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Siddharth Wadhawan, Harshal Arekar / International Journal of Engineering Research and
                  Applications (IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 www.ijera.com
                   Vol. 2, Issue 5, September- October 2012, pp.2185-2190
           Captive Energy Methods For Electrical Power System
                            Siddharth Wadhawan, Harshal Arekar
                        *Fr.Conceicao Rodrigues Institute of Technology Navi Mumbai
                        **Fr.Conceicao Rodrigues Institute of Technology Navi Mumbai

Abstract
          In Electric Power systems, power quality        been proportional. The power sector has not seen
and reliability has become one of the issues of           tremendous increase as it should have seen in terms
prime importance. Some of the major                       of its capacity. Also for the past many years there has
disadvantages in electric power supply system are         been a shortfall in the peak load demand and the
the deviations in power supply which make some            demand that is met by the power sector utilities. This
of the electronic equipment’s and domestic                is shown by the figure below. All these have
devices highly sensitive to it. To avoid such             eventually lead to voltage fluctuations and deviations
problems we need to find out devices that can             and other issues related to power quality.
provide a backup during the time of voltage sags
and such deviations. Energy storage technologies
help to avert such conditions.The energy storage
devices does not represent energy sources, they
provide valuable added benefits to improve
stability, power quality, and reliability of supply.
Over the past few decades many new and
innovative ideas have been explored in the broad
area of energy storage.Battery technologies have
improved significantly in order to meet the
challenges of practical electric utilities. Flywheel
technologies are being used as an advanced
nonpolluting uninterruptible power supply
technique. Superconducting energy storage
systems are still in their prototype stages but
receiving attention for utility applications.
Compressed Air Energy Storage and Thermal
heat storage are a few recent methods developed
for providing peak load supplies. Also there are
hydrogen        fuel    and      pump        storage
hydroelectricity technologies for storing energy.
These technologies can also be incorporated into          Figure 1.   India’s peak demand gap
traditional power generating stations to increase
the overall efficiency. These energy storage                       Talking in terms of the future, according to
devices and technologies help to store and                the Five-year plans established by the government’s
harness the renewable source of energy which is           Planning Commission has laid out specific targets for
very essential. This paper focuses on these               new generation capacity. For the 12th five-year plan
advancements made and provides a composite                (2012–2017), 83,000 MW of new capacity has been
picture of costs and trends in storage                    targeted [ 8]. In order to achieve this target we
technologies.                                             require better captive energy storage systems to
                                                          increase the overall generation capacity and the
I. INTRODUCTION                                           power quality.
          The generation of electric power is the basic            These storage elements will also help to
 pillar for normal functioning of every modern            meet the consumer’s demand for electric power
 society. India has experienced impressive gross          which varies cyclically during day and night, as well
 domestic product (GDP) growth rates exceeding 7%         as within the week and the seasons. Moreover the
 over the past few years. Although recent trends          quality of an electric power supply is determined by
 appear to indicate an economic slowdown, long-term       the available reserve capacity at the energy utility. In
 7%+ GDP growth is expected to continue through at        general an electrical power generating system should
 least 2020. To support India’s expanding economy,        have 15-20% of reserve power available to meet any
 large-scale power capacity additions in the range of     consumer demand. In case the demand is not met or
 150 GW to 175 GW are projected over the next 10          there is insufficient reserve capacity to meet that
 years. However the rate of growth of the economy         demand, a decline in voltage at the consumer side
 and the powetgeneration capacity of India has not        will appear which would upset the normal operation



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Siddharth Wadhawan, Harshal Arekar / International Journal of Engineering Research and
                 Applications (IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 www.ijera.com
                  Vol. 2, Issue 5, September- October 2012, pp.2185-2190
at the user’s end and would eventually lead to a          high energy capability, roundtrip efficiency, cycling
failure. For this reason it is essential for the normal   capability, life span, and initial cost.There are a
functioning and development of each nation to have        number       of     battery     technologies    under
reliable national and local electric power systems        considerationfor large-scale energy storage. Lead-
with capacities exceeding the actual energy demand        acid batteriesrepresent an established, mature
by at least 15%. However, in most of the developing       technology. Lead-acidbatteries can be designed for
nations like India have capacities that can only just     bulk energy storage or for rapid charge or
meet their energy demands, and in some cases are          discharge.Lead-acid batteries still represent a low-
simply inadequate as shown in fig1. This shortfall of     cost option for most applications requiring large
electrical energy often hinders the social and            storage capabilities, with the low energy density and
economic progress of a nation.                            limited cycle life as the chief disadvantages. Mobile
          Now with this growth of different industries    applications are favoring sealed lead-acid battery
the mechanical and electronic loads have increased        technologies for safety and ease of maintenance.
tremendously. Thus the issue of quality of power          Valve regulated lead-acid (VRLA) batteries have
supply has become a critical issue and has gained         better cost and performance characteristics for
importance. Power system engineers facing these           stationary applications. Several other battery
challenges seek solutions to allow them to operate the    technologies also show promise for stationary energy
system in a more flexible, controllable manner.           storage applications. All have higher energy density
Generally when power system disturbances occur,           capabilities than lead-acid batteries, but at present,
synchronous capacitors which are mostly used are          they are not yet cost effective for higher power
not always able to respond rapidly enough to keep         applications. Leading technologies include nickel–
the system stable. This is where energy storage           metal hydride batteries, nickel–cadmium batteries,
technology can play a very important role in              and lithium-ion batteries. The last two technologies
maintaining system reliability and power quality. The     are both being pushed for electric vehicle
ideal solution is to have means to rapidly damp           applications where high energy density can offset
oscillations, respond to sudden changes in load,          higher cost to some degree.
supply load during transmission or distribution                     Due to the chemical kinetics involved,
interruptions, correct load voltage profiles with rapid   batteries cannot operateat high power levels for long
reactive power control, and still allow the generators    time periods. In addition,rapid, deep discharges may
to balance with the system load at their normal speed.    lead to early replacementof the battery, since heating
Thus with this paper we provide an insight into the       resulting in this kind of operationreduces battery
new methods of captive energy storing.                    lifetime. There are also environmentalconcerns
                                                          related to battery storage due to toxic gas
II. EXSISTING METHODS OF ENERGY                           generationduring battery charge/discharge. The
   STORAGE                                                disposal of hazardousmaterials presents some battery
          Electrical energy in a system cannot be         disposal problems. The disposal problem varies with
stored electrically. However, energy can be stored        battery technology.
by converting the ac electricityand storing it
electromagnetically, electrochemically, kinetically,      B. FLYWHEEL               ENERGY           STORAGE
or as potential energy. Each energy storage                    SYSTEM(FESS)
technology usuallyincludes a power conversion unit                  A flywheel stores energy in a rotating mass.
to convert the energy from one form to another.           Depending on the inertia and speed of the rotating
 The existing methods for energy storage include          mass, a given amount of kinetic energy is stored as
batteries and flywheel while, the latest technology in    rotational energy. The flywheel is placed inside a
includes compressed air energy storage, super             vacuum containment to eliminate friction-loss from
capacitor energy storage and superconducting              the air and suspended by bearings for a stabile
magnetic energy storage.                                  operation. Kinetic energy is transferred in and out of
                                                          the flywheel with an electrical machine that can
A. BATTERY STORAGE SYSTEMS.                               function either as a motor or generator depending on
          Batteries are one of the most cost-effective    the load angle (phase angle). When acting as motor,
energy storagetechnologies available, with energy         electric energy supplied to the stator winding is
stored electrochemically.A battery system is made up      converted to torque and applied to the rotor, causing
of a set of low-voltage/powerbattery modules              it to spin faster and gain kinetic energy. In generator
connected in parallel and series to achievea desired      mode kinetic energy stored in the rotor applies a
electrical characteristic. Batteries are “charged”when    torque, which is converted to electric energy. Thus
they undergo an internal chemical reaction under          flywheel is basically an electromechanical device that
apotential applied to the terminals. They deliver the     couples a motor generator with a rotating mass to
absorbedenergy, or “discharge,” when they reverse         store energy for shortdurations.The kinetic energy
the chemicalreaction. Key factors of batteries for        stored. The kinetic energy stored in a flywheel is
storage applicationsinclude: high energy density,


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Siddharth Wadhawan, Harshal Arekar / International Journal of Engineering Research and
                 Applications (IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 www.ijera.com
                  Vol. 2, Issue 5, September- October 2012, pp.2185-2190
proportional to the mass and to the square of its         orreformed from other fossil fuels. The technology is
rotational speed.                                         developing with a few commercial uses today, but
                                                          with a promise toemerge as a significant source of
                             1 2                          electricity in the near future. This process is much
                        𝑇=     𝐽𝜔                         more efficient than traditional thermal power plants,
                             2
                                                          theoretically converting up to 80% of the chemical
          Where J is polar moment of inertia about        energy in the fuel into electricity (compared to the
axis of rotation and ω is the angular velocity. The       60% efficiency of combined cycle power plants).The
energy storage capability of flywheels can be             overall efficiency of hydrogen storage depends
improved either by increasing the moment of inertia       greatly on the technique used and the scale of the
of flywheel or by turning it at higher rotational         operation, but is typically 50 to 60% which is lower
velocities, or both.                                      than for compressed air systems or batteries. Hence
          Apart from the flywheel additional power        this process is generally avoided for providing the
electronics is required to control the power in- and      excess energy demand.
output, speed, frequency etc. This forms the flywheel
electrical interface and generally includes the motor     III. EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES FOR
drive inverter and bus voltage regulator. The figure      ENERGY STORAGE
below shows the flywheel energy storage system                     The above methods are not very efficient
                                                          and also prove costly in terms of both feasibility and
                                                          maintainability. Hence, there have been quite a few
                                                          emerging techniques which have been developed
                                                          over a period of years. These techniques help us to
                                                          provide efficient solutions to all storage related
                                                          problems. These methods also act as an storage
                                                          element for renewable sources of energy like solar,
                                                          wind and geothermal. The major upcoming
                                                          techniques include compressed air energy storage,
                                                          super magnetic energy storage.

                                                          A. COMPRESSED                 AIR          ENERGY
Figure 2.   Basic layout of flywheel energy storage           STORAGE(CAES)
                                                                 The largest share of the energy generated
    Flywheels can respond to many power               by a gas turbine is consumed by itscompressor. This
quality issues such as frequency deviation,               fact combined with the fluctuations in the demand
temporaryinterruptions, voltage sags, and voltage         for power and itsconsequent time of use pricing
swells. The amount of energy stored in an FES             formed the motivation for the development of
device mainly depends on the angularvelocity of the       theCompressed Air Energy Storage (CAES)
rotor. Flywheel energy storage system constitutes         technology.
short term storage systems, which are generally                     As the name implies, the compressed
sufficient to improve the power qualitycompared to        air energy storage (CAES) plant uses electricity to
other ways of storing electricity, Flywheel energy        compress air which is stored in underground
storage systems have long lifetimes. Rapid charging       reservoirs.The CAES technology consists of
of a system occurs in less than 15 minutes. FESS has      converting excess base load energy into
an overall round trip efficiency includingthe             storedpneumatic energy by means of a compressor
electronics, bearings, and flywheel drag of 80-85% .      for a later release through a gas turbineas premium
With the life expectancy of about 20 years, the           peaking powerDue to the storage option, a partial-
currentflywheel designs are modular and can range in      load operation of the CAES plant is also very
size up to 10 plus MW systems. Advanced flywheels         flexible. More often, during the period of high
constructed from carbon fibermaterials and magnetic       electrical energy demand, the compressed air is
bearings can spin in vacuum at speeds up to 40,000        mixed with natural gas and they are burnt together,
to 60,000 RPM.                                            in the same fashion as in a conventional turbine
                                                          plant. This method is actually more efficient as the
C. FUEL CELLS                                             compressed air will lose less energy. CAES
          Fuel cells, electrochemical devices that        consumes two third less fuels than other
directly convert hydrogen, or hydrogen-rich fuels         conventional sources [4]. The basic components
into electricity without combustion,are another           required in a CAES plant are as shown in fig: 3[7]
alternative to reciprocating engines. Although their      • During off-peak periods a motor is operated to
structure is somewhat like thatof a battery, the charge   drive the compressor train using electricpower from
duration is extended by the ability to use an external    the grid, which is usually supplied by coal or nuclear
fuel source, mainly hydrogen, stored directly             base load plants.


                                                                                               2187 | P a g e
Siddharth Wadhawan, Harshal Arekar / International Journal of Engineering Research and
                 Applications (IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 www.ijera.com
                  Vol. 2, Issue 5, September- October 2012, pp.2185-2190
• The air compressor which may require two or more         capacitor, basically consists of two electrodes, a
stages, intercoolers and after coolers to achieve          separator and an electrolyte. The electrode made up
economy ofcompression, and reduce the moisture             of a metallic collector, which is the high conducting
content.                                                   part, and an active material, which is the high surface
• The recuperator, turbine train, high and low             area part. The two electrodes are separated by a
pressure turbines.                                         membrane, the separator, which allows a mobility of
• Equipment control centre for operating the               the charged ions but forbids an electronic
combustion turbine, compressor.                            conductance. The most interesting electrodes
• Auxiliaries to regulate and control changeover from      materials are: metal oxides, carbons and conducting
generation mode to storage mode.                           polymers. The electrolyte may be of the solid state,
                                                           organic or aqueous type depending on the
                                                           applicationCapacitors store electric energy by
                                                           accumulating positive and negative charges separated
                                                           by an insulating dielectric. The capacitance
                                                           represents the relationship between the stored charge,
                                                           and the voltage between the plates. The energy stored
                                                           on the capacitor depends on the capacitance and on
                                                           the square of the voltage. It is given as follows

                                                                                      1
                                                                                 𝐸=     𝐶. 𝑣 2
                                                                                      2
                                                                     The amount of energy a capacitor is capable
                                                           of storing can be increased by either increasing the
                                                           capacitance or the voltage stored on the capacitor.
                                                           Capacitors are used in many ac and dc applications in
                                                           power systems. DC storage capacitors can be used
                                                           for energystorage for power applications. At present,
                                                           ultra capacitors are most applicable for high peak-
                                                           power, low-energy situations. Capable of floating at
Figure 3. Compressed air energy storage system             full charge for ten years, an ultra-capacitor can
          A CAES operates by means of large electric       provide extended power availability during voltage
motor driven compressor that store energy in the           sags and momentary interruptions [2]. Ultra
form of compressed air in cavern. The compression is       capacitors can be completely discharged, installed
done outside periods of peak demand. The air is then       easily, are compact in size, and can operate
pressurized to about 75 bars. To supply electricity to     effectively in diverse (hot, cold, and moist)
the customers, air is extracted from the cavern. It is     environments, no cooling required
first preheated in the recuperator. The recuperator                  Ultra-capacitors    are   now     available
reuses the energy extracted by the compressor              commercially at lower power levels. A disadvantage
coolers. The heated air is then mixed with small           is that a SC does not approach the energy density of
quantities of oil or gas, which is burnt in the            batteries. Considering the technical maturity, the
combustor. The hot gas from the combustor is               chemical inertness ,the environmental impact ,the
expanded in the turbine to generate electricity. The       manufacturing process, the expected performances
key requirement to a CAES system is that the               and costs, carbon based supercapacitors are the most
reservoir has to be air tight and very large.              interesting and promising devices for industrial
          The advantages of CAES plants are as it has      applications[3].
high storage capacity is take less starting time which
makes it efficient from other conventional storage         C. SUPER             MAGNETIC               ENERGY
systems. It does not involve huge and costly                   STORAGE(SMES)
installation. Also the emission of greenhouse gases is               Instead of storing kinetic or chemical
substantially lower than in normal gas plants.             energy, SMES devices store electrical energy in
          The only drawback this system has is that        magnetic field. An SMES unit is a device that stores
there is actually not a lot of underground cavern          energy in the magnetic field generated by the dc
around, which substantially limits the usability of this   current flowing through a superconducting coil. Once
storage method. However, for locations where it is         the superconducting coil is charged, the current will
suitable, it can provide a viable option for storing       not decay and the magnetic energy can be stored
energy in large quantities and for long times              indefinitely. The stored energy can be released back
                                                           to the network by discharging the coil. It consists of a
B. ULTRA CAPACITORS                                        large superconducting coil at the cryogenic
        An ultra-capacitor, also known as                  temperature. This cryogenic temperature is
supercapacitors or electrochemical double layer



                                                                                                 2188 | P a g e
Siddharth Wadhawan, Harshal Arekar / International Journal of Engineering Research and
                 Applications (IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 www.ijera.com
                  Vol. 2, Issue 5, September- October 2012, pp.2185-2190
maintained by a cryostat that contains helium or            system. The use of high temperature superconductors
nitrogen liquid vessels.                                    should also makeSMES cost effective due to
          A power conversion/conditioning system            reductions in refrigeration needs. There are a number
(PCS) connects the SMES unit to an AC power                 of ongoing SMES projects currently throughout the
system, and it is used to charge/discharge the coil.        world.
Two types of power conversion systems are
commonly used. Current source converter (CSC) to            IV. ECONOMICS OF ENERGY STORAGE
both interface to the ac system and charge/discharge            ELEMENTS
the coil and Voltage source converter (VSC) to                        Energy storage system costs for a
interface to the ac system and a dc–dc chopper to           transmission application are driven by the operational
charge/discharge the coil. The modes of                     requirements. The costs of the system can be broken
charge/discharge/standby are obtained by controlling        down into three main components: the energy storage
the voltage across the SMES coil. The SMES coil is          system, the supporting systems (refrigeration for
charged or discharged by applying a positive or             SMES is a big item), and the power conversion
negative voltage across the superconducting coil. The       system. The cost of the energy storage system is
SMES system enters a standby mode operation when            primarily determined by the amount of energy to be
the average VCOIL is zero, resulting in a constant          stored. The configuration and the size of the power
average coil Current ICOIL shown in figure                  conversion system may become a dominant
         The inductively stored energy (E in joules)        component for the high-power low energy storage
and the rated power ( P in watts) are commonly given        applications. Energy storage is economical when the
specifications for SMES devices, and they can be            marginal cost of electricity varies more than the costs
expressed as follows:                                       of storing and retrieving the energy plus the price of
                                                            energy lost in the process. However, the marginal
            1           𝑑𝐸
     𝐸 = 2 𝐿. 𝐼2 ,𝑃 =   𝑑𝑡
                             =V.I                           cost of electricity varies because of the varying
                                                            operational and fuel costs of different classes of
          where L is the inductance of the coil, I is the   generators. At one hand, base load power plants such
dc current flowing through the coil, and V is the           as coal-fired power plants and nuclear power plants
voltage across the coil. Since energy is stored as          are low marginal cost generators, as they have high
circulating current, energy can be drawn from an            capital and maintenance costs but low fuel costs. At
SMES unit with almost instantaneous response with           the other hand, peak power plants such as gas turbine
energy stored or delivered over periods ranging from        natural gas plants burn expensive fuel but are cheaper
a fraction of a second to several hours.                    to build, operate and maintain. To minimize the total
                                                            operational cost of generating power, base load
                                                            generators are dispatched most of the time, while
                                                            peak power generators are dispatched only when
                                                            necessary, generally when energy demand peaks.
                                                            However, operators are storing lower-cost energy
                                                            produced at night, then releasing it to the grid during
                                                            the peak periods of the day when it is more valuable.
                                                            This is called economic dispatch.In order to establish
                                                            a realistic cost estimate, thfollowingsteps are
                                                            suggested:
                                                            • Identify the system issue(s) to be addressed;
                                                            • Select preliminary system characteristics;
                                                            • Define basic energy storage, power, voltage and
                                                               current requirements
Figure 4.   Components of typical SMES system               • Optimize system specification and determine
                                                               system cost;
          The dynamic performance of a SMES                 • Determine utility financial benefits from operation;
system is far superior to other storage technologies.       • compare system’s cost and utility financial benefits
Faster and more efficient access to the stored energy          to Determine adequacy of utility’s return on
and a shorter response time are the leading                    investment;
advantages [1]. But there are a few concerns in it          • compare different energy storage systems
application at large scale. One of the major problems          performance and costs.
is its cost. When compared with other energy storage
technologies, today’s SMES systems are still costly.        V. ANALYSIS        OF ENERGY STORAGE
The integration of an SMES coil into existing flexible        DEVICES
ac transmission systems (FACTS) devices eliminates                   On the basis of different parameters
the cost for the inverter unit, which is typically the      different energy storage devices have been analyzed
largest portion of the cost for the entire SMES             as shown in the Table 1.


                                                                                                  2189 | P a g e
Siddharth Wadhawan, Harshal Arekar / International Journal of Engineering Research and
                  Applications (IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 www.ijera.com
                   Vol. 2, Issue 5, September- October 2012, pp.2185-2190
                                                       reduced generation availabilityfor frequency
 PARAM       SMES       CA-   FES     SCES      BES    stabilization.
 ETERS                  ES    S                 S          As deregulation takes place, generation and
                                                       transmissionresources will be utilized at higher
 TYPICA      1-100      25    Rang    1-250     100-   efficiency rates leadingto tighter and moment-by-
 L           MW         to    ing     KW        20     moment control of the spare capacities.Energy
 RANGE                  350   in                MW     storage devices can facilitate this process,allowing
                        MW    KW                       the utility maximum utilization of utility
                                                       resources.The new power electronics controller
                                                       devices will enableincreased utilization of
                                                       transmission and distribution systems
 POWER       >530             >700    >17500    >(10   with increased reliability. This increased reliance will
 DENSIT                       -                 0-     resultin increased investment in devices that make
 Y                            1800              7000   this asset moreproductive. Energy storage technology
 (kW/m3)                                        )      fits very well withinthe new environment by
                                                       enhancing the potential application of custom power,
                                                       and power quality devices.
 EMISSI      No         No    No      No        Very       This paper shows that energy storage devices can
 ONS                                            few    be integratedto power electronics and other
                                                       mechanical devices to provide powersystem stability,
                                                       enhanced        transmission        capability,     and
                                                       improvedpower quality. Adding energy storage to
 ELECTR      ~95%       ~70   90-     <95%      88-    power electronicscompensators not only enhances the
 ICAL                   %     95%               92%    performance ofthe device, but can also provide the
 EFFICIE                                               possibility of reducingthe MVA ratings requirements
 NCY                                                   of the front-end power electronics conversion system.
                                                       This is an important cost/benefitconsideration when
 LIFE        ~30        <50   10-     10-20     3-6    considering adding energy storage systems. Also the
 TIME        Years      Yea   20 yr   Years     yrs    method is useful in storing energy from non-
                        rs    (HS)                     renewable energy sources. Thus these techniques
                              20 yr                    help us to increase the overall efficiency and increase
                              (LS)                     the net plant output.

 RESPO       Millisec   ~1-   ~1-2    Millise   Few    REFERENCES
 NSE         onds       2     Mins    conds     seco     [1]    Buckles W., Hassenzahl W. V. May 2000.
 TIME                   Min                     nds             Super conducting magnetic energy storage,
                        s                                       IEEE Power Engineering Review.
                                                         [2]    Bullard G. L., Sierra-Alcazar H. B., Lee H.
 BACKU       Seconds    Hou   Minu    Second    Hour            L., Moms J. L., January 1989. Operating
 P TIME                 rs    tes     s         s               principles     of    the     Ultracapacitor,
                                                                IEEETransactions in Magnetics, Vol.25.
 TABLE I. ANALYSIS   OF                DIFFERENT         [3]    Hassenzahl W. V., 1997. Capacitors for
 ENERGY STORAGE ELEMNTS                                         electric utility energy storage: Electric
                                                                Power Res. Inst.
VI. CONCLUSION                                           [4]    Smith S.C., Sen P.K., Benjamin K. 2008.
         Among the potential performance benefits               Advancement of energy storage devices and
 produced byadvanced energy storage applications are            applications      in   electrical    power
 improved systemreliability, dynamic stability,                 systems,IEEE PES General
 enhanced power quality, transmissioncapacity            [5]    ELNA America Inc.,1988. Comparison of
 enhancement, and area protection. An energystorage             double layer capacitor, batteries and super
 device can also have a positive cost and                       magnetic storage device, Technical Paper
 environmentalimpact by reducing fuel consumption        [6]    http://www.wikipedia.org.
 and emissionsthrough reduced line losses and            [7]    http://phys.org/news188048601.html
                                                         [8]    http://www.powermin.nic.in




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Ms2521852190

  • 1. Siddharth Wadhawan, Harshal Arekar / International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 www.ijera.com Vol. 2, Issue 5, September- October 2012, pp.2185-2190 Captive Energy Methods For Electrical Power System Siddharth Wadhawan, Harshal Arekar *Fr.Conceicao Rodrigues Institute of Technology Navi Mumbai **Fr.Conceicao Rodrigues Institute of Technology Navi Mumbai Abstract In Electric Power systems, power quality been proportional. The power sector has not seen and reliability has become one of the issues of tremendous increase as it should have seen in terms prime importance. Some of the major of its capacity. Also for the past many years there has disadvantages in electric power supply system are been a shortfall in the peak load demand and the the deviations in power supply which make some demand that is met by the power sector utilities. This of the electronic equipment’s and domestic is shown by the figure below. All these have devices highly sensitive to it. To avoid such eventually lead to voltage fluctuations and deviations problems we need to find out devices that can and other issues related to power quality. provide a backup during the time of voltage sags and such deviations. Energy storage technologies help to avert such conditions.The energy storage devices does not represent energy sources, they provide valuable added benefits to improve stability, power quality, and reliability of supply. Over the past few decades many new and innovative ideas have been explored in the broad area of energy storage.Battery technologies have improved significantly in order to meet the challenges of practical electric utilities. Flywheel technologies are being used as an advanced nonpolluting uninterruptible power supply technique. Superconducting energy storage systems are still in their prototype stages but receiving attention for utility applications. Compressed Air Energy Storage and Thermal heat storage are a few recent methods developed for providing peak load supplies. Also there are hydrogen fuel and pump storage hydroelectricity technologies for storing energy. These technologies can also be incorporated into Figure 1. India’s peak demand gap traditional power generating stations to increase the overall efficiency. These energy storage Talking in terms of the future, according to devices and technologies help to store and the Five-year plans established by the government’s harness the renewable source of energy which is Planning Commission has laid out specific targets for very essential. This paper focuses on these new generation capacity. For the 12th five-year plan advancements made and provides a composite (2012–2017), 83,000 MW of new capacity has been picture of costs and trends in storage targeted [ 8]. In order to achieve this target we technologies. require better captive energy storage systems to increase the overall generation capacity and the I. INTRODUCTION power quality. The generation of electric power is the basic These storage elements will also help to pillar for normal functioning of every modern meet the consumer’s demand for electric power society. India has experienced impressive gross which varies cyclically during day and night, as well domestic product (GDP) growth rates exceeding 7% as within the week and the seasons. Moreover the over the past few years. Although recent trends quality of an electric power supply is determined by appear to indicate an economic slowdown, long-term the available reserve capacity at the energy utility. In 7%+ GDP growth is expected to continue through at general an electrical power generating system should least 2020. To support India’s expanding economy, have 15-20% of reserve power available to meet any large-scale power capacity additions in the range of consumer demand. In case the demand is not met or 150 GW to 175 GW are projected over the next 10 there is insufficient reserve capacity to meet that years. However the rate of growth of the economy demand, a decline in voltage at the consumer side and the powetgeneration capacity of India has not will appear which would upset the normal operation 2185 | P a g e
  • 2. Siddharth Wadhawan, Harshal Arekar / International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 www.ijera.com Vol. 2, Issue 5, September- October 2012, pp.2185-2190 at the user’s end and would eventually lead to a high energy capability, roundtrip efficiency, cycling failure. For this reason it is essential for the normal capability, life span, and initial cost.There are a functioning and development of each nation to have number of battery technologies under reliable national and local electric power systems considerationfor large-scale energy storage. Lead- with capacities exceeding the actual energy demand acid batteriesrepresent an established, mature by at least 15%. However, in most of the developing technology. Lead-acidbatteries can be designed for nations like India have capacities that can only just bulk energy storage or for rapid charge or meet their energy demands, and in some cases are discharge.Lead-acid batteries still represent a low- simply inadequate as shown in fig1. This shortfall of cost option for most applications requiring large electrical energy often hinders the social and storage capabilities, with the low energy density and economic progress of a nation. limited cycle life as the chief disadvantages. Mobile Now with this growth of different industries applications are favoring sealed lead-acid battery the mechanical and electronic loads have increased technologies for safety and ease of maintenance. tremendously. Thus the issue of quality of power Valve regulated lead-acid (VRLA) batteries have supply has become a critical issue and has gained better cost and performance characteristics for importance. Power system engineers facing these stationary applications. Several other battery challenges seek solutions to allow them to operate the technologies also show promise for stationary energy system in a more flexible, controllable manner. storage applications. All have higher energy density Generally when power system disturbances occur, capabilities than lead-acid batteries, but at present, synchronous capacitors which are mostly used are they are not yet cost effective for higher power not always able to respond rapidly enough to keep applications. Leading technologies include nickel– the system stable. This is where energy storage metal hydride batteries, nickel–cadmium batteries, technology can play a very important role in and lithium-ion batteries. The last two technologies maintaining system reliability and power quality. The are both being pushed for electric vehicle ideal solution is to have means to rapidly damp applications where high energy density can offset oscillations, respond to sudden changes in load, higher cost to some degree. supply load during transmission or distribution Due to the chemical kinetics involved, interruptions, correct load voltage profiles with rapid batteries cannot operateat high power levels for long reactive power control, and still allow the generators time periods. In addition,rapid, deep discharges may to balance with the system load at their normal speed. lead to early replacementof the battery, since heating Thus with this paper we provide an insight into the resulting in this kind of operationreduces battery new methods of captive energy storing. lifetime. There are also environmentalconcerns related to battery storage due to toxic gas II. EXSISTING METHODS OF ENERGY generationduring battery charge/discharge. The STORAGE disposal of hazardousmaterials presents some battery Electrical energy in a system cannot be disposal problems. The disposal problem varies with stored electrically. However, energy can be stored battery technology. by converting the ac electricityand storing it electromagnetically, electrochemically, kinetically, B. FLYWHEEL ENERGY STORAGE or as potential energy. Each energy storage SYSTEM(FESS) technology usuallyincludes a power conversion unit A flywheel stores energy in a rotating mass. to convert the energy from one form to another. Depending on the inertia and speed of the rotating The existing methods for energy storage include mass, a given amount of kinetic energy is stored as batteries and flywheel while, the latest technology in rotational energy. The flywheel is placed inside a includes compressed air energy storage, super vacuum containment to eliminate friction-loss from capacitor energy storage and superconducting the air and suspended by bearings for a stabile magnetic energy storage. operation. Kinetic energy is transferred in and out of the flywheel with an electrical machine that can A. BATTERY STORAGE SYSTEMS. function either as a motor or generator depending on Batteries are one of the most cost-effective the load angle (phase angle). When acting as motor, energy storagetechnologies available, with energy electric energy supplied to the stator winding is stored electrochemically.A battery system is made up converted to torque and applied to the rotor, causing of a set of low-voltage/powerbattery modules it to spin faster and gain kinetic energy. In generator connected in parallel and series to achievea desired mode kinetic energy stored in the rotor applies a electrical characteristic. Batteries are “charged”when torque, which is converted to electric energy. Thus they undergo an internal chemical reaction under flywheel is basically an electromechanical device that apotential applied to the terminals. They deliver the couples a motor generator with a rotating mass to absorbedenergy, or “discharge,” when they reverse store energy for shortdurations.The kinetic energy the chemicalreaction. Key factors of batteries for stored. The kinetic energy stored in a flywheel is storage applicationsinclude: high energy density, 2186 | P a g e
  • 3. Siddharth Wadhawan, Harshal Arekar / International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 www.ijera.com Vol. 2, Issue 5, September- October 2012, pp.2185-2190 proportional to the mass and to the square of its orreformed from other fossil fuels. The technology is rotational speed. developing with a few commercial uses today, but with a promise toemerge as a significant source of 1 2 electricity in the near future. This process is much 𝑇= 𝐽𝜔 more efficient than traditional thermal power plants, 2 theoretically converting up to 80% of the chemical Where J is polar moment of inertia about energy in the fuel into electricity (compared to the axis of rotation and ω is the angular velocity. The 60% efficiency of combined cycle power plants).The energy storage capability of flywheels can be overall efficiency of hydrogen storage depends improved either by increasing the moment of inertia greatly on the technique used and the scale of the of flywheel or by turning it at higher rotational operation, but is typically 50 to 60% which is lower velocities, or both. than for compressed air systems or batteries. Hence Apart from the flywheel additional power this process is generally avoided for providing the electronics is required to control the power in- and excess energy demand. output, speed, frequency etc. This forms the flywheel electrical interface and generally includes the motor III. EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES FOR drive inverter and bus voltage regulator. The figure ENERGY STORAGE below shows the flywheel energy storage system The above methods are not very efficient and also prove costly in terms of both feasibility and maintainability. Hence, there have been quite a few emerging techniques which have been developed over a period of years. These techniques help us to provide efficient solutions to all storage related problems. These methods also act as an storage element for renewable sources of energy like solar, wind and geothermal. The major upcoming techniques include compressed air energy storage, super magnetic energy storage. A. COMPRESSED AIR ENERGY Figure 2. Basic layout of flywheel energy storage STORAGE(CAES)  The largest share of the energy generated  Flywheels can respond to many power by a gas turbine is consumed by itscompressor. This quality issues such as frequency deviation, fact combined with the fluctuations in the demand temporaryinterruptions, voltage sags, and voltage for power and itsconsequent time of use pricing swells. The amount of energy stored in an FES formed the motivation for the development of device mainly depends on the angularvelocity of the theCompressed Air Energy Storage (CAES) rotor. Flywheel energy storage system constitutes technology. short term storage systems, which are generally As the name implies, the compressed sufficient to improve the power qualitycompared to air energy storage (CAES) plant uses electricity to other ways of storing electricity, Flywheel energy compress air which is stored in underground storage systems have long lifetimes. Rapid charging reservoirs.The CAES technology consists of of a system occurs in less than 15 minutes. FESS has converting excess base load energy into an overall round trip efficiency includingthe storedpneumatic energy by means of a compressor electronics, bearings, and flywheel drag of 80-85% . for a later release through a gas turbineas premium With the life expectancy of about 20 years, the peaking powerDue to the storage option, a partial- currentflywheel designs are modular and can range in load operation of the CAES plant is also very size up to 10 plus MW systems. Advanced flywheels flexible. More often, during the period of high constructed from carbon fibermaterials and magnetic electrical energy demand, the compressed air is bearings can spin in vacuum at speeds up to 40,000 mixed with natural gas and they are burnt together, to 60,000 RPM. in the same fashion as in a conventional turbine plant. This method is actually more efficient as the C. FUEL CELLS compressed air will lose less energy. CAES Fuel cells, electrochemical devices that consumes two third less fuels than other directly convert hydrogen, or hydrogen-rich fuels conventional sources [4]. The basic components into electricity without combustion,are another required in a CAES plant are as shown in fig: 3[7] alternative to reciprocating engines. Although their • During off-peak periods a motor is operated to structure is somewhat like thatof a battery, the charge drive the compressor train using electricpower from duration is extended by the ability to use an external the grid, which is usually supplied by coal or nuclear fuel source, mainly hydrogen, stored directly base load plants. 2187 | P a g e
  • 4. Siddharth Wadhawan, Harshal Arekar / International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 www.ijera.com Vol. 2, Issue 5, September- October 2012, pp.2185-2190 • The air compressor which may require two or more capacitor, basically consists of two electrodes, a stages, intercoolers and after coolers to achieve separator and an electrolyte. The electrode made up economy ofcompression, and reduce the moisture of a metallic collector, which is the high conducting content. part, and an active material, which is the high surface • The recuperator, turbine train, high and low area part. The two electrodes are separated by a pressure turbines. membrane, the separator, which allows a mobility of • Equipment control centre for operating the the charged ions but forbids an electronic combustion turbine, compressor. conductance. The most interesting electrodes • Auxiliaries to regulate and control changeover from materials are: metal oxides, carbons and conducting generation mode to storage mode. polymers. The electrolyte may be of the solid state, organic or aqueous type depending on the applicationCapacitors store electric energy by accumulating positive and negative charges separated by an insulating dielectric. The capacitance represents the relationship between the stored charge, and the voltage between the plates. The energy stored on the capacitor depends on the capacitance and on the square of the voltage. It is given as follows 1 𝐸= 𝐶. 𝑣 2 2 The amount of energy a capacitor is capable of storing can be increased by either increasing the capacitance or the voltage stored on the capacitor. Capacitors are used in many ac and dc applications in power systems. DC storage capacitors can be used for energystorage for power applications. At present, ultra capacitors are most applicable for high peak- power, low-energy situations. Capable of floating at Figure 3. Compressed air energy storage system full charge for ten years, an ultra-capacitor can A CAES operates by means of large electric provide extended power availability during voltage motor driven compressor that store energy in the sags and momentary interruptions [2]. Ultra form of compressed air in cavern. The compression is capacitors can be completely discharged, installed done outside periods of peak demand. The air is then easily, are compact in size, and can operate pressurized to about 75 bars. To supply electricity to effectively in diverse (hot, cold, and moist) the customers, air is extracted from the cavern. It is environments, no cooling required first preheated in the recuperator. The recuperator Ultra-capacitors are now available reuses the energy extracted by the compressor commercially at lower power levels. A disadvantage coolers. The heated air is then mixed with small is that a SC does not approach the energy density of quantities of oil or gas, which is burnt in the batteries. Considering the technical maturity, the combustor. The hot gas from the combustor is chemical inertness ,the environmental impact ,the expanded in the turbine to generate electricity. The manufacturing process, the expected performances key requirement to a CAES system is that the and costs, carbon based supercapacitors are the most reservoir has to be air tight and very large. interesting and promising devices for industrial The advantages of CAES plants are as it has applications[3]. high storage capacity is take less starting time which makes it efficient from other conventional storage C. SUPER MAGNETIC ENERGY systems. It does not involve huge and costly STORAGE(SMES) installation. Also the emission of greenhouse gases is Instead of storing kinetic or chemical substantially lower than in normal gas plants. energy, SMES devices store electrical energy in The only drawback this system has is that magnetic field. An SMES unit is a device that stores there is actually not a lot of underground cavern energy in the magnetic field generated by the dc around, which substantially limits the usability of this current flowing through a superconducting coil. Once storage method. However, for locations where it is the superconducting coil is charged, the current will suitable, it can provide a viable option for storing not decay and the magnetic energy can be stored energy in large quantities and for long times indefinitely. The stored energy can be released back to the network by discharging the coil. It consists of a B. ULTRA CAPACITORS large superconducting coil at the cryogenic An ultra-capacitor, also known as temperature. This cryogenic temperature is supercapacitors or electrochemical double layer 2188 | P a g e
  • 5. Siddharth Wadhawan, Harshal Arekar / International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 www.ijera.com Vol. 2, Issue 5, September- October 2012, pp.2185-2190 maintained by a cryostat that contains helium or system. The use of high temperature superconductors nitrogen liquid vessels. should also makeSMES cost effective due to A power conversion/conditioning system reductions in refrigeration needs. There are a number (PCS) connects the SMES unit to an AC power of ongoing SMES projects currently throughout the system, and it is used to charge/discharge the coil. world. Two types of power conversion systems are commonly used. Current source converter (CSC) to IV. ECONOMICS OF ENERGY STORAGE both interface to the ac system and charge/discharge ELEMENTS the coil and Voltage source converter (VSC) to Energy storage system costs for a interface to the ac system and a dc–dc chopper to transmission application are driven by the operational charge/discharge the coil. The modes of requirements. The costs of the system can be broken charge/discharge/standby are obtained by controlling down into three main components: the energy storage the voltage across the SMES coil. The SMES coil is system, the supporting systems (refrigeration for charged or discharged by applying a positive or SMES is a big item), and the power conversion negative voltage across the superconducting coil. The system. The cost of the energy storage system is SMES system enters a standby mode operation when primarily determined by the amount of energy to be the average VCOIL is zero, resulting in a constant stored. The configuration and the size of the power average coil Current ICOIL shown in figure conversion system may become a dominant The inductively stored energy (E in joules) component for the high-power low energy storage and the rated power ( P in watts) are commonly given applications. Energy storage is economical when the specifications for SMES devices, and they can be marginal cost of electricity varies more than the costs expressed as follows: of storing and retrieving the energy plus the price of energy lost in the process. However, the marginal 1 𝑑𝐸 𝐸 = 2 𝐿. 𝐼2 ,𝑃 = 𝑑𝑡 =V.I cost of electricity varies because of the varying operational and fuel costs of different classes of where L is the inductance of the coil, I is the generators. At one hand, base load power plants such dc current flowing through the coil, and V is the as coal-fired power plants and nuclear power plants voltage across the coil. Since energy is stored as are low marginal cost generators, as they have high circulating current, energy can be drawn from an capital and maintenance costs but low fuel costs. At SMES unit with almost instantaneous response with the other hand, peak power plants such as gas turbine energy stored or delivered over periods ranging from natural gas plants burn expensive fuel but are cheaper a fraction of a second to several hours. to build, operate and maintain. To minimize the total operational cost of generating power, base load generators are dispatched most of the time, while peak power generators are dispatched only when necessary, generally when energy demand peaks. However, operators are storing lower-cost energy produced at night, then releasing it to the grid during the peak periods of the day when it is more valuable. This is called economic dispatch.In order to establish a realistic cost estimate, thfollowingsteps are suggested: • Identify the system issue(s) to be addressed; • Select preliminary system characteristics; • Define basic energy storage, power, voltage and current requirements Figure 4. Components of typical SMES system • Optimize system specification and determine system cost; The dynamic performance of a SMES • Determine utility financial benefits from operation; system is far superior to other storage technologies. • compare system’s cost and utility financial benefits Faster and more efficient access to the stored energy to Determine adequacy of utility’s return on and a shorter response time are the leading investment; advantages [1]. But there are a few concerns in it • compare different energy storage systems application at large scale. One of the major problems performance and costs. is its cost. When compared with other energy storage technologies, today’s SMES systems are still costly. V. ANALYSIS OF ENERGY STORAGE The integration of an SMES coil into existing flexible DEVICES ac transmission systems (FACTS) devices eliminates On the basis of different parameters the cost for the inverter unit, which is typically the different energy storage devices have been analyzed largest portion of the cost for the entire SMES as shown in the Table 1. 2189 | P a g e
  • 6. Siddharth Wadhawan, Harshal Arekar / International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 www.ijera.com Vol. 2, Issue 5, September- October 2012, pp.2185-2190 reduced generation availabilityfor frequency PARAM SMES CA- FES SCES BES stabilization. ETERS ES S S As deregulation takes place, generation and transmissionresources will be utilized at higher TYPICA 1-100 25 Rang 1-250 100- efficiency rates leadingto tighter and moment-by- L MW to ing KW 20 moment control of the spare capacities.Energy RANGE 350 in MW storage devices can facilitate this process,allowing MW KW the utility maximum utilization of utility resources.The new power electronics controller devices will enableincreased utilization of transmission and distribution systems POWER >530 >700 >17500 >(10 with increased reliability. This increased reliance will DENSIT - 0- resultin increased investment in devices that make Y 1800 7000 this asset moreproductive. Energy storage technology (kW/m3) ) fits very well withinthe new environment by enhancing the potential application of custom power, and power quality devices. EMISSI No No No No Very This paper shows that energy storage devices can ONS few be integratedto power electronics and other mechanical devices to provide powersystem stability, enhanced transmission capability, and improvedpower quality. Adding energy storage to ELECTR ~95% ~70 90- <95% 88- power electronicscompensators not only enhances the ICAL % 95% 92% performance ofthe device, but can also provide the EFFICIE possibility of reducingthe MVA ratings requirements NCY of the front-end power electronics conversion system. This is an important cost/benefitconsideration when LIFE ~30 <50 10- 10-20 3-6 considering adding energy storage systems. Also the TIME Years Yea 20 yr Years yrs method is useful in storing energy from non- rs (HS) renewable energy sources. Thus these techniques 20 yr help us to increase the overall efficiency and increase (LS) the net plant output. RESPO Millisec ~1- ~1-2 Millise Few REFERENCES NSE onds 2 Mins conds seco [1] Buckles W., Hassenzahl W. V. May 2000. TIME Min nds Super conducting magnetic energy storage, s IEEE Power Engineering Review. [2] Bullard G. L., Sierra-Alcazar H. B., Lee H. BACKU Seconds Hou Minu Second Hour L., Moms J. L., January 1989. Operating P TIME rs tes s s principles of the Ultracapacitor, IEEETransactions in Magnetics, Vol.25. TABLE I. ANALYSIS OF DIFFERENT [3] Hassenzahl W. V., 1997. Capacitors for ENERGY STORAGE ELEMNTS electric utility energy storage: Electric Power Res. Inst. VI. CONCLUSION [4] Smith S.C., Sen P.K., Benjamin K. 2008. Among the potential performance benefits Advancement of energy storage devices and produced byadvanced energy storage applications are applications in electrical power improved systemreliability, dynamic stability, systems,IEEE PES General enhanced power quality, transmissioncapacity [5] ELNA America Inc.,1988. Comparison of enhancement, and area protection. An energystorage double layer capacitor, batteries and super device can also have a positive cost and magnetic storage device, Technical Paper environmentalimpact by reducing fuel consumption [6] http://www.wikipedia.org. and emissionsthrough reduced line losses and [7] http://phys.org/news188048601.html [8] http://www.powermin.nic.in 2190 | P a g e