future employment prospects.
Positive Workplace Culture
 Provide opportunities for social interaction among workers.
 Watch for signs of dissatisfaction or bullying and work to combat workplace discrimination (based
on race, gender, national origin, religion, or language).
Employee Accountability
 Give workers opportunities to participate in decisions and actions that affect their jobs.
 Introduce a participative leadership style and involve as many subordinates as possible in resolving
stress-producing problems.
Stress Prevention Programs
St. Paul Fire and Marine Insurance Company conducted several studies on the effects of stress
prevention programs in a hospital setting. Program activities included educating employees and
management about workplace stress, changing hospital policies and procedures to reduce organizational
sources of stress, and establishing of employee assistance programs. In one study, the frequency of
medication errors declined by 50% after prevention activities were implemented in a 700-bed hospital.
In a second study, there was a 70% reduction in malpractice claims among 22 hospitals that
implemented stress prevention activities. In contrast, there was no reduction in claims in a
matched group of 22 hospitals that did not implement stress prevention activities.

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Impact of Stress on Employee Performance
Creating a high performance organization is a popular theme in the training and development field. To
survive in these competitive times, companies can't afford anything less. Creating a high performance
organization requires understanding what factors influence performance. One of the most significant
factors is stress.
Historically, stress has been viewed as an inevitable consequence of work life; or at most, a health care
issue. Neither view begins to capture just how costly this problem is to employers. Research shows that
stress interferes with human intellectual, emotional, and interpersonal functioning. In fact, nearly every
popular training and organizational development initiative is directly compromised by the intellectual,
emotional, and interpersonal consequences of stress.
Initiatives like The Learning Organization, Process Re-engineering, Diversity Training, Collaborative
Team Work, and The High Performance Organization are all impacted by the way people are affected
by stress. In this article, we will highlight some of the research findings and discuss their implications
for today's organization.
Stress, Threat, and "Numbing Out"
When animals, including human beings, are exposed to potentially life threatening situations; their
bodies release endorphins, which are nature's pain-killer. This makes sense from a survival perspective.
If you are being attacked by a predator and are injured, you don't want to be focusing your attention on
how much you hurt.
This response doesn't just happen in response to tangible, visible threat; it is also triggered by potential
threat. Thus, if we feel threatened or fearful, our body releases endorphins. This sets the stage for
serious intellectual and interpersonal consequences; because endorphins dull both our ability to think
and our ability to feel. Effective decision-making and interpersonal skills require both.
Implications for the Workplace
In workplaces where people are constantly afraid and insecure, employees are at risk of "numbing out"
to protect themselves. We see it in the blank faces of clerks, the lack of enthusiasm by front line
workers, and in the remarkably insensitive ways managers and employees treat each other. The very
mechanism which allows a person to survive an emotionally painful environment also makes it difficult
for them to respond sensitively and empathetically to others. The organizational conflict and customer
service consequences of this are obviously very costly.
This numbing process affects far more than the interpersonal realm of organizational performance. It
affects all aspects of decision-making, innovation, and safety. With their thinking impaired, people are
at greater risk of causing serious mistakes and accidents. They are also obviously less likely to make

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wise decisions and create process improvements.
Stress and the Loss of Creativity
Creative and innovative thought are is at the heart of the learning organization. An organization's ability
to innovate is perhaps the most important source of competitive advantage. Organizations who know
how to stimulate and leverage innovative thought are able to respond more rapidly and resourcefully to
market changes and customer requirements than their slower, less innovative competitors. Despite the
tremendous contribution innovative thought makes to organizational survival, most organizations don't
realize how they prevent such thought from being exercised in their organization. The typical high stress
workplace the physiological and psychological affects of stress on the human brain and mind
compromises such creativity and innovation.
Studies show that when people are under stress, their thought processes narrow. This narrowing of
attention, by definition, prevents divergent thinking, which is the foundation of creativity. Divergent
thinking is the ability to see connections between very distantly related ideas and context. It is an
important component of "thinking outside the box." When people are stressed, they are able to perceive
obvious connections and associations between ideas. When people are in a positive emotional state, their
ability to make more distant, novel connections and associations increases. Thus, stress compromises, at
the most fundamental neurological level, one of the foundational skills of creativity and innovation.
Uncontrollable Stress and the Dumbing Down Process
Research by Dr. James Pennebaker of Southern Methodist University has demonstrated a very serious
consequence of uncontrollable stress on thought processes. In an experiment performed by Dr.
Pennebaker, subjects wrote about whatever was going on in their mind - their "stream of
consciousness." One group was subjected to a loud noise in the middle of the exercise and told there was
nothing they could do about it; they had to "grin and bear it." The other group was subjected to the same
loud noise in the middle of the exercise, but they were told they could have the noise stopped if they
chose. The results were both fascinating and disturbing in their implications for organizational
performance.
The group that had no control demonstrated a significant deterioration in their thought process during
and after the noise. Their thinking became unemotional, unimaginative, and dull. It was as if they
became temporarily dumb in order to endure the stressful situation. Even more interesting was the other
group's response. "although they were told they could stop the noise if they needed to, not one person
chose to do so. Therefore, they experienced the same amount of unpleasant noise as the group which
wasn't given that option.
Despite being subjected to the same amount of noxious noise, their thought process remained
unaffected. They engaged in deep, reflective, creative thought. Thus, it wasn't the negative external
situation, but the perceived lack of control, which resulted in a diminished thinking capacity. The
operative term here is perceived. This study and others like it show that even if a person's perception is
wrong - if in fact they really don't have control, the effect is the same as if they truly had control. It's the
perception, the belief, that matters.
Closely linked to this sense of perceived control is predictability. "s long as a person (or lab rat for that
matter) knows when the next painful situation will occur, they do not suffer the same kind of
psychological and physiological harm as those who don't know "when the other shoe will drop." Simply
knowing creates a feeling, even if ill-founded, of control.

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Implications for the Workplace
One obvious implication of this research is that employee intellectual functioning can be very
powerfully influenced by their environment. In workplaces where employees feel helpless and
disempowered, they are less likely to think in intelligent, creative ways. Another important implication,
and this is born out by other research, is that perceived control plays a major role in whether a person is
affected by a potentially stressful workplace. Workers in jobs with similar demands, but different levels
of control, exhibit very different psychological and physiological responses. With the same demand
level, workers in low control workplaces are significantly more affected by their work.
Thus, when workers have little control over their work and feel powerless in general, they are more
likely to suffer from the kind of "dumbing down" that Pennebaker's work demonstrated; and which we
see in organizations throughout America.
In thinking about organizational implications, we need to realize that the word "perceived" in the term
"perceived control" is important. It is important because in reality, there is no way we can create a
workplace in which a person has total control over their work and over their destiny. No organization
can guarantee lifelong employment, no one can foresee market changes or economic downturns. But, as
long as people have open lines of communication and know that they can get the information they need -
even if it's "we don't know yet," they experience a sense of control. Thus, organizations which enable
open, honest communication create a context in which people are less likely to be stressed out, and
because of that, more likely to utilize their capabilities.
The Stress Response Curve
To better understand the effects of stress to performance, Nixon, P. (1979) created the following graph
of the stress performance curve explaining how stress affects performance in theoretical terms.
(Image from lesstress.net)
Figure 1: The Stress Response Curve

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The curve shows that as the level of stress increases, the performance level also increases, to the point of
eustress, or healthy tension. Near the point of fatigue, an identified area called the Comfort Zone
indicates the range of stress levels that we can absolutely manage and facilitates good performance
levels.
As stress begins to be perceived as overwhelming or excessive, the person reaches a fatigue point
wherein the performance levels starts to decline. The ultimate end of overwhelming stress, called
burnout, can be exhaustion, ill-health or breakdown.
Positive Effects
As shown by the graph, performance levels increase when stress management is effective. Stressors
such as pressure and demands can facilitate better stress response and thus, higher levels of
performance. For instance, a basketball player tries to run faster, shoot a three-point shot and succeeds
in it because of the pressure he has obtained from the audience, the close scores and the tough
opponents.
Another example is the short but adequate deadline given to an employee, which motivates and
encourages her to work actively and efficiently on the project assigned to her. Yet another instance is an
approaching major examination which leads a college student to double time on studying and reviewing
of lessons.
Negative Effects
When stress is perceived as uncontrollable or unmanageable, the person begins to experience a gradual
to drastic decrease in performance levels, causing a decline in productivity and enthusiasm to respond to
the stress.
For instance, a very tight deadline is given to an office employee who has to take care of her four
children at home and a sick mother at the hospital. This overwhelming mix of situations, if not managed
carefully and totally, will result to a poor performance at work, bad relationships with other members of
the family, ill health, and burnout.
Pressure and Performance
Pressure, one of the significant life stressors, affects performance, as shown by the“Inverted-U” graph
below, which was created by Robert Yerkes and John Dodson in 1908.

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(Image from mindtools.com)
Figure 2: The Inverted-U Model or the Yerkes-Dodson Law
Looking at the left side of the graph, you will notice that low pressure or low levels of stress results to s
person’s stress response as “boredom” or unchallenging. Even if the task is of great important, in the
absence of an appropriate level of pressure, attention and concentration to perform the task are
significantly low.
On the other hand, extreme levels of pressure doesn’t mean high performance levels; rather, it’s the
same as the result from low pressure – low performance levels due to “unhappiness” or negative feelings
due to overwhelming stress.
However, there’s a region called the “area of best performance”. In this region, moderate pressure
resulting to optimum stress or stress that is totally manageable leads to the highest level of performance.

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Conclusion
There are way of reducing stress at work is by simply changing the workload for an employee. Some
may be too overwhelmed that they have so much work to get done, or some also may have such little
work that they are not sure what to do with themselves at work. Improving communications between
employees also sounds like a simple approach, but it is very effective for helping reduce stress.
Sometimes making the employee feel like they are a bigger part of the company, such as giving them a
voice in bigger situations shows that you trust them and value their opinion. Having all the employees
mesh well together is a very underlying factor which can take away much of workplace stress. If
employees fit well together and feed off of each other, the chances of lots of stress are very minimal.
Lastly, changing the physical qualities of the workplace may reduce stress. Changing simple things such
as the lighting, air temperature, odour and up to date technology.
Bibliography
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_management
http://www.medicinenet.com/stress/page3.htm
http://www.humannatureatwork.com/Workplace-Stress-2.htm
https://explorable.com/how-does-stress-affect-performance