1. Systematic, status andSystematic, status and
conservation of Spongesconservation of Sponges
of Indiaof India
Jitendra Kumar
College of Fisheries, Mangalore

2. INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION
Sponges is an ancient group with
evolutionary history of about 500
million years and is represented in the
extent seas by about 5000 species
referable to 790 genera in 80 families
In India ,it is represented by 519 sps
i.e., about 10.1% of world’s total
 Only 60% of our sponges fauna is
documented and hence much more
effort has to be put in for getting a
complete picture

3. In India ,sponge fauna is dominated by
Demospongia followed by
Hexactinellida and Calcarea( NIO,
2005)
Besides 510 sps., also 34 sps. of coral
boring sponges (20 from Gulf of Mannar
& Palk Bay ,5 from A & N islands and 18
from Lakshadweep).(NIO,2005)
Gulf of Mannar & Palk Bay region has
the richest diversity(319 sps.) followed
by A & N Islands (95 sps.),
Lakshadweep(82 sps.) and Gulf of
Kachchh(25 sps.).(NIO,2005)

4. Sponges (poriferans) are very simple
animals that live permanently attached
to a location in the water - they
are sessile as adults.
 Sponges are really nothing but a loose
aggregation of specialized cells.
 Amazingly enough, these cells don’t
actually form organs, but do serve
similar functions, keeping the animal(s)
alive.
Most sponges live in salt water - only
about 150 species live in fresh water.

5. Sponges are characterized by the possession of
a feeding system unique among animals
The body of this primitive animal has
thousands of pores which let water flow
through it continually
 Sponges obtain nourishment
and oxygen from this flowing
water. The flowing water also
carries out
waste products
James FatherreeJames Fatherree

6. Sponges are filter feeders.
Most sponges are hermaphrodites.
 However, sponges take up an entire
phylum for several reasons. First, there
are more than five thousand different
types of sponges. Second, they are
different from all other animals. Third,
their history does not link them to other
animals.

7.  living sponge species are classified in the
phylum Porifera, which is composed of
three distinct groups,
the Hexactinellida(glass sponges),
the Demospongia (horn sponges, like the
bath sponge), and
the Calcarea (calcareous sponges)

8.  Generally, they are sessile, though it has
been shown that some are able to move
slowly (up to 4 mm per day) within
aquaria
 Some sponges bore into the shells of
bivalves, gastropods, and the colonial
skeletons of corals by slowly etching away
chips of calcareous material

9. DistributionDistribution
Sponges are distributed from intertidal
to tidal depths and form a major
component to the benthic community in
some places.
Though many species co-exist in their
overall range in distribution ,the
abundance of each species may vary
both in time and space.
Easy availability of sufficiently larger
specimen is possible only along the
areas of their optimum growth.

10. Identification of SpongesIdentification of Sponges
Body form and color are highly variable
even for different specimen of the same
sps. collected from the same area.
Hence, general morphology cannot be
taken as the identifying characters.
Spicules, their size, shape,
arrangements, etc.
Cellular aggregation and totipotent
nature of archaeocytes.

11. AnatomyAnatomy
two outer layers separated by an acellular
(having no cells) gel layer called the
mesohyl (also called the mesenchyme).
In the gel layer are either spicules
(supportive needles made of calcium
carbonate) or spongin fibers (a flexible
skeletal material made from protein).
have neither tissues nor organs.
 form different shapes, including tubes,
fans, cups, cones, blobs, barrels, and
crusts.
Size ranges from a few mm to 2m tall.

12. Food and feedingFood and feeding
Sponges are filter feeders.
Feed on tiny, floating organic particles
and plankton that they filter from the
water the flows through their body.
 Food is collected in specialized cells
called choanocytes and brought to other
cells by amoebocytes.

13. Sponges of the family Cladorhizidae are
especially unusual in that they typically
feed by capturing and digesting whole
animals. These sponges are actually
carnivorous

14. Sponge Reproduction
• Most are hermaphroditic or monoecious.
• Sperm leaves a sponge via the osculum, and enters a sponge by the currents
generated from the choanocytes.
Fertilized eggs develop into ciliated free-swimming larvae called
parenchymula larvae
• Sponges can reproduce asexually by fragmentation
• Many of the freshwater sponges
can produce asexual bodies called
gemmules, aggregations of cells
that are enclosed in hard outer
covering containing spicules

15. Classification of SpongesClassification of Sponges
Phylum Class Characteristics
Porifera Calcarea -CaCO3
spicules
- all are marine
Hexactinellida -SiO3 spicules
- 6-rayed spicules
- all are marine
- “glass sponges”
Demospongiae -SiO3
spicules
- may have spongin
- marine, B/W or F/W

16. Systematic positionsSystematic positions
Phylum Porifera
Class -Calcarea
Sub-class - Calcinea
Order -Clathrinida
Family- 1.Clathrinidae
2.Soleneiscidae
3.Levinellidae
Order – Leucettida
Family - 1.Leucaltidae
2.Leucascidae
Sub-class-Calcaronia
Order-Leucosoleniida

17. Family – Leucosoleniidae
Genus – Leucosolenia
Order – Sycettida
Family – 1. Sycettidae
2.Heteropiidae
3. Grantiidae
4. Amphoriscidae

18. Class – Hexactinellida
Sub-class – Amphidiscophora
Order – Amphidiscosida
Family – 1.Hyalonematidae( eg. Hyalonema sp.)
2.Monorhaphididae( eg. Monorhaphis sp.)
3.Pheronematidae ( eg.Pheronema sp. )
Sub-class – Hexasterophora
Order – 1. Aulocalycoida
Family – Uncinateridae( eg. Tretopleura sp.)
Order - Hexactinosa
Family – Aphrocallistidae( eg. Heterochone sp.)

19. Class – Demospongiae
Sub-class –
Homoscleromorpha(Bergquist,1978)
Order – Homosclerophorida(Dendy,1905)
Sub-class – Tetractinomorpha
Order – 1.Astrophorida( Sollas,1888)
2. Chondrosida(Boury- Esnault &
Lopes,1985)
3.Hadromerida( Topsent,1894)
4.Lithistida(Sollas,1888)
5.Spirophorida(Bergquist &
Hogg,1969)

20. Sub-class – Ceractinomorpha (Levi,1953)
Order – 1. Agelasida (Verrill,1907)
2.Dendroceratida(Minchin,1900)
3.Dictyoceratida(Minchin,1900)
4.Halichondrida(Gray ,1867)
5.Halisarcida(Bergquist, 1996)
6.Haplosclerida(Topsent, 1928)
7.Poecilosclerida( Topsent, 1928)
8.Verongida (Bergquist, 1978)
9.Verticillitida( Termier & Termier ,
1977)

21. Family – 1. Clionidae--marine boring sponges
2. Spongiidae--commercial bath sponges
3. Haliclonidae--shallow water sponges
4.Halichondriidae--encrusting shallow
water sponges
5.Clathrinidae--
7.Spongillidae--freshwater sponges
8.Cladorhizidae--deep sea sponges

22. Distinguishing character of Phylum-Distinguishing character of Phylum-
PoriferaPorifera
Comes from the latin word ‘porus’
meaning pore and ‘Ferre’ means
bear ,hence animal with pores.
No definite symmetry.
Body multicellular with few
tissues, no organs.
All are sessile, (live attached to
something as an adult).
Reproduce sexually or asexually.
•Has no nervous system.
•Has a distinct larval stage
which is planktonic.
•Lives in aquatic
environments, mostly
marine.
• All are filter feeders.
• Often have a skeleton of
spicules.

23. General Morphology
• The internal cavity is called the atrium or spongocoel
• Water is drawn into it through a series of incurrent pores or dermal
ostia present in the body wall into a central cavity and then flows out of
the sponge through a large opening at the top called the osculum

24. The Skeleton
In the mesohyl is the skeleton composed of tiny pointed structures
made of silica or calcium carbonate called spicules.
These structures act as an internal scaffolding, but also function in
protection
Among some sponges the skeleton consist of spongin fibers made of
collagenous material; found in many of the commercial sponges

25. • Simple vaselike
structure
• This structure puts
limitations on size;
(increase in volume
without a corresponding
increase in the surface area
of the choanocytes)
Types of sponges (canal systems)
•The flagellated choanocyte layer
has undergone folding forming
finger like projections
• There is a single osculum but
the body wall is more complex.
• Results in an increase in the
surface area which allowed
sponges to increase in the size
•No atrium; choanocytes are located
in small chambers.
• a whole series of incurrent canals
leading to the choanocyte chambers;
water is discharges through
excurrent canals
• The leuconoid sponges exhibit a
significant increase in surface area
and are, therefore, among the largest
sponges

26. Sponge Taxonomy
Class Calcarea
(Calcispongidae)
• Only sponges that possess spicules
composed of calcium carbonate.
• Spicules are straight or have 3-4
rays, and do not have hollow axial
canals.
•All are marine ,single live in colony.
• Today, their diversity is greatest in
the tropics, predominantly in shallow
waters

27. Choanocyte cells are large.
Osculum small surrounded by spicules.

28. Taxonomy cont.
Class Hexactinellida
(Hyalospongiae)
• Glass sponges; characterized
by siliceous spicules consisting
of six rays intersecting at right
angles
• Widely viewed as an early
branch within the Porifera

29. Taxonomy cont.
Class Demospongiae
• Greater than 90 percent of the
5,000 known living sponge
species are demosponges.
• Demosponge skeletons are
composed of spongin fibers
and/or siliceous spicules
• Siliceous spicules with one to
four rays not at right angles,
All members express the
leuconoid body form
Yellow sponge growing on a wall
on a Caribbean reef.

30. Subclass - CalcineaSubclass - Calcinea
Nucleus of the chaonocyte lies at the base
of the collar.
Flagellum does not originate from the
nucleus.
Spicules tri-rayed, all rays are equal.
Examples- Clathrina, Petrobiona

31. Order - ClathrinidaOrder - Clathrinida
Clathrina clathrus

32.  have calcareous skeletons, and are
strictly marine.
have an asconoid structure and lack a
true dermal membrane or cortex.
The spongocoel is lined with choanocytes.

33. Family - ClathrinidaeFamily - Clathrinidae
Always a clathrate mass of anastomosing
tubes.
Vents never markedly tubular
Only regular triradiate systems are
present.
The larva is parenchymula larva .
 eg. Clathrina sp.

34. Clathrina clathrusClathrina clathrus
 a white or yellow irregular mass of
anastomosed tubes, massively encrusting
to globular, but without stalk.
It is a soft cushion
with a smooth surface.
absence of oscules or
tube-openings;
erect tubes end blindly.

35. Family - SoleneiscidaeFamily - Soleneiscidae
an essentially tubular organisation,
forming
an individual ascon tube with several
tubes.
not anastomosed tubes radially
arranged without any special skeletal
differentiation.
 Spicules are regular triactines and/or
tetractines, to which tripods or diactines
may be added.
 eg. Soleniscus spp.

36. Soleneiscus sp.Soleneiscus sp.
Sponges of the species Soleneiscus are
bushy looking and bright yellow.
 They have single, delicate tubes
branching from a large tube in the
center of the sponge.
soft and delicate and
easily torn.

37. Family - LevinellidaeFamily - Levinellidae
A cormus composed of a central tube
,simple or ramified.
The skeletal of central and radial tubes is
composed of regular spicules.
 eg. Levinella spp. , Bortonulla sp.

38. Levinella sp.Levinella sp.
A cornus divided into a central tube
The central tube is not ramified
A choanoderm lines all the internal
cavities

39. Order - LeucettidaOrder - Leucettida
Have either a radiate arrangement of
the flagellated chambers or a leuconoid
structure .
A distinct or dermal membrane or
cortex is present.
The spongocoel is not lined with
choanocytes; these cells are resrticted
to the flagellated chambers.
2 families ae recognized, the
Leucascidae and Leucaltidae.

40. Family - LeucascidaeFamily - Leucascidae
Sponge massive forming large folds
,brittle and harsh.
The external surface is regular with
very small inhalent pores.
The large flat atrium has a smooth
brilliant surface with large circular
opening of exhalent cavities.
The sponge is covered by a continuous
thin cortex.
 eg. Ascaltis sp.

41. Ascaltis sp.Ascaltis sp.
a small fragile, whitish or reddish rounded
mass of anastomosing tubes with an apical
oscule.
resemblance with certain Clathrina,
but in this sp., there is a "skin“
covering the mass of tubes.
large spicules may be
visible at the surface.

42. Family - LeucaltidaeFamily - Leucaltidae
Tubular ,ramified or even anastomosed
cormus either with many oscula, or
individualized with a large atrium and a
single osculum.
Wall is composed of a distinct cortex.
The skeleton of the atrial wall is absent
or composed of small and dispersed
triactines and tetractines.
 eg . Ascandra sp. ,Leucaltis sp.

43. Ascandra falcataAscandra falcata..
• an erect, slightly stalked
pear-shaped mass of
anastomosing tubes rising
from a network of similar
tubes on the surface.
•Rare species

44. Subclass - CalcaroniaSubclass - Calcaronia
Calcarea with diactines and or sagittal
triactines and tetractines ,rarely also with
regular spicules.
Free living larva are partly flagellated
amphiblastulae.

45. Order - LeucosonellidaOrder - Leucosonellida
Calcaronea with a skeleton composed
exclusively of free spicules without
calcified non-spicular re-inforcement.
An asconoid structure and the lack of a
true dermal membrane or cortex.

46. Family - LeucosolenidaeFamily - Leucosolenidae
A continuous choanoderm that lines all of
the internal cavity of the sponge.
There is no common cortex.
 eg. Leucoslenia sp.,Ascute sp.

47. Leucosolenia botryroidesLeucosolenia botryroides
 a mass of whitish tubes in the shape of a
bunch of grapes or bananas.

48. Order - SycettidaOrder - Sycettida
Choanocytes occur in flagellated
chambers.
 the spongocoel is not lined with these
cells.
Resembles with Leucosoleniida by lacking
the true dermal membrane or cortex.
Canal system is never be asconoid but
can either be synconoid or leuconoid.

49. Family - SycettidaeFamily - Sycettidae
Tubular, spherical, flask-shaped, ovoid
and branching growth forms, and occur as
solitary sponges or in groups.
Ectosomal cortex is continous and
strengthened by tangential spicules, but
these do not cover the choanocyte
chamber layer.
2 genera viz. Syceta and Sycon

50. Sycon sppSycon spp..
 a white tubular sponge of which the
terminal oscule is crowned by a fringe of
long stiff spicules.
Tubes are normally a few
centimeters in length and
are either solitary or occur
in small clusters.

51. Family - HeteropiidaeFamily - Heteropiidae
Massive, tubular, pear-shaped
and branching growth forms, occuring as
solitary sponges or in groups.
 A continuous cortex, pierced by ostia and
reinforced by
asymmetrical triactine spicules with
unequal angles, entirely covers
the choanocyte chamber layer.
8 genus - Sycettusa ,Grantessa
,Grantilla ,Heteropia ,Paraheteropia
,Vosmaeropsis

52. Heteropia sp.Heteropia sp.
Ramose ,sessile
Surface even
Oscules apical ,terminal

53. Family - GrantiidaeFamily - Grantiidae
 a cortex is always present and sustained
by a skeleton of tangential spicules.
Choanocyte chambers are radial and
elongated or spherical and scattered.
The atrial skeleton is well-developed.
Species are Grantia compressa, Ute spp..

54. Grantia compressaGrantia compressa
Appears as flattened ,purse-shaped vases
up to 5cm long with slit-like oscula at the
ends
White or occasionally brown
Spicules calcareous
The ectosomal skeleton
is a tangential layer of
triactines
Common in rocky shores

55. Family - AmphoriscidaeFamily - Amphoriscidae
 may be tubular, ovate, clavate, spherical
or irregularly massive in form.
 a distinct cortex supported by
tangentially placed tetractines in which
the apical rays cross entirely, or at least a
large part of, the choanosome.
 Atrial skeleton always present.

56. Subclass - AmphidiscophoraSubclass - Amphidiscophora
 the small, flesh spicules occur
as amphidiscs is present.

57. Order - AmphidiscosidaOrder - Amphidiscosida
Have amphidisc microscleres and without
hexaster microscleres.
Skeleton composed of loose(non-fused)
spicules.
Body forms are highly variable ,including
solid ovoids and cylinders.

58. Family - HyalonematidaeFamily - Hyalonematidae
Have most choanosomal megascleres
represented by diactines.
Body varies strongly; oval, cup-like or spindle
like with or without atrial cavity.
Species are Chalaronema sibogae.
,Compsocalyx gibberosa . ,Hyalonema spp.
,Lophophysema spp.

59. Hyalonema spp.Hyalonema spp.
The body varies from ovoid to inverted
conical, funnel like,cup like with shallow
atrial cavity
Osculum small ,oscular sieve plate absent
Lack calcareous mineral and sclerified
organic spongin as skeletal components

60. Family - MonorhaphididaeFamily - Monorhaphididae
Body is cylindrical round or oval in section
with atrial surfaces
Consists of a single spicule
Amphidiscs of 3 types ,macramphidiscs
and mesamphidiscs may be absent
Single species – Monorhaphis chuni

61. Monorhaphis chuniMonorhaphis chuni
Known for creating single giant basal
spicule(GBS) to anchor in the sediments
Cylindrical round or oval in section
Consist single spicule
Found in muddy substrata

62. Subclass - HexasterophoraSubclass - Hexasterophora
Hexasterophorans have skeletons
composed of overlapping six-
rayed spicules.
commonly firmly attached by its base to a
hard substratum; less often rooted by the
anchoring spicules and rarely inserted
directly into the loose bottom sediments.

63. Order - AulocalycoidaOrder - Aulocalycoida
Body form varies from system of
branching tubes with sessile or extended
lateral oscula.
Channelization is absent.

64. Family - UncinateridaeFamily - Uncinateridae
Body form as small cup with pleated wall
to flat branching or unbranching fan.
Atrium absent.

65. Subclass - HomosclerophoridaSubclass - Homosclerophorida
• Species live mainly in shallow but also recorded
from abyssal depth.
• distinguished mainly by four morphological
characters: presence of a siliceous skeleton;
presence of a cortex associated with a leuconoid
aquiferous system and well-developed mesohyl
or a sybeillid aquiferous system with poorly
developed mesohyl and ectosome; number of
spicule size classes; and presence and type of
ramifications in the actines of calthrops
(tetractinal spicules).

66. Sub class
Tetractinomorpha
Sub class
Ceractinomorpha
have monaxonic
(single-rayed)
spicules in addition to
large tetraxonic
spicules; asterose
(star-shaped)
microscleres; a
skeleton that is
usually radial or
axially compressed;
predominantly
oviparous
reproduction and
parenchymellar
with a wide variety of
monactine
megascleres and
various kinds of
microscleres, with the
exception of asterose
forms
reproduction is
predominantly
viviparous and their
larvae are
parenchymellar

67. Order Astrophorida Order chondrosida
A radiate
skeleton and
generally coarse
texture
 Sponges with
astrose microscleres
The megascleres are
tetractines (tetraxone
s), normally triaenes,
occurring almost
always in
combination with
oxeotes.
Demosponges
without megascleres,
but with strongly
collagenous
peripheral parts
 No megascleres, but
one genus
(Chondrilla)retains eu
aster microscleres

68. Order HadromeridaOrder Hadromerida
Oviparity is the rule in Hadromerida
characterized by a quite uniform
spiculation of monaxonid megascleres.
A well-formed network of spongin fibres is
absent.
Hadromerida are encrusting, massive,
spherical or stipitate.

69. Order - HexactinosaOrder - Hexactinosa
An order of sponges in the subclass
Hexasterophora; parenchymal
megascleres form a rigid framework and
consist of simple hexactins.

70. Order LithistidaOrder Lithistida
 This is certainly a polyphyletic group of
partly unrelated sponges.
Sponges with desmas arranged in an
interlocked desma skeleton.

71. Order SpirophoridaOrder Spirophorida
Typically with spherical growth form, with
tetraxonid and monaxonid megascleres.
 Reproduction is oviparous or viviparous.

72. Order Agelasida
Order
Dendroceratida
Demospongiae with
verticillately
spined acanthostyles.
 Spongin fibres (Agel
as fibres) cored
andechinated by
the acanthostyles is
dominantly present in
one family
(Agelasidae).
 Demospongiae in
which
the fibre skeleton.
The choanocyte
chambersare large
and sac-like
or tubular-elongate.

73. Order DictyoceratidaOrder Dictyoceratida
 One of the so-called "keratose sponge"
orders, lacking mineral spicules
 The main skeleton consists of a
reticulation of spongin fibres(Spongia
officinalis fibres), often organised into
primary, secondary and sometimes
tertiary networks (fasciculated fibre);

74. Order HalisarcidaOrder Halisarcida
 Demospongiae in which the choanocyte
chambers are tubular,branched and wide-
mouthed
 There are no fibrous or mineral elements
present.

75. Order HaploscleridaOrder Haplosclerida
 Main skeleton is partially or entirely
composed of an isodictyal anisotropic or
isotropic
Megascleres are exclusively oxeote or
strongylote, bonded together with
collagenous spongin or enclosed
within spongin fibres.

76. Order PoeciloscleridaOrder Poecilosclerida
This order contains more living species
than all other Recent Porifera
Typical in having chelae microscleres
 The main skeleton is composed
of megascleres (monactinal,diactinal or
both) and spongin fibres in various stages
of development.

77. Order VerticillitidaOrder Verticillitida
 Demospongiae with a solid
aragonitic cortex producing a series of
chambers on top of each other
(Vaceletia).
lack free spicules

78. Family - AphrocallistidaeFamily - Aphrocallistidae
Branching tubular to funnel or cup-shaped
body.
Dictyonal meshes mainly triangular but
occasionally rectangular.
 eg. Aphrocallistes spp.

79. Aphrocllistes spp.Aphrocllistes spp.
Deep water reef forming animals
 commonly known as Cloud sponge
10 feet in diameter and almost 7 feet in
height.

80. Family - ClioniidaeFamily - Clioniidae
ability to dissolve and bore into
calcium-containing substances, such as
limestone, coral, and mollusk shells.
occur in all oceans.
The microscopic clionid larva attaches
itself onto a calcium-containing
substratum and metamorphoses into an
adult as it bores galleries.
Cliona sulphurea

81. Cliona sulphureaCliona sulphurea
•Orange in colour
•Encrusting morphology
•Hard and tough

82. Family - SpongiidaeFamily - Spongiidae
 Encrusting, massive, cup-
shaped and branching sponges, including the
commercial bath-sponges.
Surface is typically conulose and may have a
distinct sand cortex.
 Texture is compressible,
fibrous,resilient except where heavily sand
encrusted, and the interior is rough to touch
reflecting the density of spongin skeleton in
relation to soft tissue.
 eg. Spongia spp.

83. Spongia sp.Spongia sp.
Globular masses ,black in colour ,but
appears heavily found in between
scattered oscules
tough

84. Family - HaliclonidaeFamily - Haliclonidae
Thickly encrusted ,cushion-shaped,
ramose or tubular growth forms.
Colour purple ,violet ,pink ,blue or green
occasionally white.
 eg. Haliclona sp.

85. Haliclona sp.Haliclona sp.
 Blue sponges or blue finger sponges is a
species of sponge found in that range
from throughout the Indian ocean.
main food source for sea slugs
Found in shallow reefs.
 It can also reproduce by budding.
 If it dies it can release toxic chemicals.

87. Family - HalichondridaeFamily - Halichondridae
 Encrusting to massive,
mostly amorphous sponges, with
skeletons composed of
oxeas and/or styles, that might be
densely and confusedly arranged in the
sponge body and/or forming ill-
defined tracts.
 eg.Halichondria sp., Axinyssa ,
Collocalypta

88. Halichondria sp.Halichondria sp.
Breadcrumb sponge.
 It is very tolerant of a wide range of
coastal habitats, including strong currents,
high salinity and exposure to powerful
wave action. Its only requirement is a
rocky substrate which can include small
cobbles.
Some forms have granular surface but
sometimes the surface is smooth ,even
glassy.

89. The colour is also variable but the natural
colur is cream or grey and usually green
due to symbiotic algae.

90. Family - ClathriidaeFamily - Clathriidae
an essentially tubular organization. A
continuous choanoderm lines all the
internal cavities.
 There is neither a common cortex nor a
well-defined inhalant and
exhalant aquariferous system.
 eg . Clathria spp.

91. Clathria sp.Clathria sp.
the only red or orange, branching sponge.
 It grows out from an encrusting
base in thin, finger-like, anastomosing
branches forming a bushy mass.
commonly occurs in bays and
harbors in dock fouling and on the
undersides of low intertidal and
subtidal rocks, down to salinities
of around 15 ppt.

92. Family - spongillidaeFamily - spongillidae
The Spongillidae are a family of
sponges that live in fresh water lakes.
attach themselves to rocks and logs
and filter the water for various small
aquatic organisms such as protozoa
,bacteria.
Unlike marine sponges, fresh-water
sponges are exposed to far more
adverse and variable environmental
conditions, and therefore they have
developed gemmules as a means of

93. Spongilla sp.Spongilla sp.
• growing submerged near the
shoreline on rocks it has a flat,
encrusting morphology.
•The sponges reproduce
sexually in the summertime and
release free swimming larvae.
•Found symbiotic with algae.

94. Family - CladorhizidaeFamily - Cladorhizidae
especially unusual in that they
typically feed by capturing and
digesting whole animals.
They capture small crustaceans with
their spicules.
Eg . Chondrocladia spp.

95. Chondrocladia sp.Chondrocladia sp.
Chondrocladia sponges are stipitate, with
a stalk frequently anchored in the
substrate by rhizoids and an egg-shaped
body, sometimes with branches
that end in inflatable spheres.
Exclusively carnivorous.

96. Conservation status ofConservation status of
Indian SpongesIndian Sponges
All the sponges species of India are listed
in the Schedule III of the Wildlife
(Protection) Act ,1972 ,which are also
prohibited from being destroyed or hunted
from 2001

97. http://icsf.net/icsf2006/uploads/publica
tions/monograph/pdf/english/issue_91/
ALL.pdf
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sponge
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/porifera
/poriferasy.html
Systema Porifera: a guide to the
classification of sponges, Volume 1

98. http://species-
identification.org/species.php?
species_group=sponges&id=19&menue
ntry=groepen
http://drs.nio.org/drs/bitstream/2264/2
18/4/I_J_Mar_Sci_34_57.pdf
http://books.google.co.in/books?
id=PYD0RWufeiQC&dq=Siolim&q=SPON
GES+OF+INDIA#v=snippet&q=SPONG
ES%20OF%20INDIA&f=false