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- 1. Products and People: Is there a synergistic relationship? By Jordan Licero
- 2. Presentation Outline Background Objectives and Hypotheses Methods and Procedure Results Discussion Conclusion Future Research
- 3. Why aren’t people sitting in the chairs?
- 4. Human Features that Attract Smiling faces are attractive People looking directly into camera captures the eyes Reward regions of the brain are activated An attractive model in direct mail advertisements increases product sales (Caballero & Pride, 1984) An attractive spokesperson in television advertisements (Petroshius & Croker, 1989) An attractive model in posters does not increase product sales (Caballero & Solomon, 1984) Background
- 5. Attractiveness and Aesthetics Perceived comfort increased as aesthetics increased when viewing chairs (Helander, 2010) Aesthetics influence the pleasure derived from the use of a product (Jordan, 1997) Berlyne’s Aesthetic Theory Background
- 6. Pupillary Responses Background Pupillometry Measurement of the pupil’s diameter as it reacts to various and specific stimuli Both eyes simultaneously react Pupil area and pupil diameter have both been used to determine pupillary responses Impossible for humans to suppress pupil dilation and constriction
- 7. Pupillary Responses Background Sphinter Pupillae Activated to constrict the pupil to restrict light entering eye Dilator Pupillae Activated to dilate the pupil to let more light enter the eye Pupil can constrict to a diameter of 1.5 mm and can dilate to a diameter 8-9 mm A reaction to a visual image occurs in as little as 0.2 seconds, with the response peaking from 0.5 to 1 second
- 8. Pupillary Reactions Background Dilate when: Viewing an attractive stimulus, as seen through sexual stimuli Low light levels Recognition memory Increased cognitive effort and task difficulty Constrict when: Viewing unattractive stimulus High light levels Unrecognized, new stimuli Decreased cognitive effort Constricted
- 9. Eye Movements Background Fixations: A relatively motionless gaze at a specific area on a visual display Lasts about 200-300 milliseconds Visual information is generally only perceived during fixations points Saccades: Continuous, rapid movement between fixation points Eye Tracking Technology Measures fixations durations, number of fixations, and areas of focus Infrared light that illuminates the eye, which creates highly visible reflections from the cornea and pupil.
- 10. Complexity Background Two ways of varying complexity: Increased number of objects Increased dissimilarity of objects or materials Number of Fixations: Increases with complexity Fixation Duration: Increases with complexity
- 11. Designer Status Differences Background Number of Fixations: More fixations made by artists compared to non-artists Fixation Duration: Shorter fixations made by artists compared to non-artists Viewing Pattern: Scattered viewing patterns made by artists compared to non- artists, who focus on main object
- 12. Gender Differences Background Stimuli of human faces More fixations made by females compared to males Shorter fixation durations made by females compared to males Non-human face stimuli Fewer fixations made by females compared to males Inconclusive on fixation durations
- 13. This study aims to answer: How is product attractiveness influenced by the presence and attractiveness of a person? Is pupil dilation an objective measure of overall image attractiveness? How does image complexity systematically affect eye movement patterns? Are there designer status or gender differences in viewing patterns and attractiveness ratings? Objectives and Hypotheses
- 14. Hypotheses: 1. Images with human models present will receive higher perceived attractiveness ratings compared to those without models present. 2. The higher the perceived attractiveness rating of the human model, the greater the difference between the attractiveness rating of the image with the model minus the attractiveness rating of the image without the model. 3. The pupil will dilate more as the perceived image attractiveness increases. 4. The pupil will constrict when viewing simple images and dilate when viewing moderately complex images. Objectives and Hypotheses
- 15. Hypotheses: 5. Simple images will have fewer fixation points and shorter average fixation durations, while moderately complex images will have more fixation points and longer average fixation durations. 6. When viewing complex images, participants will primarily focus on the human model, but when viewing simple images, participants will focus primarily on the chair. 7. Males will have larger average pupil area, fewer fixations, longer fixation durations, and different areas of focus compared to females. 8. Designers will have smaller average pupil area, more fixations, shorter fixation durations, and different areas of focus compared to non-designers. Objectives and Hypotheses
- 16. Stimuli 32 total images using 16 chairs and 8 models 16 images of a chair against a white background 16 images of a human model in the chair looking directly at the camera against a white background Methods and Procedure Simple Moderately Complex
- 17. Human Models 8 female models Dressed in black coat and dark colored pants Neutral face In two stimuli each Methods and Procedure
- 18. Software & Participants Eye Tracking Software: GazeTracker v9.0 and FaceLAB 4.5 Participants: 32 participants recruited from SUSAN 16 males and 16 females 16 designers and 16 non-designers All Cornell undergraduate students No glasses; Non-smokers Did not recognize human models used in study Methods and Procedure
- 19. Procedure Participants welcomed to Cornell HCI Usability Lab Set up eye-tracking system Adjust table height Calibrate gaze Methods and Procedure
- 20. Procedure Show participants all 32 stimuli for 2 seconds each, with 2 seconds of a white slide between each stimulus Verbally rate the perceived attractiveness of each image Verbally rate the perceived attractiveness of each model Methods and Procedure
- 21. Data Analysis Use FaceLAB and GazeTracker v9.0 Average pupil area of each white slide and stimulus Fixations Heatmaps Gazetrails Lookzones Use Bruel and Kjaer luminance contrast meter (type 1100) Overall image luminance White slide luminance Model Face luminance Excel file Multivariate statistical package (SPSS v19) Methods and Procedure
- 22. Image Attractiveness and Image Complexity Results Image attractiveness is significantly positively associated with image complexity 12% interindividual variability, 88% residual variability
- 23. Image Attractiveness and Image Complexity Results Females rated the attractiveness of images without models higher than males, while males rated attractiveness of images with models higher than females
- 24. Image Attractiveness and Model Attractiveness Results Image attractiveness is significantly positively associated with model attractiveness 10% interindividual variability, 13% chair-to-chair variability, 77% residual variability
- 25. Pupil Area Change Results Not Significantly Associated Image attractiveness Model attractiveness Model face luminance Average Number of fixations Log average fixation time Significantly Negatively Associated Pupil area change and image luminance (F(1,1012)=42.287, p=0.000) Significantly Positively Associated Pupil area change and image complexity (F(1,1010)=33.111, p=0.000)
- 26. Pupil Area Change & Image Complexity Results On average, pupils dilated by 2.53% when viewing moderately complex images, but further constricted by 2.29% when viewing simple images.
- 27. Number of Fixations and Image Complexity Results Number of fixations is significantly negatively associated with image complexity 10% interindividual variability, 90% residual variability
- 28. Number of Fixations and Image Complexity Results Males had significantly more fixations on moderately complex images compared to simple images, while there were no significant differences of the number of fixations between simple and moderately complex images for females
- 29. Number of Fixations and Image Complexity Results Designers had significantly more fixations on simple images compared to non-designers, while non-designers had significantly more fixations on moderately complex images compared to designers
- 30. Fixation Time and Image Complexity Results Log average fixation time is significantly positively associated with image complexity 16% interindividual variability, 84% residual variability
- 31. Fixation Time and Image Complexity Results Fixation time was significantly higher for moderately complex images compared to simple images for designers. For non-designers, fixation time was still higher for moderately complex images compared to simple images, but the difference was less than it was for designers.
- 32. Heatmaps & Lookzones Results Heatmaps showed no gender differences Females spent an average 61.1% of time viewing faces, while males spent an average 63.9% of time viewing faces. Females Males
- 33. Heatmaps & Lookzones Results Heatmaps showed designers had more scattered viewing patterns when viewing the simple images and non-designers were more centrally focused. Designers spent an average 67.3% of time viewing faces, while non- designers spent an average of 57.4% of time viewing faces. Designers Non-Designers
- 34. Heatmaps Results Heatmaps showed participants focused on the face of the model when the model was present and the chair when the model was not present
- 35. Pupillary Response Discussion Discussion Previous research has found pupils dilate when viewing attractive stimuli, present research may have found no effect because of confounding variables: Content of stimulus Measuring techniques Timeframe of data collection Separation between stimuli Image luminance Facial luminance Time-of-day Image sequence Recognition memory Cognitive effort and task difficulty
- 36. Eye Movement Discussion Discussion Previous research has found more, longer fixations would occur as image complexity increased, however the present research may have found fewer, longer fixations occur as image complexity increased because of confounding variables: Timeframe to view stimuli Human model as a way of varying complexity Familiar/Unfamiliar
- 37. Designer Status Differences Discussion Discussion Previous research has found designers have more, shorter fixations with a more scattered viewing pattern compared to non-designers. Present research aligned with those findings for simple images, but not moderately complex images. Possible differences between present and prior research: Time allotted for viewing each stimulus Content of stimuli Human model presence vs
- 38. Gender Differences Discussion Discussion Previous research has found males rate females more attractive than females, which is aligned with present findings. Previous research has found males elicited more fixations compared to females, while the present study only found this to be true for simple images Possible differences between present and prior research: Human model presence vs
- 39. Conclusions The combined presence of a human model with a product increases the perceived overall image attractiveness The more attractive the human model, the more attractive the overall image is perceived Initial evidence that pupillary responses cannot be used as an objective measure of perceived image attractiveness, but further investigation is necessary An increase in complexity lengthens duration of fixations, decreases the number of fixations, and dilates the pupil Conclusions
- 40. Conclusions Designers had more, shorter fixations when viewing simple images compared to non-designers, but when viewing moderately complex images, designers exhibited fewer, longer fixations compared to non-designers Females rated images without a model more attractive and had fewer fixations compared to males, whereas males rated images with a model more attractive and had fewer fixations compared to females. Conclusion
- 41. Significance The platform for creating attractive, effective, and successful promotional designs Conclusion
- 42. Future Research Broaden the population in order to generalize outside of university students Broaden the array of various product categories Broaden the array of human models Investigate possible effects of ethnicity, iris color, or diseases, which may be confounding variables on pupillary responses Use constant luminance levels across stimuli and faces of models used in stimuli Vary complexity levels of stimuli Future Research
- 43. Thank you for listening! Questions?
- 44. Physiology of the Human Eye Three layers of tissues Outermost layer: Cornea and Sclera Middle layer: anterior (iris & ciliary body) and posterior (choroid) Innermost layer: retina Three fluid chambers Anterior chamber between cornea and iris Posterior chamber between iris and lens Vitreous chamber between lens and retina Background
- 45. Visual Processing Light waves enter eye through cornea progresses through pupil focused on fovea photoreceptors in retina retinal ganglion cells optic nerve optic chiasm LGN primary visual cortex occipital cortex Background
- 46. Model Attractiveness and Facial Luminance Results Model attractiveness is significantly positively associated with model facial luminance
- 47. Image Attractiveness Results Image attractiveness mean rating of 4.69
- 48. Model Attractiveness Results Model attractiveness mean rating of 5.36
- 49. Number of Fixations Results Number of Fixations mean of 3.51
- 50. Number of Fixations Results Number of Fixations mean of 3.51
Editor's Notes
- ----- Meeting Notes (6/24/13 11:17) ----- Pupil size is altered through the use of two muscles: sphinter pupillae and the dilator pupillae. When the sphinter pupillae are activated, the pupil constricts to restrict light entering the eye, while the dilator pupillae are used to dilate the eyes to let more light in. The pupil can constrict to 1.5 mm and dilate to 8 to 9 millimeters. The pupillary response to a visual display occurs within 0.2 seconds, with a peak response from 0.5 to 1 second.
- ----- Meeting Notes (6/24/13 11:17) ----- The eyes have not only been found to dilate because of LOW light levels, but also when viewing something sexually attractive. Recently a study by Reiger and Savin-Williams conducted here at Cornell, found pupil area can be used as an objective measure of sexual orientation. Furthermore, the pupils dilate when something is recognized compared to something that has never been seen before. They also dilate with increased task difficulty and cognitive effort.
- ----- Meeting Notes (6/24/13 11:17) ----- Another way of measuring visual processing is through the study of eye movements, which are made up of fixations and saccades. A fixation is a relatively motionless gaze at a specific area of a display that lasts 200-300 milliseconds. Saccades are continuous rapid movements between fixation points. Visual information is generally only perceived during fixation periods not during saccades. Eye tracking technology enables researchers to measure fixations and saccades through the use of infrared cameras, which illuminate the eyes and create highly visible reflections from the cornea and pupil.
- ----- Meeting Notes (6/24/13 11:17) ----- One way eye movements vary is through the perceived complexity of an image. Image complexity can be varied two different ways: through the addition of objects keeping all else constant, or the addition of colors, patterns, and backgrounds while keeping the number of objects constant. Previous research has found that a greater number of fixations and longer fixations have been associated with increased image complexity. It is important to understand fixations because they provide information about where viewers are looking and what areas are being cognitively processed.
- ----- Meeting Notes (6/24/13 11:17) ----- Studies have suggested that there are designer and non-designer differences in eye movement patterns. Specifically, designers have been found to have more, shorter fixations with a scattered viewing pattern compared to non-designers who have been found to make fewer, longer fixations with a more centralized viewing pattern.
- ----- Meeting Notes (6/24/13 11:17) ----- Studies have also explored gender differences in eye movement patterns and found females make more, shorter fixations while viewing human faces compared to males. However, when viewing non-human stimuli studies have found females elicit fewer fixations compared to males, but the fixation duration findings are inconclusive. While some studies have found females make longer fixations others have found females make shorter fixations compared to males.
- ----- Meeting Notes (6/24/13 11:17) ----- This study further investigates whether the presence and attractiveness of a human model influences the perceived attractiveness of an image. It also investigates whether pupil dilation can be used as an objective measure of overall image attractivess, when viewing non-sexual stimuli. Furthermore, this thesis explores how image complexity systemmatically affects eye movement patterns. And finally, it will compare differences, if any, between male and female participants and between designers and non-designers.
- ----- Meeting Notes (6/24/13 11:17) ----- Based on the literature that has been reviewed, eight hypotheses were developed and tested in this study. The eight hypotheses are: Images with human models present will receive higher perceived attractiveness ratings compared to those without models present. The higher the perceived attractiveness rating of the human model, the greater the difference between the attractiveness rating of the image with the model minus the attractiveness rating of the image without the model. The pupil will dilate more as the perceived image attractiveness increases. The pupil will constrict when viewing simple images and dilate when viewing moderately complex images.
- ----- Meeting Notes (6/24/13 11:17) ----- Simple images will have fewer fixation points and shorter average fixation durations, while moderately complex images will have more fixation points and longer average fixation durations. When viewing complex images, participants will primarily focus on the human model, but when viewing simple images, participants will focus primarily on the chair. Males will have larger average pupil area, fewer fixations, longer fixation durations, and different areas of focus compared to females. Designers will have smaller average pupil area, more fixations, shorter fixation durations, and different areas of focus compared to non-designers.
- ----- Meeting Notes (6/24/13 11:17) ----- These hypotheses were tested in the present study that included 32 stimuli that were of 16 chairs and 8 models. There were 16 images with chairs against a white background and there were 16 images of the same chair but with one of the eight models sitting in it looking directly at the camera against the white background. Images of just the chair were considered simple, while images of the chair plus the model were considered moderately complex because the addition of an object increased the complexity of the image.
- ----- Meeting Notes (6/24/13 11:17) ----- These eight female models wore a black coat and dark colored pants to prevent clothing from being a confounding variable of attractiveness. They were directed to give neutral faces when photographed. Each model was photographed in two different chairs.
- ----- Meeting Notes (6/24/13 11:17) ----- Gazetracker v9.0 and FaceLab v4.5 were used to capture eye movements and pupil measurements. There were 32 participants: 16 males 16 females, 8 of the males and 8 females were designers while 8 males and 8 females were non-designers. All participants were undergraduate students at Cornell of various ethnicities, who did not wear glasses, did not smoke, and did not recognize any of the human models.
- ----- Meeting Notes (6/24/13 11:17) ----- To start the study, participants were welcomed to the Cornell HCI Usability Lab and asked to sign the consent forms and take a seat centered with the computer screen. The table was adjusted so that both eyes were found by the cameras. Then the cameras were focused and gaze was calibrated by a participant focusing on each of the 9-equispaced blinking targets on the computer screen which formed a 3x3 grid.