Other theories of development

OTHER
THEORIES OF
DEVELOPMENT

Is it development
before learning? Or
learning before
development?

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
THEORY
Summary: Social
Development Theory
argues that social
interaction precedes
development;
consciousness and
cognition are the end
product of socialization
and social behavior.
Originator: Lev
Vygotsky (1896-1934).

THREE MAJOR THEMES OF
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY
1. Social interaction plays a
fundamental role in the process of
cognitive development. In contrast to
Jean Piaget’s understanding of child
development (in which development
necessarily precedes learning),
Vygotsky felt social learning precedes
development. He states: “Every
function in the child’s cultural
development appears twice: first, on
the social level, and later, on the
individual level; first, between people
(interpsychological) and then inside
the child (intrapsychological).”
(Vygotsky, 1978).

2. The More Knowledgeable
Other (MKO). The MKO
refers to anyone who has a
better understanding or a
higher ability level than the
learner, with respect to a
particular task, process, or
concept. The MKO is
normally thought of as being
a teacher, coach, or older
adult, but the MKO could also
be peers, a younger person,
or even computers.

3. The Zone of Proximal
Development (ZPD). The
ZPD is the distance
between a student’s
ability to perform a task
under adult guidance and/
or with peer collaboration
and the student’s ability
solving the problem
independently. According
to Vygotsky, learning
occurred in this zone.

According to Vygotsky,
humans use tools that
develop from a culture, such
as speech and writing, to
mediate their social
environments. Initially
children develop these tools
to serve solely as social
functions, ways to
communicate needs.
Vygotsky believed that the
internalization of these tools
led to higher thinking skills.

APPLICATION OF THE SOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT THEORY
Many schools have
traditionally held a transmissionist or
instructionist model in which a teacher
or lecturer ‘transmits’ information to
students. In contrast, Vygotsky’s
theory promotes learning contexts in
which students play an active role in
learning. Roles of the teacher and
student are therefore shifted, as a
teacher should collaborate with his or
her students in order to help facilitate
meaning construction in students.
Learning therefore becomes a
reciprocal experience for the students
and teacher.

ATTACHMENT THEORY
by John Bowlby

ATTACHMENT THEORY
∗Attachment is
an emotional
bond to
another
person.

ATTACHMENT THEORY
∗ Psychologist
John Bowlby was the
first attachment theorist,
describing attachment as
a "lasting psychological
connectedness between
human beings" (Bowlby,
1969, p. 194).

ATTACHMENT THEORY
∗ earliest bonds formed by
children with their
caregivers have a
tremendous impact that
continues throughout
life. According to
Bowlby, attachment also
serves to keep the infant
close to the mother, thus
improving the child's
chances of survival.

ATTACHMENT THEORY
∗ The central theme of attachment theory is
that mothers who are available and
responsive to their infant's needs establish
a sense of security in their children. The
infant knows that the caregiver is
dependable, which creates a secure base
for the child to then explore the world.

COMPONENTS OF
ATTACHMENT
∗ There are four key components of attachment:

∗Safe Haven: When the child
feel threatened or afraid, he
or she can return to the
caregiver for comfort and
soothing.

COMPONENTS OF
ATTACHMENT
∗ Safe Haven: When the child feel
threatened or afraid, he or she can
return to the caregiver for comfort
and soothing.
∗ Secure Base: The caregiver provides a
secure and dependable base for the
child to explore the world.

COMPONENTS OF
ATTACHMENT
∗ Safe Haven: When the child feel threatened or
afraid, he or she can return to the caregiver for
comfort and soothing.
∗ Secure Base: The caregiver provides a secure
and dependable base for the child to explore
the world.
∗ Proximity Maintenance: The child strives to
stay near the caregiver, thus keeping the child
safe.

COMPONENTS OF
ATTACHMENT
∗ Safe Haven: When the child feel threatened or
afraid, he or she can return to the caregiver for
comfort and soothing.
∗ Secure Base: The caregiver provides a secure and
dependable base for the child to explore the
world.
∗ Proximity Maintenance: The child strives to stay
near the caregiver, thus keeping the child safe.
∗ Separation Distress: When separated from the
caregiver, the child will become upset and
distressed.

MARY AINSWORTH’S
“STRANGE SITUATION”

AINSWORTH’S
∗ In her 1970's research, psychologist
Mary Ainsworth expanded greatly upon
Bowlby's original work. Her groundbreaking
"Strange Situation" study revealed the
profound effects of attachment on behavior. In
the study, researchers observed children
between the ages of 12 and 18 months as they
responded to a situation in which they were
briefly left alone and then reunited with their
mothers (Ainsworth, 1978).

AINSWORTH’S
∗ Based upon the responses the researchers observed,
Ainsworth described three major styles of attachment:
secure attachment, ambivalent-insecure attachment
and avoidant-insecure attachment. Later, researchers
Main and Solomon (1986) added a fourth attachment
style called disorganized-insecure attachment based
upon their own research. A number of studies since
that time have supported Ainsworth's
attachment styles and have indicated that attachment
styles also have an impact on behaviors later in life.

CHARACTERISTICS OF
SECURE ATTACHMENT
∗ Securely attached children exhibit distress when separated
from caregivers and are happy when their caregiver returns.
Remember, these children feel secure and able to depend on
their adult caregivers. When the adult leaves, the child may be
upset but he or she feels assured that the parent or caregiver
will return.
∗ When frightened, securely attached children will seek comfort
from caregivers. These children know their parent or caregiver
will provide comfort and reassurance, so they are comfortable
seeking them out in times of need.

CHARACTERISTICS OF
AMBIVALENT ATTACHMENT
Ambivalently attached children usually
become very distressed when a parent leaves.
This attachment style is considered relatively
uncommon, affecting an estimated 7-15% of U.S.
children. Research suggests that ambivalent
attachment is a result of poor maternal
availability. These children cannot depend on
their mother (or caregiver) to be there when the
child is in need.

CHARACTERISTICS OF
AVOIDANT ATTACHMENT
Children with an avoidant attachment tend
to avoid parents or caregivers. When offered a
choice, these children will show no preference
between a caregiver and a complete stranger.
Research has suggested that this attachment
style might be a result of abusive or neglectful
caregivers. Children who are punished for relying
on a caregiver will learn to avoid seeking help in
the future.

PROBLEMS WITH ATTACHMENT
∗ What happens to children who do not form secure
attachments? Research suggests that failure to form
secure attachments early in life can have a negative
impact on behavior in later childhood and throughout
the life. Children diagnosed with oppositional-defiant
disorder (ODD), conduct disorder (CD) or post-
traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) frequently display
attachment problems, possibly due to early abuse,
neglect or trauma. Clinicians suggest that children
adopted after the age of six months have a higher risk
of attachment problems.

PROBLEMS WITH ATTACHMENT
While attachment styles displayed in
adulthood are not necessarily the same as those
seen in infancy, research indicates that early
attachments can have a serious impact on later
relationships. For example, those who are
securely attached in childhood tend to have good
self-esteem, strong romantic relationships and
the ability to self-disclose to others. As adults,
they tend to have healthy, happy and lasting
relationships.

Does environment
affects
development?

ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS THEORY
by Urie Bronfenbrenner

Urie Bronfenbrenner was generally
regarded as one of the world's leading
scholars in the field of developmental
psychology. His ecological systems theory
holds that development reflects the
influence of several environmental
systems, and it identifies five
environmental systems that an individual
interacts with.

FIVE ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS
1. Microsystem: Refers
to the institutions and
groups that most
immediately and directly
impact the child's
development including:
family, school, religious
institutions,
neighborhood, and
peers.

2. Mesosystem: Refers to relations between
microsystems or connections between contexts.
Examples are the relation of family experiences
to school experiences, school experiences to
church experiences, and family experiences to
peer experiences. For example, children whose
parents have rejected them may have difficulty
developing positive relations with teachers.

3. Exosystem: Involves links between a social
setting in which the individual does not have an
active role and the individual's immediate
context. For example, a husband's or child's
experience at home may be influenced by a
mother's experiences at work. The mother might
receive a promotion that requires more travel,
which might increase conflict with the husband
and change patterns of interaction with the child.

4. Macrosystem: Describes the culture in which
individuals live. Cultural contexts include developing and
industrialized countries, socioeconomic status, poverty,
and ethnicity. A child, his or her parent, his or her school,
and his or her parent's workplace are all part of a large
cultural context. Members of a cultural group share a
common identity, heritage, and values. The
macrosystem evolves over time, because each
successive generation may change the macrosystem,
leading to their development in a unique macrosystem.

5. Chronosystem: The patterning of environmental
events and transitions over the life course, as well as
sociohistorical circumstances. For example, divorces are
one transition. Researchers have found that the
negative effects of divorce on children often peak in the
first year after the divorce. By two years after the
divorce, family interaction is less chaotic and more
stable. As an example of sociohistorical circumstances,
consider how the opportunities for women to pursue a
career have increased during the last thirty years."

∗The person's own biology may
be considered part of the
microsystem; thus the theory
has recently sometimes been
called "Bio-Ecological Systems
Theory."

∗ Per this theoretical construction, each system
contains roles, norms and rules which may shape
psychological development. For example, an inner-
city family faces many challenges which an affluent
family in a gated community does not, and vice
versa. The inner-city family is more likely to
experience environmental hardships, like crime
and squalor. On the other hand the sheltered
family is more likely to lack the nurturing support
of extended family.

∗ Since its publication in 1979, Bronfenbrenner's
major statement of this theory, The Ecology of
Human Development has had widespread influence
on the way psychologists and others approach the
study of human beings and their environments. As
a result of his groundbreaking work in "human
ecology", these environments — from the family
to economic and political structures — have come
to be viewed as part of the life course from
childhood through adulthood.

∗There are many different theories
related to human development.
The ecological theory emphasizes
environmental factors as playing
the major role to development.

∗Both the environment and
biology influence the child's
development.
∗The environment affects the
child and the child influences
the environment.

Does the brain affects
development?

Does the brain affects
development?
Is the brain a flexible
organ?

STRUCTURAL COGNITIVE MODIFIABILITY
by Reuven Feuerstein

STRUCTURAL COGNITIVE
MODIFIABILITY
Dr. Reuven Feuerstein, an Israeli
Psychologist, has developed the theory of
“Structural Cognitive Modifiability”. According
to this theory, the brain is a highly flexible organ
and can, with suitable assistance, modify itself in
amazing ways. He has demonstrated how this
theory can be used to develop the essential
“cognitive structures” required for higher level
thinking, working with children who have had
brain injuries, birth defects or abuse.

MODIFIABILITY - APPLICATION
We want to help a child to create
connections in their brains. When we
stimulate a child by providing him or her
with a sound, that child will demonstrate
that the sound has been heard by a
reaction. If the reaction involves the eyes
looking around then the child is trying to
associate the auditory stimulation with
something.

MODIFIABILITY - APPLICATION
You can help the child to make the association. If
you are using a stethoscope then you should position
yourself direction in front of the child and as you emit a
sound, say humming a tune, you should also make some
kind of shape with your mouth. Then do this at varying
distances from the child. If you see the child trying to
mimic your mouth position, you will have evidence that
the child is making a connection. If you see an attempt
to mimic what you do with your mouth, then repeat that
many times-100 is not too many times!

Does certain
systems related
to development?

MODULAR THEORY OF SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
by Judith Rich Harris

MODULAR THEORY OF
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
∗ Proposed by Judith Rich Harris
∗ A relationship system that allows us to distinguish
family from strangers and tell individuals apart.

MODULAR THEORY OF
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
∗ Proposed by Judith Rich Harris
∗ A socialization system that helps us to become
members of a group and absorb the group's
culture.

MODULAR THEORY OF
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
∗ Proposed by Judith
Rich Harris
∗ A status system that
enables us to acquire
self-knowledge by
measuring ourselves
against others.

SPIRAL DYNAMICS OR EMERGENT CYCLICAL
LEVEL OF EXISTENCE THEORY
by Clare W. Graves

LEVEL OF EXISTENSE THEORY
Spiral Dynamics is a
theory of
human development
introduced in the 1996
book Spiral Dynamics by
Don Beck and Chris Cowan.
The book was based on the
theory of psychology
professor Clare W. Graves.


different and
complexities
of human
existence


Pattern of
human
diversity and
trajectory for
change.


TWO INTERACTING FORCES
2.Life conditions the person or
group encounters
3.The brain/mind capacities
available to cope with such
conditions

LIFE BRAIN/MIND
CONDITIONS COPING
CAPACITIES

A State of nature BEIGE N Instinctive: as
and biological natural instincts
urges and and reflexes
drives: physical direct;
senses dictate automatic
the state of existence.
being.

LIFE BRAIN/MIND
CONDITIONS COPING
CAPACITIES

B Threatening PURPLE O Animistic:
and full of according to
mysterious tradition and
powers and ritual ways of
spirit beings group: tribal;
that must be animistic.
placated and
appeased.

LIFE BRAIN/MIND
CONDITIONS COPING
CAPACITIES

C Like a jungle RED P Egocentric:
where the asserting self
tough and for dominance,
strong prevail, conquest and
the weak serve; power.
nature is an Exploitive;
adversary to be egocentric.
conquered.

LIFE BRAIN/MIND
CONDITIONS COPING
CAPACITIES

D Controlled by a BLUE Q Absolutistic:
Higher Power obediently as
that punishes higher
evil and authority and
eventually rules direct;
rewards good conforming;
works and guilt.
righteous living.

LIFE BRAIN/MIND
CONDITIONS COPING
CAPACITIES

E Full of ORANGE R Muitiplistic:
resources to pragmatically
develop and to achieve
opportunities results and get
to make things ahead; test
better and options;
bring maneuver
prosperity.

LIFE BRAIN/MIND
CONDITIONS COPING
CAPACITIES

F The habitat GREEN S Relativistic;
wherein respond to
humanity human
can find needs;
love and affiliative;
purposes situational;
through consensual;
affiliation fluid.
and sharing.

LIFE BRAIN/MIND
CONDITIONS COPING
CAPACITIES

G A chaotic YELLOW T Systemic:
organism functional;
where change integrative;
is the norm and interdependent
uncertainty an ; existential;
acceptable flexible;
state of being. questioning;
accepting.

LIFE BRAIN/MIND
CONDITIONS COPING
CAPACITIES

H A delicately TURQUOISE U Holistic:
balanced experiential:
system of transpersonal;
interlocking collective
forces in consciousness;
jeopardy at collaborative;
humanity’s interconnected.
hands;
chaordic.

LIFE BRAIN/MIND
CONDITIONS COPING
CAPACITIES

I Too soon to CORAL V Next
say, but should neurological
tend to be I- capacities. The
oriented; theory is open-
controlling, ended up to the
consolidating if limits of Homo
the pattern sapiens' brain.
holds.

Does your ego
made you what
you are now?

STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT
by Jane Loevinger

STAGES OF EGO
DEVELOPMENT
The ego is the struggle to
comprehend, understand, and
organize the experiences of life.
(MacAdams, 2006)

STAGES OF EGO
DEVELOPMENT
Jane Loevinger's stages of ego development
'conceptualize a theory of ego development that was
based on Erikson's psychosocial model', as well as on
the works of Harry Stack Sullivan, and in which 'the ego
was theorized to mature and evolve through stages
across the lifespan as a result of a dynamic interaction
between the inner self and the outer environment'.[1]
The ego is the struggle to comprehend, understand,
and organize the experiences of life

STAGES OF EGO
DEVELOPMENT
∗ Presocial stage (E1)
In earliest infancy, a baby cannot differentiate itself from the world
and focuses only on gratifying immediate needs. Loevinger believes
infants in their earliest state cannot have an ego because their
thinking is autistic or delusional.[10] Their ego or 'thinking is
characterised by primary process and delusional projection',[11] This
part of the presocial stage does not last long as it quickly merges into
the Symbiotic stage. The ego begins to develop and is it dominated by
'the process of differentiating self from non-self'[12] - from the World.
The infant, once s/he 'has a grasp of the stability of the world of
objects, the baby retains a symbiotic relation with his/[her] mother'[13]
and begins the association of objects to themselves. For example, a
baby will not fall asleep until they have their favourite toy or blankie
in the crib with them.

STAGES OF EGO
DEVELOPMENT
∗ Impulsive stage (E2)
Here the child 'asserts his growing sense of self' and views the world in ego-
centric terms.[14] At this stage 'the child is preoccupied with bodily impulses,
particularly (age-appropriate) sexual and aggressive ones.[15] The child is too
immersed in the moment and view the world solely in terms of how things
affect them. Their impulses affirm their sense of self however are 'curbed by
the environment'. When someone meets their needs they are considered
'good', and if they do not meet their needs they are considered bad - often
resulting in impulsive retaliation such s/]he will run away or run home'.[16]
Discipline is viewed by the child as restraints, and 'rewards and punishments'
are seen as being "Nice to Me" or "Mean to Me". This is because the Child's
'needs and feelings are experienced mostly in bodily modes',[17] and 'the
child's orientation at this stage is almost exclusively to the present rather
than to past or future'.

STAGES OF EGO
DEVELOPMENT
∗ Self-Protective stage (E3)
The "Self-Protective" stage represents 'the first step
towards self-control of impulses....The Self-Protective
person has the notion of blame, but he externalizes it
to other people or to circumstances'. At this level, the
child 'craves a morally prescribed, rigidly enforced,
unchanging order', and if maintained too long 'an older
child or adult who remains here may become
opportunistic, deceptive, and preoccupied with
control...naive instrumental hedonism

STAGES OF EGO
DEVELOPMENT
∗ Self-Protective stage (E3)

While a degree of conceptual
cohesion has been reached,
morality is essentially a matter of
anticipating rewards and
punishments, with the motto:
"Don’t Get Caught".

STAGES OF EGO
DEVELOPMENT
∗ Conformist stage (E4)
Most children around school age...progress to the next stage, conformity'.
Persons begin to view themselves and other as conforming to socially
approved codes or norms. Teaching education as adult development. Theory
into Practice, 17(3), p. 231 Loevinger describes this stage of having 'the
greatest cognitive simplicity. There is a right way and a wrong way and it is
the same for everyone...or broad classes of people. One example of groups
conforming together at this age is by gender—boys and girls. Here persons
are very much invested in belonging to and obtaining the approval of
groups.[24] Behavior is judged externally, not by intentions, and this concept
of 'belonging to the group (family or peers) is most valued'. 'the child starts
to identify his welfare with that of the group', though for the stage 'to be
consolidated, there must be a strong element of trust'. An ability to take in
rules of the group appears, and another's disapproval becomes a sanction,
not only fear of punishment. However rules and norms are not yet
distinguished.

STAGES OF EGO
DEVELOPMENT
∗ Self-aware level (E5)
Loevinger considered the Self-Aware
(also known as 'Conscientious-
Conformist') Transitional Stage to be
'model for adults in our society',[29]
and thought that few pass the stage
before at least the age of twenty-five.

STAGES OF EGO
DEVELOPMENT
∗ Self-aware level (E5)
The stage is largely characterized by two characteristics:
'an increase in self-awareness and the capacity to imagine
multiple possibilities in situations' ...[was] a stable position
in mature life', one marked by the development of
'rudimentary self-awareness and self-criticism': however
the closeness of the self to norms and expectations 'reveal
the transitional nature of these conceptions, midway
between the group stereotypes of the Conformist and the
appreciation for individual differences at higher levels'.
Loevinger also considered the level to produce 'a
deepened interest in interpersonal relations'.

STAGES OF EGO
DEVELOPMENT
∗ Conscientious stage (I-4)

At progression to 'the
conscientious stage...individuals at
this level, and even more often at
higher levels, refer spontaneously
to psychological development'.

STAGES OF EGO
DEVELOPMENT
By this stage, 'the internalization of rules is completed',
although at the same time 'exceptions and contingencies are
recognized'. Goals and ideals are acknowledged, and there is a
new sense of responsibility, with guilt triggered by hurting
another, rather than by breaking rules. 'The tendency to look at
things in a broader social context' was offset by a self seen as
apart from the group, but also from the other's point of view;
as a result 'descriptions of people are more realistic...[with]
more complexities'. Standards are self-chosen, and
distinguished from manners, just as people are seen in terms of
their motives and not just their actions.

STAGES OF EGO
DEVELOPMENT

The Conscientious subject 'sees
life as presenting choices; [s]he
holds the origin of his own
destiny...aspires to achievement,
ad astra per aspera '[36] but by his
or her own standards.

STAGES OF EGO
DEVELOPMENT
∗ Individualistic level (E7)
During this stage persons demonstrate both a respect for
individuality and interpersonal ties. Loevinger explains' To proceed
beyond the Conscientious Stage a person must become more
tolerant of himself and of others...out of the recognition of individual
differences and of complexities of circumstances' developed at the
previous level. The individualistic ego shows a broad-minded
tolerance of and respect for the autonomy of both self and others.
With a new distancing from role identities, 'moralism begins to be
replaced by an awareness of inner conflict', while the new stage is
also 'marked by a heightened sense of individuality and a concern for
emotional dependence‘. Subjective experience is opposed to
objective reality, inner reality to outward appearance; and 'vivid and
personal versions of ideas presented as clichés at lower levels‘ may

STAGES OF EGO
DEVELOPMENT
∗ Individualistic level (E7)

A growing concern for
psychological causality and
development will typically go hand
in hand with 'greater complexity in
conceptions of interpersonal
interaction'.

STAGES OF EGO
DEVELOPMENT
∗ Autonomous stage (E8)
Loevinger termed the next stage "autonomous"
'because it is marked by the freeing of the person from
oppressive demands of conscience in the preceding
stage'. People at this stage are "synthesizers" and are
able to conceptually integrate ideas. The autonomous
person also 'recognizes the limitations to autonomy,
that emotional interdependence is inevitable'. The
stage might also see a 'confrontation with the
limitations of abilities and roles as part of deepening
self-acceptance'.

STAGES OF EGO
DEVELOPMENT

'Self-fulfillment becomes a frequent
goal, partly supplanting achievement',
while there may well be a wider
'capacity to acknowledge and to cope
with inner conflicts',[46] such as
between needs and duties.

STAGES OF EGO
DEVELOPMENT
A high toleration for ambiguity...[and ]
conceptual complexity' - the capacity to
embrace Polarity, Complexity, Multiple Facets,
and to integrate ideas - is a further feature of
the Autonomous Stage, as too is the expression
of 'respect for other people's need for
autonomy in clear terms'.

STAGES OF EGO
DEVELOPMENT
∗ Integrated stage (E9)
According to Loevinger, this is a rare stage to attain. At the
integrated stage, 'learning is understood as unavoidable...the
unattainable is renounced'.[49] The ego shows wisdom, broad
empathy towards oneself and other, and a capacity to not just
be aware of inner conflicts like the individualistic ego or tolerate
inner conflicts like the autonomous ego, but reconcile and make
peace with those issues.<Witherell, C. S., & Erickson,
p. 231</ref> This 'Reconciling inner conflicts...cherishing of
individuality'[50] are key elements of its Self-Actualizing nature,
along with a fully worked-out identity which includes
'reconciliation to one's destiny'.[51]

Why child’s
education should
be fundamental?

SENSITIVE PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT
by Maria Montessori
∗ Sensitive periods is a
term coined by the Dutch
geneticist Hugo de Vries
and adopted by the
Italian educator
Maria Montessori to refer
to important periods of
childhood development.

SENSITIVE PERIODS OF
DEVELOPMENT
Montessori believed that
every human being goes through a
series of quantum leaps in learning
during the pre-school years.
Drawing on the work of de Vries,
she attributed these behaviors to
the development of specific areas
of the human brain, which she
called nebulae.[1] She felt this was
especially true during the first few
years of life, from birth (or before)
to the time of essentially complete
development of the brain, about
age 6 or 7. Montessori observed
several overlapping periods during
which the child is particularly
sensitive to certain types of stimuli
or interactions.

DEVELOPMENT
According to Montessori, during a sensitive period it is very easy
for children to acquire certain abilities, such as language, discrimination
of sensory stimuli, and mental modeling of the environment. Once the
sensitive period for a particular ability is past, the development of the
brain has progressed past the point at which information can be simply
absorbed. The child must then be taught the ability, resulting in
expenditure of conscious effort, and not producing results as great as
could be produced if the sensitive period had been taken advantage of.
Montessori was not very specific in her published works about the
precise number, description, or timing of these sensitive periods.
However, in her lectures to teacher trainees she set out several periods
with the approximate ages to which they applied. More importantly,
she believed, adults should observe the behavior and activities of
children to discover what sensitive periods they are in.

DEVELOPMENT
Age Sensitivity
The absorbent mind: the mind soaks up information like a sponge.
Sensory learning and experiences: the child uses all five senses -
Birth to 6 years
touch, taste, smell, sight, and hearing - to understand and absorb
information about his or her environment.
Language explosion: a child builds his or her future foundation for
1.5 to 3 years
language.
Development and coordination of fine and large muscle skills,
1.5 to 4 years advanced developing grasp and release skill spawns an interest in
any small object.

Very mobile with greater coordination and refinement of
movement, increased interest in language and communication
2 to 4 years
(they enjoy telling stories), aware of spatial relationships,
matching, sequence and order of objects.

DEVELOPMENT
Age Sensitivity

Works well incorporating all five senses for learning and adapting
2.5 to 6 years
to environment.

Interest in and admiration of the adult world: they want to copy
3 to 6 years
and mimic adults, such as parents and teachers.

Using one’s hands and fingers in cutting, writing and art. Their
4 to 5 years
tactile senses are very developed and acute.

Reading and math readiness, and, eventually, reading and math
4.5 to 6 years
skills.

Do you believe that
everyone is unique
from one another?

SEPARATION – INDIVIDUATION THEORY
OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT
by Margaret Mahler
∗ In Mahler’s theory,
child development takes
place in phases, each with
several sub phases:

SEPARATION – INDIVIDUATION
THEORY OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT
∗ In Mahler’s theory,
child development takes place in
phases, each with several sub
phases:
∗ Normal Autistic Phase - First few
weeks of life. The infant is
detached and self-absorbed.
Spends most of his/her time
sleeping. Mahler later
abandoned this phase, based on
new findings from her infant
research.[2] She believed it to be
non-existent. The phase still
appears in many books on her
theories.

∗ Normal Symbiotic Phase -
Lasts until about 5
months of age. The child
is now aware of his/her
mother but there is not a
sense of individuality. The
infant and the mother are
one, and there is a barrier
between them and the
rest of the world.

Separation-Individuation Phase -
The arrival of this phase marks the end of
the Normal Symbiotic Phase. Separation
refers to the development of limits, the
differentiation between the infant and the
mother, whereas individuation refers to
the development of the infant's ego, sense
of identity, and cognitive abilities. Mahler
explains how a child with the age of a few
months breaks out of an “autistic shell”
into the world with human connections.
This process, labeled
separation-individuation, is divided into
subphases, each with its own onset,
outcomes and risks. The following
subphases proceed in this order but
overlap considerably.

Hatching – first months. The infant
ceases to be ignorant of the
differentiation between him/her and
the mother. "Rupture of the shell".
Increased alertness and interest for
the outside world. Using the mother
as a point of orientation.

Practicing – 9-about 16 months.
Brought about by the infant's ability
to crawl and then walk freely, the
infant begins to explore actively and
becomes more distant from the
mother. The child experiences himself
still as one with his mother.

Rapprochement –15–24 months. In this subphase,
the infant once again becomes close to the mother. The
child realizes that his physical mobility demonstrates
psychic separateness from his mother. The toddler may
become tentative, wanting his mother to be in sight so
that, through eye contact and action, he can explore his
world. The risk is that the mother will misread this need
and respond with impatience or unavailability. This can
lead to an anxious fear of abandonment in the toddler.
A basic ‘mood predisposition’ may be established at this
point. Rapprochement is divided into a few sub phases:

Beginning - Motivated by a desire to
share discoveries with the mother.
Crisis - Between staying with the
mother, being emotionally close and being
more independent and exploring.
Solution - Individual solutions are
enabled by the development of language
and the superego.

Disruptions in the
fundamental process of
separation-individuation can
result in a disturbance in the
ability to maintain a reliable
sense of individual identity in
adulthood.

Do you believe in
something you
can’t see?

JAMES FOWLER’S STAGE OF
FAITH DEVELOPMENT
proposed by
Professor James W. Fowler,
a developmental
psychologist at Candler
School of Theology, in the
book Stages of Faith.
It proposes a staged
development of faith (or
spiritual development)
across the life span.

FOWLER’S STAGE OF
FAITH DEVELOPMENT
Faith is seen as a holistic orientation, and is concerned
with the individual's relatedness to the universal. Fowler defines
faith as an activity of trusting, committing and relating to the
world based on a set of assumptions of how one is related to
others and the world.
∗Stage 0 – "Primal or Undifferentiated" faith (birth to 2 years), is
characterized by an early learning of the safety of their
environment (i.e. warm, safe and secure vs. hurt, neglect and
abuse). If consistent nurture is experienced, one will develop a
sense of trust and safety about the universe and the divine.
Conversely, negative experiences will cause one to develop
distrust with the universe and the divine. Transition to the next
stage begins with integration of thought and languages which
facilitates the use of symbols in speech and play.

FOWLER’S STAGE OF
FAITH DEVELOPMENT
Stage 1 – "Intuitive-Projective"
faith (ages of three to seven), is
characterized by the psyche's
unprotected exposure to the
Unconscious.

FOWLER’S STAGE OF
FAITH DEVELOPMENT
Stage 2 – "Mythic-Literal" faith
(mostly in school children), stage two
persons have a strong belief in the
justice and reciprocity of the universe,
and their deities are almost always
anthropomorphic.

FOWLER’S STAGE OF
FAITH DEVELOPMENT
Stage 3 – "Synthetic-Conventional"
faith (arising in adolescence; aged 12 to
adulthood) characterized by conformity to
religious authority and the development of
a personal identity. Any conflicts with one's
beliefs are ignored at this stage due to the
fear of threat from inconsistencies.

FOWLER’S STAGE OF
FAITH DEVELOPMENT
Stage 4 – "Individuative-Reflective" faith
(usually mid-twenties to late thirties) a stage of
angst and struggle. The individual takes personal
responsibility for his or her beliefs and feelings.
As one is able to reflect on one's own beliefs,
there is an openness to a new complexity of
faith, but this also increases the awareness of
conflicts in one's belief.

FOWLER’S STAGE OF
FAITH DEVELOPMENT
Stage 5 – "Conjunctive" faith (mid-life
crisis) acknowledges paradox or contradiction
and transcendence relating reality behind the
symbols of inherited systems. The individual
resolves conflicts from previous stages by a
complex understanding of a multidimensional,
interdependent "truth" that cannot be explained
by any particular statement.

FOWLER’S STAGE OF
FAITH DEVELOPMENT
Stage 6 – "Universalizing" faith, or
what some might call "enlightenment
". The individual would treat any
person with compassion as he or she
views people as from a universal
community, and should be treated
with universal principles of love and
justice.

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
by Albert Bandura
Social learning
theory is a perspective
that states that people
learn within a social
context. It is facilitated
through concepts such
as modeling and
observational learning.

According to Social Learning theory,
models are an important source for learning new
behaviors and for achieving behavioral change in
institutionalized settings. Social learning theory
is derived from the work of Albert Bandura
which proposed that observational learning can
occur in relation to three models:

∗Live model – in
which an actual
person is
demonstrating
the desired
behavior

∗ Verbal instruction –
in which an individual
describes the desired
behavior in detail,
and instructs the
participant in how to
engage in the
behavior

∗ Symbolic – in which
modeling occurs by
means of the media,
including movies,
television, Internet,
literature, and radio. This
type of modeling involves
a real or fictional
character demonstrating
the behavior.

An important factor of Albert Bandura’s
social learning theory is the emphasis on
reciprocal determinism. This notion states that
an individual’s behavior is influenced by the
environment and characteristics of the person.
In other words, a person’s behavior,
environment, and personal qualities all
reciprocally influence each other. Bandura
proposed that the modeling process involves
several steps:

∗ 1. Attention – in order for an individual to learn something, they
must pay attention to the features of the modeled behavior.
∗ 2. Retention – humans need to be able to remember details of
the behavior in order to learn and later reproduce the behavior.
∗ 3. Reproduction – in reproducing a behavior, an individual must
organize his or her responses in accordance with the model
behavior. This ability can improve with practice.
∗ 4. Motivation – there must be an incentive or motivation
driving the individual’s reproduction of the behavior. Even if all
of the above factors are present, the person will not engage in
the behavior without motivation.

IDENTITY ACHIEVEMENT
THEORY
∗ Originally by Erik
Erikson by
sharpened by
James Marcia, a
Psychology
Professor

THEORY
He identified four (4) identity
statuses:
1.identity diffusion,
2.identity foreclosure,
3.identity moratorium
4.identity achievement

THEORY
The statuses are ways to resolve
identity crisis and then establish a
commitment to this identity.

THEORY
The statuses are ways to resolve
identity crisis and then establish a
commitment to this identity.
Crisis – a period of development
where the adolescent experience
alternative identities and then he
chooses.

THEORY
Commitment – decision that the
adolescent makes on what he or she is
going to do.

THEORY
Commitment – decision that the
adolescent makes on what he or she is
going to do.
It includes occupation, religion,
philosophy, sex roles or personal
standards of sexual behavior.

THEORY
Identity diffusion is the status
where adolescents have not
experienced any identity crisis yet. They
have yet to explore meaningful
alternatives and they have yet to make
any commitments. During this status,
adolescents do not show interest in
occupational or ideological choices.

THEORY
Identity foreclosure is the status where
adolescents have decided on a commitment; however,
they have not had an identity crisis. That is, the
adolescent has not had any opportunity to experience
alternatives. The adolescent accepts what others have
chosen for him or her. Usually, this occurs when an
authoritative parent passes on their commitment to the
adolescent. These same adolescents will identify more
closely to the same-sex parent. For example, if a father
is a mechanic and owns his own business, then his son
will become a mechanic and take over the business.

THEORY
Identity moratorium is a marginal period
where the adolescent is on the verge of an
identity crisis; however, the adolescent has not
made any commitments yet. The term
moratorium refers to a period of delay where
someone had not yet made a decision. It is during
this time that they experience different roles.
During this period, adolescents and young adults
will court one another, look at different career
opportunities, explore philosophies and so on.

THEORY
Identity achievement is the final status
where the individual has gone through a
psychological moratorium and have made
their decisions for life. These individuals
have explored different roles and
opportunities and have come to
conclusions and made decisions on their
own.

THEORY
In short, James Marcia found that a
person's identity is not "set" and is quite fluid.
Before a person's identity is chosen, individuals
go through a process, whether it is forced on
them or not, to determine their identity. A
person's identity is made up of commitments
made by the individual. These commitments are
decisions made throughout one's life that
determines "who" that person will be.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
www.yahoo.com/images
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_psychology
http://www.learning-theories.com/vygotskys-social-learning-theory.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_stage_theories
http://internal.psychology.illinois.edu/~rcfraley/attachment.htm
http://psychology.about.com/od/loveandattraction/a/attachment01.htm
http://www.hydranencephaly.com/Care/structuralcognitive.htm
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No_Two_Alike:_Human_Nature_and_Human_Individuality
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiral_Dynamics
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loevinger%27s_stages_of_ego_development
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensitive_periods
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_Mahler#Separation-Individuation_Theory_of_child_development
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stages_of_faith_development
http://www.helium.com/items/1560359-marcias-four-identity-statuses
http://www.spiraldynamics.org/aboutsd_theory.htm

Have you learning
something from
me today?

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Prepared by:
JARED RAM A. JUEZAN
MAEd – Educational Management
June 27 - 29, 2012

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