MOOCs and personal learning: reality or myth?
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The document discusses the realities of personalized learning in MOOCs compared to initial promises and myths. It summarizes research on informal learning in MOOCs through student learning logs and interviews. Key findings include that intrinsic motivation and personal learning goals allowed some personalization, but MOOC content and format limited this. While MOOCs increased access to knowledge, certification did not necessarily lead to economic gains. Standardized pedagogy contrasted promises of flexibility. Overall, MOOCs prioritized certain languages, cultures, and STEM topics over diversity and local needs. The narrative of MOOC success promoted standardized conformity over personalized learning.
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MOOCs and personal learning: reality or myth?
- 1. MOOCs: between realities of informal learning and myths of personalization Inge (Ignatia) de Waard
- 3. UDHR standing on shoulders of giants: Juan Luis Vives • Schools should not be for profit • Organic pedagogy (Juan Luis Vives, 1492, Valencia, Spain – 1540, Brugge, Belgium)
- 4. Bozkurt, A., Keskin, N. O., & de Waard, I. (2016). Research Trends in Massive Open Online Course (MOOC) Theses and Dissertations: Surfing the Tsunami Wave. Open Praxis, 8(3), 203-221. link here CCK - 2008 AI-MOOC – 2011 MOOC galore - 2018 MobiMOOC (mobile learning)
- 5. MOOC = promise of education for all • Daphne Koller (a.o.) promising Education for all (North & South). • A source of (quality) curated, topic specific content for passionate people
- 6. Highlighting MOOC success stories • Battushig Myanganbayar, the boy genius of Ulan Bator, Mongolia (engineering) • Jack Andraka 15y boy creating a cheap, paper-based biomarker for pancreatic cancer
- 7. Inevitably questions arose What is the learning impact of MOOCs on young learners? How do adult learners self- direct their learning in MOOCs?
- 8. Part 1: MOOC – CLIL project • Content and Language Integrated Learning (English and French) • Massive Open Online Courses de Waard, I. & Demeulenaere, C. (2017). The MOOC- CLIL project: using MOOCs to increase language, and social and online learning skills for 5th grade K-12 students. In Q. Kan & S. Bax (Eds), Beyond the language classroom: researching MOOCS and other innovations. Research-publishing.net. (link)
- 9. GUSCO school – Kortrijk, Belgium • Academic year 2015 – 2016 • Three classes in ‘vrije ruimte’ (free space): 2 English groups, 1 French group • 2 hours per week
- 10. Participants • 3 Teachers (language teachers) • 42 Flemish – Dutch speaking students (aged 16 – 17 y) • Academic qualifications: human sciences, Latin & sciences/mathematics… • Optional course video impressions
- 11. EdX – France TV – FutureLearn – Coursera - Fun
- 12. Three main project parts • GroupMOOC: introducing MOOC elements, platforms, interactions… • EigenMOOC (OwnMOOC): students choose MOOCs. • Evaluation & production: evaluate the whole process and build an intro for next year’s students Classical progress => personal progress GroupMOOC EigenMOOC (OwnMOOC) Evaluate & Produce
- 13. Evaluation instruments in class • Adapted Scale for Attitudes and skills Measuring (SAM) scale – used by teachers • Weekly logbook – used by students
- 14. Student logging in action: I did the course DemoX, in this course I learned how to use edX. I found it rather easy questions but it was a handy way of learning how to use edX. I now understand how to use the website. The English was sometimes hard to understand but I used an online dictionary to help me understand the words. I think it’s a good idea to use the forum because then you can discuss your problems with the others. They can find ways to help you if you don’t understand things.
- 15. Following student progress outside of class Self-regulated questionnaire view here: monitoring self-esteem, motivation, digital literacy
- 16. Findings: Language learning 100% dramatic increase in language confidence Intrinsic motivation (73%) Extrinsic motivation (27%) “Intrinsic motivation, which refers to doing something because it is inherently interesting or enjoyable, and extrinsic motivation, which refers to doing something because it leads to a separable outcome” (Ryan & Deci, 2000, p. 55).
- 17. Help seeking Survey learning topics Results 1st survey Results 2nd survey Help seeking (any) 71% 60% Help seeking from teacher 75% 59% Help seeking from peers 61% 83%
- 18. Survey learning topics Results 1st survey Results 2nd survey Critical thinking 55% 63% Online empathy 93% 100% Critical thinking and online empathy
- 19. Self-regulated learning Survey learning logs Results 1st survey Results 2nd survey Understanding complex content 35 % 50 % Planning 1 week ahead 10 % 19 %
- 20. They got inspired 72 %
- 21. Suggestions from students • Unclear language complexity: e.g. Gunning fog index or Flesch-Kincaid readability tests to provide insight. • Supporting texts can be too difficult to comprehend. It demotivates (picture nearingzero Nick Kim)
- 22. Informal learning => Living a fearless life ἀταραξία (ataraxia,) is a Greek philosophy term used to describe a lucid state of robust equanimity Ἐπίκουρος (Epicurus; 341–270 BC) believed that what he called "pleasure" (ἡδονή) was the greatest good, but that the way to attain such pleasure was to live modestly, to gain knowledge of the workings of the world, and to limit one's desires wikipedia
- 23. Part 2: Informal learning in MOOCs – learner perspectives de Waard, I. (2017). Self-Directed Learning of Experienced Adult Online Learners Enrolled in FutureLearn MOOCs (Doctoral dissertation, The Open University). Link
- 24. What comprises the informal learning journey of experienced, adult online learners engaging in individual and/or social self-directed learning using any device to follow a FutureLearn MOOC? • Which individual characteristics influence the learning experience? • What are the technical and media elements influencing the learning experience? • How does individual and social learning affect the participants’ learning? • Which actions (if any) did the learners undertake to organise their learning?
- 25. How do learners self-direct their informal learning in MOOCs? Never been an study from the ground up looking at informal learning in MOOCs, FutureLearn courses
- 26. FutureLearn courses - autumn 2014
- 27. Data collection Expectations (pre-course) Experiences (bi-weekly self- reported learning logs) Reflections (1o1 interviews)
- 28. Data analysis (Charmaz, 2014) • Open coding, line-by-line coding (verify categories), focused coding => theoretically saturate core concepts • Memo writing: own assumptions, possible relations
- 29. Target population • Methodologic rigour: Grounded Theory sample +12 participants • Adult learners => experienced adult learners (avoid novelty remarks), balancing life • + 2 years of online learning experience
- 30. Informal learning & logs (link) • Frequency: bi-weekly • Strategy increasing return: communicating on a personal basis, providing non-directive examples (not easy)
- 31. Data corpus, sample, frequency • 56 participants => 147 learning logs • 19 one-on-one interviews Learning logs week 1 and 2 (n=participants having submitted at least one learning log) Learning logs week 3 and 4 Learning logs week 5 and 6 Total learning logs per course (total number of participants) SOM 4 (n=3) 6 (n=3) 5 (n=2) 15 (n=4) BSE 19 (n=13) 22 (n=14) N/A (BSE lasted only 4 weeks) 41 (n=15) DMCW 31 (n=22) 28 (n=22) 32 (n=24) 91 (n=37)
- 33. Conceptual framework Personal learning goals, planning, taking notes
- 34. Conceptual framework Personal learning goals, planning, taking notes Social learning, individual learning actions, social learning actions
- 35. Conceptual framework Motivation, personal traits (perseverance, self-confidence, emotional language) Personal learning goals, planning, taking notes Social learning, individual learning actions, social learning actions
- 36. Conceptual framework Motivation, personal traits (perseverance, self-confidence, emotional language) Devices used, FutureLearn elements, new tools Personal learning goals, planning, taking notes Social learning, individual learning actions, social learning actions
- 37. Conceptual framework Motivation, personal traits (perseverance, self-confidence, emotional language) Contextualizing context, proximity to context, peers in context Personal learning goals, planning, taking notes Social learning, individual learning actions, social learning actions Devices used, FutureLearn elements, new tools
- 38. How much personalization is possible in this framework? Intrinsic motivation & personal learning goals allowed Capacity to validate learning MOOC content mostly formal
- 39. Part 3 - Informal learning vs personalized learning Juxtaposing personal learning conclusions to the reality of MOOCs. Deze foto van Onbekende auteur is gelicentieerd onder CC BY-NC
- 40. Is personal learning high on the agenda of MOOC providers? Let’s take a closer look!
- 41. FutureLearn (UK)
- 42. FUN (France)
- 43. Coursera (USA)
- 44. Udemy (USA)
- 45. Edraak (Jordan)
- 46. XuetangX (China)
- 47. Personal learning utopia, or are we misled? Language diversity But content similarity – collaborations between platforms (MOOC platforms 2018 - 57 platforms, 23 countries) (Pieter Bruegel de Oude (1563) – Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna, Austria)
- 49. 1 - Restricting courses: university courses with low enrollment being questioned (Belgium) Suggested by national organization of entrepreneurs (VOKA). http://www.standaard.be/cnt/dmf201 80516_03515309 Bachelor and master programs should be stopped if they are not profitable…. Unless, it is a high profile corporate course.
- 50. 1 - Restricting courses: university courses with low enrollment being questioned (Belgium) Suggested by national organization of entrepreneurs (VOKA). http://www.standaard.be/cnt/dmf201 80516_03515309 Bachelor and master programs should be stopped if they are not profitable…. Unless, it is a high profile corporate course. A
- 51. Latin courses in secondary school questioned? • Historical references • Cultural relevance (in language, law, biology…) • History repeats itself • Standing on the shoulders of giants. Lucius Annaeus Seneca, 4 BC – AD 65
- 52. 2 - Promoting a singular pedagogy (1 to many) as ‘quality education’ Mentorship? Diversity? X-MOOC standard Un-MOOC Distributed knowledge - connectivism Expert selected one direction
- 53. 3 - Selling personal training as personal learning MOOC SPOCS & Workshops 101 mentorship
- 54. 4 - Personal learning => personal gain? MOOC certification ≠ degree: wages do not increase.
- 55. 5 - Supporting only the ‘best’ No learner care (dyslexia, dyscalculia…) Fragile minority groups (privacy, language…)
- 56. Universal Declaration of Human Rights Article 26. (2) Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups, and shall further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace.
- 57. Highlighting MOOC success stories • Battushig Myanganbayar, the boy genius of Ulan Bator, Mongolia (engineering) • Jack Andraka 15y boy creating a cheap, paper-based biomarker for pancreatic cancer
- 58. MOOC Utopia crushed? The fall of Icarus - Pieter Bruegel de Oude - Royal Museum of Fine Arts, Brussels, Belgium.
- 59. MOOC Utopia crushed? No! TISLID is here! The Fall of Icarus - Pieter Bruegel de Oude - Royal Museum of Fine Arts, Brussels, Belgium.
- 60. Why should we indulge in a lifetime of informal, personal learning?
- 61. Que sçay-je? Quand je me joue à ma chatte, qui sçait si elle passe son temps de moy plus que je ne fay d’elle ? [When I play with my cat who knows if I am not a pastime to her more than she is to me?] – Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592) (Book II, chap. 12, p. 401)
- 62. Education for all How can we ensure MOOCs will increasingly be used to ensure personal learning?
- 63. How can we ensure MOOCs will increasingly be used to ensure personal learning & education for all?
- 64. References • MOOC – CLIL project: https://www.academia.edu/33433115/The_MOOC- CLIL_project_using_MOOCs_to_increase_language_social_and_online_learning_skills_for_5_th_ grade_K-12_students • Full thesis informal SDL in FutureLearn courses: https://www.academia.edu/28760942/Self- Directed_Learning_of_Experienced_Adult_Online_Learners_Enrolled_in_FutureLearn_MOOCs • Research instruments: https://www.academia.edu/9703990/Research_instruments_Learning_logs_questions_for_resea rching_Self- Directed_Learning_in_experienced_online_learners_engaged_in_FutureLearn_courses • SAM scale: https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B2GekloYrdFQU18zbDhubE8tcDg/view • MOOC – CLIL self-regulated learning questionnaire: https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B2GekloYrdFQS0N3TGdtUnJCNmM/view • Gunning fog index: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunning_fog_index • Flesch Kincaid readability test: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flesch%E2%80%93Kincaid_readability_tests
- 65. Connecting is sharing E-mail: ingedewaard (at) gmail.com Blog: https://ignatiawebs.blogspot.com Twitter: http://twitter.com/Ignatia Publications: https://open.academia.edu/IgnatiaIngedeWaard Presentations: http://www.slideshare.net/ignatia linkedIn: http://www.linkedin.com/in/ingedewaard
- 66. The reality of Personalized learning • MOOC content and language options are limited in scope • Learners only pick the cherries they want from the vast content cake. • Education (philosopher add here) seeks to enlighten citizens, but do MOOCs enlighten the group, our society as a whole? (the yes (more of us have an encyclopedia of knowledge at hand) and no’s (only those into knowledge fields benefit)). • Certification and degrees: tendency to formalized training. But with MOOC certificates the learner her/himself does not get higher wages, economic difference from Bachelor’s/Master certification/degree. • MOOC format is now almost standardized, strange enough standardization in formal education is questioned. Standardisation in terms of limited variance in pedagogy. • MOOCs answer call for modularity and quicker content dissemination, but pedagogy is rigid (in current standard).This goes against the idea of personalization, but dwells in the realm of conformity. The narrative of success is that of conformity to as corporate success is the idea that is propagated most in terms of promoting MOOCs. • Power universities, using Power languages. • The outcomes are Northern outcomes, not how to function better in a Southern hemisphere infrastructure.
- 67. Notes to self: • A talk is a narrative, a story. • Make your point early in (think script) and then keep referring to it • Add philosophical angle • Can you use cultural symbolic capital as pictures? • Let the audience build the meaning. No sermon! • Use the notes to write up one of the possible narratives (allows you to check cohesion and continuity.
- 68. General frame – main idea: a lot has changed in education the last 10 years • New Utopia in EdTech: first the promise of MOOCs, the promise of a new, more learned society (citizens), now clearly emerging agenda’s: education is failing corporate needs, STEM is great… STEAM is greater, colonization of higher ed and professional learning by high-finance Universities (English speaking universities) – for the West. An internal colonization of the West. • Utopia: the promise: the Tower of Babel (painting) – understanding each others languages will take us closer to god. In reality: language funnel turned upside down (small languages, even dialects are lost in just 2 generations).
- 69. • Setting and main narrative theme (3 slides / thoughts) • MOOC-CLIL • SDL informal learning MOOCs (validation of the learning by the learner) • Promise and reality of personalized learning • Conclusion
- 70. Further reference • Practical instruments used: https://drive.google.com/folderview?id=0B2GekloYrdFQdWtTQWp0Z GpxSmc&usp=sharing
- 73. Why should all of this matter to me? To us? Personal learning is part of education for all.
Hinweis der Redaktion
- Promoting games as a means of instruction
- On a side note: AI course got more then 100.000 learners interested, and now AI is a fad. In a timeframe of seven years.
- The showcase learners are useful for the overall narrative, even the overall goal = molding citizens to fit corporate needs.
- During the interviews all the students reported a dramatic increase in daring to speak either French or English, referring to language proficiency and motivation: “the best thing about the course is that I dare to express myself, without being scared” (ST2). This was substantiated by feedback from the teachers based on the students’ active language use within the classroom. The students emphasized the importance of speaking another language for 2 hours straight every week, and immersing themselves in topics with a vocabulary related to their own interests. All students felt that they used language more proficiently and authentically. They found the vocabulary they picked up also enriched regular language classes. The English MOOC-CLIL students saw English as a major asset: “it is a global language” (ST13). 83% of students found they were now capable of expressing themselves autonomously in English or French. Participants reported that the MOOC media design allowed them to slow down videos, read transcripts of the content and select those media that they preferred (e.g. video or texts). However, some of the MOOC content was too complex to fully understand which was at times demotivating.
- During the interviews, students indicated they were relying on the teacher’s knowledge to get started: “the teacher gave us links to online language dictionaries which were very useful” (ST9), but that after the first few weeks they only needed the teachers’ help for specific MOOC task descriptions. The interviews revealed enthusiasm for peer learning and connecting with global peers: “someone actually liked a comment I wrote in the discussion threads!” (ST35). This was supported by the results from the questionnaires where 68% gained knowledge by interacting with peers. The participants also indicated that social learning extended to learning to communicate respectfully, plan learning (sharing expertise with classmates), and improve critical thinking through discussions with classmates.
- The survey questions on critical thinking revealed that 63% of the students carefully considered what they were learning: “I now understand that I need to reflect on the content that is provided and whether this seems to be real or fake” (ST26). Students also trusted content coming from those MOOCs coming across as professional (good language use, comprehensible content). Online empathy (i.e. awareness of staying respectful in online discussions) rose from 93% to 100%, as students understood the language factor of potentially misunderstanding others (see Table 3).
- The students became more critically aware of how content was delivered - language and content wise - which made them select more qualitatively strong MOOCs. More students felt the benefit of planning their learning: “MOOCs give an overview of the material in advance… it makes it easier to learn ahead of time as I know what is coming up and when”
- By the end of the EigenMOOC phase, 72% of the students had independently started to follow a MOOC in their spare time. As the students were enthusiastic and showed an increase in their language skills (based on the SAM scale feedback), the school decided to deploy this approach in the years to come, increasing the number of students that could choose this type of class. At the start of the 2016 – 2017 academic year, 82 students enrolled in MOOC-CLIL.
- Epicurus believed that what he called "pleasure" (ἡδονή) was the greatest good, but that the way to attain such pleasure was to live modestly, to gain knowledge of the workings of the world, and to limit one's desires Epicurus (/ˌɛpɪˈkjʊərəs/;[2] Greek: Ἐπίκουρος, Epíkouros, "ally, comrade"; 341–270 BC) was an a
- Looking at the learning from a more formal perspective: assignments, quizzes, going through all the content.
- Willingness of course coordinators Available courses Diversity in courses
- Informal learning is just that… it does not have to happen, and all the participants were free to keep writing up learning logs or simply abandon them.
- In order to investigate this question, I looked for MOOC organisers who were willing to have me investigate the learning as perceived by the MOOC learners subscribing for the MOOCs. To get some diversity, I choose three MOOCs: one more professionally oriented, one more family oriented, and one on economy and complexity.
- Individual characteristics • Motivation: choosing a course, personal and/or professional reasons for completing learning episode (any length), edutainment • Personal traits influencing the learning process: perseverance, self-confidence, emotional language describing learning Technical & media elements affecting learning • Devices used for learning • FutureLearn course & media elements • Learning new tools provided in FL-course Individual and social learning Individual learning actions • Social learning: connecting and sharing: looking for answers (help-seeking) versus experience sharing, differences per course • Different social learning actions per course: choosing who to interact with, reflective actions, cohort learning, language Organising learning • Personal goal setting: range of personal learning goals, selecting content, curated content benefit, building on personal learning actions • Planning: available time, time investment in social learning, keeping notes • Taking notes Context • Contextualizing content • Proximity to context as motivator • Peers and context
- Individual characteristics • Motivation: choosing a course, personal and/or professional reasons for completing learning episode (any length), edutainment • Personal traits influencing the learning process: perseverance, self-confidence, emotional language describing learning Technical & media elements affecting learning • Devices used for learning • FutureLearn course & media elements • Learning new tools provided in FL-course Individual and social learning Individual learning actions • Social learning: connecting and sharing: looking for answers (help-seeking) versus experience sharing, differences per course • Different social learning actions per course: choosing who to interact with, reflective actions, cohort learning, language Organising learning • Personal goal setting: range of personal learning goals, selecting content, curated content benefit, building on personal learning actions • Planning: available time, time investment in social learning, keeping notes • Taking notes Context • Contextualizing content • Proximity to context as motivator • Peers and context
- Individual characteristics • Motivation: choosing a course, personal and/or professional reasons for completing learning episode (any length), edutainment • Personal traits influencing the learning process: perseverance, self-confidence, emotional language describing learning Technical & media elements affecting learning • Devices used for learning • FutureLearn course & media elements • Learning new tools provided in FL-course Individual and social learning Individual learning actions • Social learning: connecting and sharing: looking for answers (help-seeking) versus experience sharing, differences per course • Different social learning actions per course: choosing who to interact with, reflective actions, cohort learning, language Organising learning • Personal goal setting: range of personal learning goals, selecting content, curated content benefit, building on personal learning actions • Planning: available time, time investment in social learning, keeping notes • Taking notes Context • Contextualizing content • Proximity to context as motivator • Peers and context
- Individual characteristics • Motivation: choosing a course, personal and/or professional reasons for completing learning episode (any length), edutainment • Personal traits influencing the learning process: perseverance, self-confidence, emotional language describing learning Technical & media elements affecting learning • Devices used for learning • FutureLearn course & media elements • Learning new tools provided in FL-course Individual and social learning Individual learning actions • Social learning: connecting and sharing: looking for answers (help-seeking) versus experience sharing, differences per course • Different social learning actions per course: choosing who to interact with, reflective actions, cohort learning, language Organising learning • Personal goal setting: range of personal learning goals, selecting content, curated content benefit, building on personal learning actions • Planning: available time, time investment in social learning, keeping notes • Taking notes Context • Contextualizing content • Proximity to context as motivator • Peers and context
- Individual characteristics • Motivation: choosing a course, personal and/or professional reasons for completing learning episode (any length), edutainment • Personal traits influencing the learning process: perseverance, self-confidence, emotional language describing learning Technical & media elements affecting learning • Devices used for learning • FutureLearn course & media elements • Learning new tools provided in FL-course Individual and social learning Individual learning actions • Social learning: connecting and sharing: looking for answers (help-seeking) versus experience sharing, differences per course • Different social learning actions per course: choosing who to interact with, reflective actions, cohort learning, language Organising learning • Personal goal setting: range of personal learning goals, selecting content, curated content benefit, building on personal learning actions • Planning: available time, time investment in social learning, keeping notes • Taking notes Context • Contextualizing content • Proximity to context as motivator • Peers and context
- Individual characteristics • Motivation: choosing a course, personal and/or professional reasons for completing learning episode (any length), edutainment • Personal traits influencing the learning process: perseverance, self-confidence, emotional language describing learning Technical & media elements affecting learning • Devices used for learning • FutureLearn course & media elements • Learning new tools provided in FL-course Individual and social learning Individual learning actions • Social learning: connecting and sharing: looking for answers (help-seeking) versus experience sharing, differences per course • Different social learning actions per course: choosing who to interact with, reflective actions, cohort learning, language Organising learning • Personal goal setting: range of personal learning goals, selecting content, curated content benefit, building on personal learning actions • Planning: available time, time investment in social learning, keeping notes • Taking notes Context • Contextualizing content • Proximity to context as motivator • Peers and context
- Picture http://www.csq.org.au/getattachment/17680702-3184-4571-958a-565f4b29d8e8/Researchers-predict-prefabrication-will-transform We only create a well guarded realm of realities, in which learning can take place. Each citizen uses their personal trades, capacities and preferences… in this corral of content. But if intrinsic motivation is the driving force, and we organize any or every type of learning we do according to our personal learning goals … then what does this mean in terms of the offering we have? MOOCs are a selection of knowledge in particular field. The content is curated, the pedagogy used during the course is depending on the pedagogical insights of the MOOC organizer, and their comfort zone, and level of understanding of online learning. Choosing their own MOOC Choosing what they will learn and when Choosing to engage into conversations with others (social learning) or not Choosing which technology – media to use Following their intrinsic motivation to pursue personal learning goals
- From the MOOC-CLIL project, I could see that informal learning provides a lot of benefits.
- Looking at a variety of MOOC providers, a pattern emerges: they all point to professional advancement and link it to personal learning.
- Jordan
- Restricting courses Promoting a singular pedagogy (1 to many) as ‘quality education’ Selling personal training as personal learning Personal learning, not personal gain Supporting only the best
- It allows modularity, scalability. Modularity is good, but it does not add up to a certified degree, hence no monetary benefit is assured. Scalability threatens teacher presence, of course many leaders say that does not add up, as teachers can then take on ‘the much more important role of mentors’ … but policies are rarely in support of mentorship (not non-STEM).
- Find Icarus … The promise of a new dawn (personalized learning, new instruction) 5 alarming tendencies => brain-drain, learning poverty
- Find Icarus … The promise of a new dawn (personalized learning, new instruction) 5 alarming tendencies => brain-drain, learning poverty
- One famous filosopher turned his back on a successful carreer in order to learn, pleeing to God that he would grant him extra years to learn.
- which he had set on a personal medallion together with the Greek word epokhe [I hold back, or I reserve judgment], and on a pair of scales to remind himself of the potential equality of strength of two opposing arguments. Montaigne held a high office, he was mayor of … and his family owned a big corporation. In a way, he could choose to go on. But when he was 37 ………… years old, he preyed to god that God would permit him to learn. And however prestigious his professional, political work was … he is now known for his philosophical work and Essays. He introduced the essay as a form of critical thinking and to describe personal learning.
- This was an exploratory research, so trying to avoid assumptions.