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JAYDEEP SAHA
MATERIAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
PG-I
ROLL NO.: 212214003
NIT,TRICHY
CONTENT
 HISTORY
 PIEZOELECTRICITY
 INTERNAL WORKING
 THE PIEZOELECTRIC EFFECT
 WORKING
 PIEZOELECTRIC MATERIALS
 PIEZOELECTRIC COUPLING COEFFICIENT
 PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS
 PIEZOELECTRIC SENSOR
 PIEZOELECTRIC ACTUATOR
 APLLICAATIONS
HISTORY OF PIEZOELECTRICITY
 The first scientific publication
describing the phenomenon
appeared in 1880
 It was co-authored two brothers
by Pierre and Jacques Curie,
who were conducting a variety
of experiments on a range of
crystals at the time
 In those experiments, they cataloged a number of
crystals, such as tourmaline, quartz, topaz, cane sugar and
Rochelle salt that displayed surface charges when they
were mechanically stressed
HISTORY OF PIEZOELECTRICITY
 In the scientific community of that time, this observation was considered
as a significant discovery, and the term “piezoelectricity” was expressed
this effect
 The word “piezein” is a Greek word which means “to press”
 Piezoelectricity means electricity generated from pressure - a very logical
name
 The discovery of piezoelectricity generated significant interest within the
European scientific community
 Subsequently, roughly within 30 years of its discovery, and prior to World
War I, the study of piezoelectricity was viewed as a credible scientific
activity
PIEZOELECTRICITY
 Piezoelectricity is the ability of certain crystals to produce a
voltage when subjected to mechanical stress (the substance is
squeezed or stretched)
 Conversely, a mechanical deformation (the substance shrinks
or expands) is produced when an electric field is applied-
“reverse piezoelectric effect”
 When an electric voltage is applied to a transducer crystal, the
crystal gets excited and is deformed
 Examples --- Quartz, Barium titanate, tourmaline
INTERNAL WORKING
 The effect is explained by the displacement of ions in crystals
 When the crystal is compressed, the ions in each unit cell are
displaced, causing the electric polarization of the unit cell
 Because of the regularity of crystalline structure, these
effects accumulate, causing the appearance of an electric
potential difference between certain faces of the crystal
 When an external electric field is applied to the crystal, the
ions in each unit cell are displaced by electrostatic forces,
resulting in the mechanical deformation of the whole crystal
THE PIEZOELECTRIC EFFECT
Crystal
Current Meter
= zero
+ - + - + -
+ - + - + -Charges cancel
each other, so
no current flow
Crystal material is at rest: No forces applied,
so net current flow is zero
THE PIEZOELECTRIC EFFECT
Crystal
Current Meter
deflects in +
direction
- - - - -
+ + + + +
Due to properties of symmetry,
charges are net + on one side &
net - on the opposite side: crystal gets
thinner and longer
Crystal material with forces applied
in direction of arrows………..
Force
THE PIEZOELECTRIC EFFECT
Crystal
Current Meter
deflects in -
direction
+ + + +
- - - - -
…. Changes the direction of
current flow, and the crystal gets
shorter and fatter.
Changing the direction of the
applied force………..
Force
PIEZOELECTRIC EFFECT
Sound waves
striking a PZ
material produce
an electrical signal
Can be used to
detect sound (and
echoes)!
REVERSE PIEZOELECTRIC EFFECT
Applying an
electrical signal
causes the PZ
element to vibrate
Produces a sound
wave
WORKING
 The positive & negative charges are symmetrically
distributed in a crystal
 Piezoelectric ceramic materials are not piezoelectric until
the random ferroelectric domains are aligned by a
process known as POLING
 Poling consists of inducing a DC voltage across the
material
WORKING
Fig: (a) Random orientation of domains prior to poling
(b) Poling in DC Electric Field
(c) Remanent polarization after field is removed
PIEZOELECTRIC MATERIALS
 Below Curie Temp,
Tetragonal
structure
 Poling of dipoles in
single direction
allows for
piezoelectric
properties
 The ‘Pb' atoms are
larger than the
‘Ti,Zr' atoms
Cubic Structure
(Cubic lattice-
above Curie Temp.
+ve & -ve charge
sites coincide-no
dipoles)
Perovskite Structure
(Tetragonal lattice-
below Curie Temp.
electric dipole)
PIEZOELECTRIC MATERIALS
NATURAL SYNTHETIC
Quartz (most well-known) Lead zirconate titanate (PZT)
Rochelle Salt Zinc oxide (ZnO)
Topaz Barium titanate (BaTiO3)
TB-1 Piezoelectric ceramics Barium titanate
TBK-3 Calcium barium titanate
Sucrose Gallium orthophosphate (GaPO4)
Tendon Potassium niobate (KNbO3)
Silk Lead titanate (PbTiO3)
Enamel Lithium tantalate (LiTaO3)
Dentin Langasite (La3Ga5SiO14)
DNA Sodium tungstate (Na2WO3)
PIEZOELECTRIC COUPLING COEFFICIENT
 The piezoelectric coefficient k represents the ability of a PZ
material to transform electrical energy to mechanical energy and
vice versa
 This transformation of energy between mechanical and electrical
domains is employed in both sensors and actuators made from
piezoelectric materials
 For BaTiO3, k= 0.5
 For Quartz, k= 0.1
Where Can We Use It
Mainly
Transducers;
Sensors;
Actuators;
The commercial application are done in ultrasonic
equipment, microphones, watches, spark lighters for
gas stoves, dance floors, any high traffic areas, etc.
PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS
 A transducer is a device that converts a signal in one form
of energy to another form of energy
 Energy types include electrical, mechanical, electromagnetic
(including light), chemical, acoustic and thermal energy
 While the term transducer commonly implies the use of a
sensor/detector, any device which converts energy can be
considered a transducer
 Transducers are widely used in measuring instruments
PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS
In this example, the first transducer could be a microphone, and
the second transducer could be a speaker
Transducers are used in electronic communications systems to
convert signals of various physical forms to electronic signals, and
vice versa
PIEZOELECTRIC SENSOR
 A piezoelectric sensor is a device that uses the piezoelectric
effect, to measure changes in pressure, acceleration, strain or force
by converting them to an electrical charge
 To detect sound, e.g. piezoelectric microphones and piezoelectric
pickups for electrically amplified guitars
 Piezoelectric microbalances are
used as very sensitive chemical
and biological sensors
 Piezos are used in electronic
drum pads to detect the impact of
the drummer's sticks.
PIEZOELECTRIC ACTUATOR
 An actuator accepts energy and produces movement (action)
 The energy supplied to an actuator might be electrical or
mechanical
 An electric motor and a loudspeaker are both actuators,
converting electrical energy into motion for different purposes
 Loudspeaker: Voltages are converted to mechanical movement
of a piezoelectric polymer film
Application
 The first serious application for piezoelectric materials appeared during
World War I
 This work is credited to Paul Langevin and his co-workers in France,
who built an ultrasonic submarine detector
 The transducer they built was made of a mosaic of thin quartz crystals
that was glued between two steel plates in a way that the composite
system had a resonance frequency of 50 KHz
 The device was used to transmit a high-frequency signal into the water
and to measure the depth by timing the return echo
 Their invention, however, was not perfected until the end of the war
TENNIS RACQUET
Piezoelectric materials is installed in tennis racquet to reduce
the shock wave which Produces when player hits the ball
TRANSPORTATION INSDUSTRY
In last few years piezo electric materials have shown a
tremendous growth in the field of piezoelectric materials
WEAR DETECTION OF TRAIN WHEELS
This is a wear detection system for train wheels. The idea is to
detect the changes in the vibration behavior of the entire wheel
caused by the surface changes on the rolling contact area
HEALTH CARE INDUSTRY
It’s been said that health is wealth. Piezo-electric materials
have given this industry new wings of technology
POWER GENERATING SIDEWALK
Charging pads under the
cross walk collect energy
from the vibrations. Energy
generated by that
piezoelectric panels can
charge to lithium ion
batteries (which can be
used further)
Energy-Harvesting
Street Tiles
The special “energy harvesting
tiles” were developed by London-
based Pavegen Systems. The
power thus generated can be
used to run low-voltage
equipment such as streetlights
and vending machines.
A typical tile is made of recycled
polymer, with the top surface made
from recycled truck tires. A foot-step
that depresses a single tile by five
millimeters produces between one and
seven watts.
Club Watt
In 2007. Doell Architects and Enviu collaborated on a design of a floor
tile that using Piezoelectricity would light up
The floor tiles were presented in Live Earth Event 070707 for the 1st
time
Doell and Enviu set-up to design a sustainable dance club
In Sep 04, 2008, Club Watt was opened, the 1st sustainable dance
club in the world!
Watt’s Sustainable solutions
Club Watt makes substantial savings on the consumption of energy
(30%), water (50%) and CO2 (50%)
This method resulted in savings for the building and organisation
Club Watt
The dance floor is a fusion of
electronics, embedded software &
smart durable materials. Every tile
makes a vertical movement of up
to 1 cm when danced on. These
movements are transformed by an
advanced electric motor into
electric power. Every person is able
to produce 2-20 Watt, depending
on the dancers’ weight and activity
of dance floor. The generated
energy is then used to power the
interactive elements of the floor or
can be used to power other
systems. The technology of the
dance floor is continuously being
developed.
The dance floor produces 10% of the
total club energy
The technology of the floor can also
be used for other applications such as
gyms, railway, stations & any other
areas with high traffic
FLOOR MATS
 Series of crystals can be laid
below the floor mats, tiles
and carpets.
 One footstep can only
provide enough electrical
current to light two 60-watt
bulbs for one second.
 When mob uses the dance
floor, an enormous voltage
is generated.
 This energy is used to power
the equipment of nightclubs.
Simultaneously
the lights, on
the wall, blink
ENERGY-HARVESTING STREET TILES
 These tiles generate electricity
with a hybrid solution of
mechanisms that include the
piezoelectric effect (an electric
charge produced when pressure is
exerted on crystals such as quartz)
and induction, which uses copper
coils and magnets
 The marathon runners generated
4.7 kilowatt-hours of energy,
enough to power a five-watt LED
bulb for 940 hours, or 40 days
In Paris, on April 7, 2013, Kenya’s Peter Some won the 37th Paris
Marathon with a time of 2:05:38, but around 37,000 runners were
all involved in a part of a historic event. As they ran across the
Avenue des Champs Élysées and thumped their feet on such 176
special tiles laid on a 25-meter stretch, the athletes generated
electricity
GYMS AND WORKPLACES
 Vibrations caused from
machines in the gym.
 At workplaces,
piezoelectric crystal are
laid in the chairs for
storing energy.
 Utilizing the vibrations in
the vehicle like clutches,
gears etc.
MOBILE KEYPAD AND KEYBOARD
 Crystals laid down under
keys of mobile unit and
keyboard.
 For every key pressed
vibrations are created.
 These vibrations can be
used for charging
purposes.
POWER GENERATING BOOTS AND SHOES
 Idea was researched by
DARPA in US
 To power the battlefield
equipment by generators
embedded in soldier
boots
 Idea was abandoned due
to the discomfort
OTHER APPLICATIONS
 Electric cigarette lighter:
Pressing the button of the lighter causes a spring-loaded hammer
to hit a piezoelectric crystal, producing a sufficiently high voltage that
electric current flows across a small spark gap, thus heating and
igniting the gas
 As tranformers:
A piezoelectric transformer is a type of AC voltage multiplier.
Unlike a conventional transformer, which uses magnetic coupling
between input and output, the piezoelectric transformer uses acoustic
coupling. An input voltage is applied across a short length of a bar of
piezoceramic material such as PZT, creating an alternating stress in the
bar by the inverse piezoelectric effect and causing the whole bar to
vibrate. The vibration frequency is typically in the 100 kilohertz to 1
megahertz range. A higher output voltage is then generated across
another section of the bar by the piezoelectric effect
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Unaffected by external
electromagnetic fields
Piezoelectric ceramic can be
depolarized by a strong electric
field with polarity opposite to the
original poling voltage
Pollution Free High mechanical stress can
depolarize a piezoelectric ceramic
Low Maintenance Crystal is prone to crack if
overstressed
Easy replacement of
equipment
May get affected by long use at
high temperatures
CONCLUSIONS
 Piezoelectricity is a revolutionary source for “GREEN
ENERGY”
 Flexible piezoelectric materials are attractive for power
harvesting applications because of their ability to
withstand large amounts of strain
 Convert the ambient vibration energy surrounding them
into electrical energy
 Electrical energy can then be used to power other
devices or stored for later use
piezoelectricity and its application
piezoelectricity and its application

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piezoelectricity and its application

  • 1. JAYDEEP SAHA MATERIAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING PG-I ROLL NO.: 212214003 NIT,TRICHY
  • 2. CONTENT  HISTORY  PIEZOELECTRICITY  INTERNAL WORKING  THE PIEZOELECTRIC EFFECT  WORKING  PIEZOELECTRIC MATERIALS  PIEZOELECTRIC COUPLING COEFFICIENT  PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS  PIEZOELECTRIC SENSOR  PIEZOELECTRIC ACTUATOR  APLLICAATIONS
  • 3. HISTORY OF PIEZOELECTRICITY  The first scientific publication describing the phenomenon appeared in 1880  It was co-authored two brothers by Pierre and Jacques Curie, who were conducting a variety of experiments on a range of crystals at the time  In those experiments, they cataloged a number of crystals, such as tourmaline, quartz, topaz, cane sugar and Rochelle salt that displayed surface charges when they were mechanically stressed
  • 4. HISTORY OF PIEZOELECTRICITY  In the scientific community of that time, this observation was considered as a significant discovery, and the term “piezoelectricity” was expressed this effect  The word “piezein” is a Greek word which means “to press”  Piezoelectricity means electricity generated from pressure - a very logical name  The discovery of piezoelectricity generated significant interest within the European scientific community  Subsequently, roughly within 30 years of its discovery, and prior to World War I, the study of piezoelectricity was viewed as a credible scientific activity
  • 5. PIEZOELECTRICITY  Piezoelectricity is the ability of certain crystals to produce a voltage when subjected to mechanical stress (the substance is squeezed or stretched)  Conversely, a mechanical deformation (the substance shrinks or expands) is produced when an electric field is applied- “reverse piezoelectric effect”  When an electric voltage is applied to a transducer crystal, the crystal gets excited and is deformed  Examples --- Quartz, Barium titanate, tourmaline
  • 6. INTERNAL WORKING  The effect is explained by the displacement of ions in crystals  When the crystal is compressed, the ions in each unit cell are displaced, causing the electric polarization of the unit cell  Because of the regularity of crystalline structure, these effects accumulate, causing the appearance of an electric potential difference between certain faces of the crystal  When an external electric field is applied to the crystal, the ions in each unit cell are displaced by electrostatic forces, resulting in the mechanical deformation of the whole crystal
  • 7. THE PIEZOELECTRIC EFFECT Crystal Current Meter = zero + - + - + - + - + - + -Charges cancel each other, so no current flow Crystal material is at rest: No forces applied, so net current flow is zero
  • 8. THE PIEZOELECTRIC EFFECT Crystal Current Meter deflects in + direction - - - - - + + + + + Due to properties of symmetry, charges are net + on one side & net - on the opposite side: crystal gets thinner and longer Crystal material with forces applied in direction of arrows……….. Force
  • 9. THE PIEZOELECTRIC EFFECT Crystal Current Meter deflects in - direction + + + + - - - - - …. Changes the direction of current flow, and the crystal gets shorter and fatter. Changing the direction of the applied force……….. Force
  • 10. PIEZOELECTRIC EFFECT Sound waves striking a PZ material produce an electrical signal Can be used to detect sound (and echoes)!
  • 11. REVERSE PIEZOELECTRIC EFFECT Applying an electrical signal causes the PZ element to vibrate Produces a sound wave
  • 12. WORKING  The positive & negative charges are symmetrically distributed in a crystal  Piezoelectric ceramic materials are not piezoelectric until the random ferroelectric domains are aligned by a process known as POLING  Poling consists of inducing a DC voltage across the material
  • 13. WORKING Fig: (a) Random orientation of domains prior to poling (b) Poling in DC Electric Field (c) Remanent polarization after field is removed
  • 14. PIEZOELECTRIC MATERIALS  Below Curie Temp, Tetragonal structure  Poling of dipoles in single direction allows for piezoelectric properties  The ‘Pb' atoms are larger than the ‘Ti,Zr' atoms Cubic Structure (Cubic lattice- above Curie Temp. +ve & -ve charge sites coincide-no dipoles) Perovskite Structure (Tetragonal lattice- below Curie Temp. electric dipole)
  • 15. PIEZOELECTRIC MATERIALS NATURAL SYNTHETIC Quartz (most well-known) Lead zirconate titanate (PZT) Rochelle Salt Zinc oxide (ZnO) Topaz Barium titanate (BaTiO3) TB-1 Piezoelectric ceramics Barium titanate TBK-3 Calcium barium titanate Sucrose Gallium orthophosphate (GaPO4) Tendon Potassium niobate (KNbO3) Silk Lead titanate (PbTiO3) Enamel Lithium tantalate (LiTaO3) Dentin Langasite (La3Ga5SiO14) DNA Sodium tungstate (Na2WO3)
  • 16. PIEZOELECTRIC COUPLING COEFFICIENT  The piezoelectric coefficient k represents the ability of a PZ material to transform electrical energy to mechanical energy and vice versa  This transformation of energy between mechanical and electrical domains is employed in both sensors and actuators made from piezoelectric materials  For BaTiO3, k= 0.5  For Quartz, k= 0.1
  • 17. Where Can We Use It Mainly Transducers; Sensors; Actuators; The commercial application are done in ultrasonic equipment, microphones, watches, spark lighters for gas stoves, dance floors, any high traffic areas, etc.
  • 18. PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS  A transducer is a device that converts a signal in one form of energy to another form of energy  Energy types include electrical, mechanical, electromagnetic (including light), chemical, acoustic and thermal energy  While the term transducer commonly implies the use of a sensor/detector, any device which converts energy can be considered a transducer  Transducers are widely used in measuring instruments
  • 19. PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS In this example, the first transducer could be a microphone, and the second transducer could be a speaker Transducers are used in electronic communications systems to convert signals of various physical forms to electronic signals, and vice versa
  • 20. PIEZOELECTRIC SENSOR  A piezoelectric sensor is a device that uses the piezoelectric effect, to measure changes in pressure, acceleration, strain or force by converting them to an electrical charge  To detect sound, e.g. piezoelectric microphones and piezoelectric pickups for electrically amplified guitars  Piezoelectric microbalances are used as very sensitive chemical and biological sensors  Piezos are used in electronic drum pads to detect the impact of the drummer's sticks.
  • 21. PIEZOELECTRIC ACTUATOR  An actuator accepts energy and produces movement (action)  The energy supplied to an actuator might be electrical or mechanical  An electric motor and a loudspeaker are both actuators, converting electrical energy into motion for different purposes  Loudspeaker: Voltages are converted to mechanical movement of a piezoelectric polymer film
  • 22. Application  The first serious application for piezoelectric materials appeared during World War I  This work is credited to Paul Langevin and his co-workers in France, who built an ultrasonic submarine detector  The transducer they built was made of a mosaic of thin quartz crystals that was glued between two steel plates in a way that the composite system had a resonance frequency of 50 KHz  The device was used to transmit a high-frequency signal into the water and to measure the depth by timing the return echo  Their invention, however, was not perfected until the end of the war
  • 23. TENNIS RACQUET Piezoelectric materials is installed in tennis racquet to reduce the shock wave which Produces when player hits the ball
  • 24. TRANSPORTATION INSDUSTRY In last few years piezo electric materials have shown a tremendous growth in the field of piezoelectric materials
  • 25. WEAR DETECTION OF TRAIN WHEELS This is a wear detection system for train wheels. The idea is to detect the changes in the vibration behavior of the entire wheel caused by the surface changes on the rolling contact area
  • 26. HEALTH CARE INDUSTRY It’s been said that health is wealth. Piezo-electric materials have given this industry new wings of technology
  • 27. POWER GENERATING SIDEWALK Charging pads under the cross walk collect energy from the vibrations. Energy generated by that piezoelectric panels can charge to lithium ion batteries (which can be used further)
  • 28. Energy-Harvesting Street Tiles The special “energy harvesting tiles” were developed by London- based Pavegen Systems. The power thus generated can be used to run low-voltage equipment such as streetlights and vending machines. A typical tile is made of recycled polymer, with the top surface made from recycled truck tires. A foot-step that depresses a single tile by five millimeters produces between one and seven watts.
  • 29. Club Watt In 2007. Doell Architects and Enviu collaborated on a design of a floor tile that using Piezoelectricity would light up The floor tiles were presented in Live Earth Event 070707 for the 1st time Doell and Enviu set-up to design a sustainable dance club In Sep 04, 2008, Club Watt was opened, the 1st sustainable dance club in the world! Watt’s Sustainable solutions Club Watt makes substantial savings on the consumption of energy (30%), water (50%) and CO2 (50%) This method resulted in savings for the building and organisation
  • 30. Club Watt The dance floor is a fusion of electronics, embedded software & smart durable materials. Every tile makes a vertical movement of up to 1 cm when danced on. These movements are transformed by an advanced electric motor into electric power. Every person is able to produce 2-20 Watt, depending on the dancers’ weight and activity of dance floor. The generated energy is then used to power the interactive elements of the floor or can be used to power other systems. The technology of the dance floor is continuously being developed. The dance floor produces 10% of the total club energy The technology of the floor can also be used for other applications such as gyms, railway, stations & any other areas with high traffic
  • 31. FLOOR MATS  Series of crystals can be laid below the floor mats, tiles and carpets.  One footstep can only provide enough electrical current to light two 60-watt bulbs for one second.  When mob uses the dance floor, an enormous voltage is generated.  This energy is used to power the equipment of nightclubs. Simultaneously the lights, on the wall, blink
  • 32. ENERGY-HARVESTING STREET TILES  These tiles generate electricity with a hybrid solution of mechanisms that include the piezoelectric effect (an electric charge produced when pressure is exerted on crystals such as quartz) and induction, which uses copper coils and magnets  The marathon runners generated 4.7 kilowatt-hours of energy, enough to power a five-watt LED bulb for 940 hours, or 40 days In Paris, on April 7, 2013, Kenya’s Peter Some won the 37th Paris Marathon with a time of 2:05:38, but around 37,000 runners were all involved in a part of a historic event. As they ran across the Avenue des Champs Élysées and thumped their feet on such 176 special tiles laid on a 25-meter stretch, the athletes generated electricity
  • 33. GYMS AND WORKPLACES  Vibrations caused from machines in the gym.  At workplaces, piezoelectric crystal are laid in the chairs for storing energy.  Utilizing the vibrations in the vehicle like clutches, gears etc.
  • 34. MOBILE KEYPAD AND KEYBOARD  Crystals laid down under keys of mobile unit and keyboard.  For every key pressed vibrations are created.  These vibrations can be used for charging purposes.
  • 35. POWER GENERATING BOOTS AND SHOES  Idea was researched by DARPA in US  To power the battlefield equipment by generators embedded in soldier boots  Idea was abandoned due to the discomfort
  • 36. OTHER APPLICATIONS  Electric cigarette lighter: Pressing the button of the lighter causes a spring-loaded hammer to hit a piezoelectric crystal, producing a sufficiently high voltage that electric current flows across a small spark gap, thus heating and igniting the gas  As tranformers: A piezoelectric transformer is a type of AC voltage multiplier. Unlike a conventional transformer, which uses magnetic coupling between input and output, the piezoelectric transformer uses acoustic coupling. An input voltage is applied across a short length of a bar of piezoceramic material such as PZT, creating an alternating stress in the bar by the inverse piezoelectric effect and causing the whole bar to vibrate. The vibration frequency is typically in the 100 kilohertz to 1 megahertz range. A higher output voltage is then generated across another section of the bar by the piezoelectric effect
  • 37. ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES Unaffected by external electromagnetic fields Piezoelectric ceramic can be depolarized by a strong electric field with polarity opposite to the original poling voltage Pollution Free High mechanical stress can depolarize a piezoelectric ceramic Low Maintenance Crystal is prone to crack if overstressed Easy replacement of equipment May get affected by long use at high temperatures
  • 38. CONCLUSIONS  Piezoelectricity is a revolutionary source for “GREEN ENERGY”  Flexible piezoelectric materials are attractive for power harvesting applications because of their ability to withstand large amounts of strain  Convert the ambient vibration energy surrounding them into electrical energy  Electrical energy can then be used to power other devices or stored for later use