Australian preschool teachers’ use of Web-searching in their classroom practice was examined (N = 131). Availability of Internet-enabled digital technology and the contribution of teacher demographic characteristics, comfort with digital technologies and beliefs about their use were assessed. Internet-enabled technologies were available in 53% (n = 69) of classrooms. Within these classrooms, teacher age and beliefs predicted Web-searching practice. Although comfortable with digital access of knowledge in their everyday life, teachers reported less comfort with Web-searching in the context of their classroom practice. The findings identify the provision of Internet-enabled technologies and professional development as actions to support effective and confident inclusion of Web-searching in classrooms. Such actions are necessary to align with national policy documents that define acquisition of digital literacies as a goal and assert digital access to knowledge as an issue of equity.

1. Early Childhood Research Quarterly 32 (2015) 174–182
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Early Childhood Research Quarterly
Digital access to knowledge in the preschool classroom: Reports from
Australia
Karen Thorpea,∗
, Julie Hansena
, Susan Danbyb
, Filzah Mohamed Zakib
, Sandra Grantb
,
Sandra Houenb
, Christina Davidsonc
, Lisa M. Givend
a
Queensland University of Technology, School of Psychology and Counselling, Victoria Park Road, Kelvin Grove, QLD 4059, Australia
b
Queensland University of Technology, School of Early Childhood, Victoria Park Road, Kelvin Grove, QLD 4059, Australia
c
Charles Sturt University, School of Education & Research Institute for Professional Practice, Learning and Education, Australia
d
Charles Sturt University, School of Information Studies & Research Institute for Professional Practice, Learning and Education, Australia
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 11 February 2014
Received in revised form 25 March 2015
Accepted 2 April 2015
Available online 15 April 2015
Keywords:
Early childhood education
Digital technology
Web-searching
Internet access
Teacher beliefs
Pedagogical practices
a b s t r a c t
Australian preschool teachers’ use of Web-searching in their classroom practice was examined (N = 131).
Availability of Internet-enabled digital technology and the contribution of teacher demographic charac-
teristics, comfort with digital technologies and beliefs about their use were assessed. Internet-enabled
technologies were available in 53% (n = 69) of classrooms. Within these classrooms, teacher age and beliefs
predicted Web-searching practice. Although comfortable with digital access of knowledge in their every-
day life, teachers reported less comfort with Web-searching in the context of their classroom practice.
The findings identify the provision of Internet-enabled technologies and professional development as
actions to support effective and confident inclusion of Web-searching in classrooms. Such actions are
necessary to align with national policy documents that define acquisition of digital literacies as a goal
and assert digital access to knowledge as an issue of equity.
© 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Introduction
In 1996, and again in 2012, the National Association for the
Education of Young Children (NAEYC) identified access to com-
puter technology as an issue of equitable access to knowledge in
early childhood education settings (NAEYC, 1996; NAEYC & the
Fred Rogers Center for Early Learning and Children’s Media at Saint
Vincent College, 2012). Across that time, Internet-enabled digital
technologies have become more mobile and, arguably, even more
significant as a gateway to fast and current knowledge. In Australia
in 2012, 96% of homes with children aged 0–14 years had Internet
access, and in these homes, 81% accessed the Internet at home every
day (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2012). In the USA in the same
year, 75% of families accessed the Internet at home (United States
Census Bureau, 2014). Yet internationally, studies of children’s
Internet use have focused predominantly on school-aged children
(K-12) and access to digital technologies in the home (Danby
et al., 2013; Marsh, 2004; Marsh et al., 2005; Yelland, 2008). This
study asks how the pervasiveness of Internet access evident in the
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +61 7 31384707.
E-mail address: k.thorpe@qut.edu.au (K. Thorpe).
everyday life of young children transfers into the early education
setting. A key issue, given the significance of the Internet in pro-
viding access to knowledge, is the inclusion of digital information
searching into pedagogical practice. While most young children
can acquire digital literacies and access current knowledge through
the Internet in their homes, the minority of children who do not
have access at home are dependent on public education and Inter-
net access in their prior-to-school years. Aligning with the current
literature on digital equity (Judge, Puckett, & Cabuk, 2004; Pegler,
Kollewyn, & Crichton, 2010; Yelland, 2008; Yelland & Neal, 2013),
the research questions investigated in the current study reflect
three levels of gatekeeping for digital access to knowledge and sup-
port of digital literacy acquisition in early childhood classrooms:
1. Resource: What is the availability of access to Internet connec-
tion in early childhood classrooms?
2. Teacher knowledge and expertise: What is the relationship
between teacher characteristics such as age, training, experience
and comfort with digital access of knowledge and the inclusion
of digital knowledge searching in the classroom?
3. Pedagogical beliefs: How do teachers’ beliefs about young chil-
dren’s learning and use of digital technologies affect their
reported digital access to knowledge in the classroom?
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2015.04.001
0885-2006/© 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

2. K. Thorpe et al. / Early Childhood Research Quarterly 32 (2015) 174–182 175
Resources: availability of digital technologies, access to the
internet and early childhood education
Internet-enabled digital technologies serve as sources of knowl-
edge, social interaction and, jointly, learning. As these technologies
become increasingly smaller and more mobile they offer increas-
ing possibilities for use in early childhood education settings
because they are a dynamic, social, visual, and tactile medium
that facilitates flexible, immediate and responsive interactions with
current knowledge among classroom members. Yet the uptake of
digital technologies in early childhood settings and the effective-
ness of their use in early education is only an emergent focus.
Existing evidence suggests that children’s use of digital tech-
nologies is less prevalent inside the early childhood classroom
than in everyday life outside this context (Arrow & Finch, 2013;
Marsh et al., 2005; Wohlwend, 2010) and less well integrated
into the daily programmes in early childhood classrooms than
those in the later school years (Plowman & Stephen, 2003a, 2003b;
Plowman, Stephen, & McPake, 2010). The reasons are not fully
understood but may relate to educational discourses centred on
the young child that relate to the assessed value of digital forms
of learning against other curriculum and pedagogical demands
(e.g. the belief that there are more valuable sources of learn-
ing that should be prioritised in early childhood) (Lentz, Seo, &
Gruner, 2014; Plowman & McPake, 2013) and social discourses
relating to safety (e.g., the belief that young children should not
be exposed to the ‘dangers’ of the Internet or exposure to digi-
tal technology is not “healthy”) (Lentz et al., 2014; Livingstone,
2003; Livingstone, Haddon, Görzig, & Ólafsson, 2010; Plowman
& McPake, 2013), child competence (e.g., a presumption that as
emergent readers, young children cannot access information from
the Internet) (Livingstone et al., 2010) and economic priority (e.g.
the belief that older children are more likely to need and bene-
fit from access to digital technologies) (Beale, 2014). Increasingly,
these discourses are being challenged by the demands for equi-
table access to current knowledge (Australian Government, 2008;
Livingstone & Helsper, 2007; NAEYC, 1996; Pegler et al., 2010;
Yelland & Neal, 2013), the everyday visibility and the documen-
tation of the digital competence of the very young (Davidson,
2009, 2011; Houen, 2012; Spink, Danby, Mallan, & Butler, 2010)
and the growing economic and equity imperatives to direct edu-
cational investment to the very young (Heckman, Grunewald, &
Reynolds, 2006; OECD, 2006; Thorpe, Cloney, & Tayler, 2010). Inclu-
sion of digital access to knowledge into early childhood pedagogy
is an imperative evident in international educational policy and
curriculum specifications (Department of Education, Employment
and Workplace Relations, Australia (DEEWR), 2009a; Souter, 2010;
UNESCO, 2014). Evidence suggests that children and teachers are
increasingly exposed to digital technologies, and specifically the
Internet, in their lives outside the classroom (Australian Bureau
of Statistics, 2009, 2011, 2012; Gutnick, Robb, Takuchi, & Kotler,
2010; Livingstone & Bober, 2005; NetRatings Australia Pty Ltd &
Australian Broadcasting Authority, 2005). However, little is known
about the Internet access experiences of teachers and children
within the early childhood classroom.
Digital technologies provide fast access to current knowledge.
For this reason, acquisition of digital literacies are now speci-
fied as learning goals in curriculum documents such as the Early
Years Learning Framework for Australia (DEEWR, 2009a) and have
been argued as an educational right and issue of social equity
(Judge et al., 2004; Livingstone & Helsper, 2007; Pegler et al.,
2010; Yelland & Neal, 2013). The argument for digital access as
an educational and social right has advanced beyond academe
to educational policy (DEEWR, 2009b) and philanthropic activity
including Dell Youth Learning (2014) and the Smith Family’s Tech
Pack Project (Neal, Yelland, Dakich, & Jones, 2010). In Australia,
for example, the availability of laptops for school-aged children
emerged as a focus between 2009 and 2013 (DEEWR, 2009b).
The most prominent policy concern in this regard is the provi-
sion of resources to students in secondary education and includes
philanthropic partnerships to provide laptops to those living in cir-
cumstances of disadvantage and Internet access to those living in
remote areas. The aspirations identified by the Australian Govern-
ment and other OECD governments include ensuring child access to
Internet-enabled devices for school-aged children and provision of
high-speed broadband connectivity (Australian Government, 2008;
European Commission, 2010; New Zealand Ministry for Economic
Development, 2010; OECD, 2008; Swedish Ministry of Enterprise
Energy and Communications, 2009).
In early childhood education, access to digital technologies and
acquisition of digital literacies has also been documented as an
education right and issue of social equity. This position is mani-
fest in a range of documents (Australian Government, 2008) and
position statements (NAEYC & the Fred Rogers Center for Early
Learning and Children’s Media at Saint Vincent College, 2012;
Souter, 2010) UNESCO’s initiative Education for All prioritises inclu-
sion and quality of digital technologies in education (UNESCO,
2014). Yet, internationally, public data on availability of Internet-
enabled digital technology in educational settings is scarce. In the
early education space, there is a mismatch between curriculum
documents that identify digital literacy as an educational aim and
other policy documents where there is a notable absence of com-
ment regarding the provision of Internet access in classrooms. In
the non-compulsory early childhood sector, where there are often
multiple providers that function both for-profit and not-for-profit,
the absence of an explicit policy implies digital access is primarily
the responsibility of individual providers and not a public responsi-
bility. The first question addressed in the current study, therefore,
directs attention to documentation of the range of available digital
technologies and Internet-enabled access in preschool classrooms.
Knowledge and expertise: digital knowledge and comfort as
factors affecting practice in early childhood classrooms
Availability of digital devices and Internet-connectivity are nec-
essary, but not sufficient, conditions for equitable knowledge access
and learning. Beyond the restraints of availability and Internet-
enabled access, the characteristics of the teacher, particularly
their knowledge, skill and comfort, have been identified as fac-
tors that affect integration of digital technologies into classroom
practice. Evidence from the schooling sector suggests teachers’
use of digital technologies to access knowledge is best described
as being on a continuum (Mueller, Wood, Willoughby, Ross, &
Specht, 2008). While some teachers do not use the Internet-enabled
technologies available in their classrooms, others integrate these
technologies into their everyday teaching interactions with chil-
dren (Mueller et al., 2008). There is currently little evidence from
early childhood classrooms that such integration happens daily.
The available research indicates that digital access to knowledge in
early childhood classrooms remains minimal with practices show-
ing preference for print literacy formats (Arrow & Finch, 2013;
Blackwell, Lauricella, Wartella, Robb, & Schomburg, 2013).
Research approaches have been guided by two perspectives
pertaining to the role of teacher characteristics in the uptake of
digital technologies in the classroom. The first perspective suggests
a divide centred on age and gender. The proposal of generational
differences is an adaptation of Prensky’s conceptualisation of digi-
tal learners that asserts a dichotomy between “digital natives” and
“digital immigrants” (Prensky, 2001). This conception would imply
that younger teachers who have grown up with digital technologies
in their everyday life are more receptive and intuitive in introduc-
ing digital technologies in their classrooms than older teachers for

3. 176 K. Thorpe et al. / Early Childhood Research Quarterly 32 (2015) 174–182
whom exposure to digital technology has come later in life which,
therefore, translates into slower and less comfortable introduction
of digital technology into their classrooms. There is some evidence
for this hypothesis (Marsh et al., 2005). In addition, there is evi-
dence for a gender divide in which male teachers are more likely
than female teachers to employ digital technology in the class-
room (Shapka & Ferrari, 2003; van Braak, Tondeur, & Valcke, 2004).
Given that the overwhelming majority of teachers in early child-
hood are women, gender differences may contribute to uptake and
integration of Internet-enabled technologies.
The second perspective challenges the idea of a digital and gen-
der divide and instead focuses on individual differences in teacher
skill and comfort by directly questioning teachers about their expe-
rience and comfort in using digital technologies and assessing the
association of these individual responses with classroom practice
(Bennett, Maton, & Kervin, 2008; Sugar, Crawley, & Fine, 2004).
While some studies provide evidence for group differences that
relate to age or gender, this variability across groups is shown to
be overly simplistic and increasingly less important than individ-
ual variability. A number of scholars have argued the pervasiveness
of digital technologies in the lives of all people, regardless of age,
renders Prensky’s conceptualisation of digital divide a diminish-
ing phenomenon (Bennett et al., 2008; Pegler et al., 2010). In the
current study, our second question focused on the association of
early childhood teachers’ classroom practices with demographic
characteristics and individual reports of comfort in using a range of
digital technologies in everyday life outside the classroom. Findings
relating to demography might suggest a generational difference
and identify specific target groups for professional development.
In contrast those relating to individual difference would suggest
more complex, individualised and organisational approaches as the
target for promoting confident use of digital technologies.
Beliefs and attitudes: understandings of children’s learning with
digital technologies as factors affecting pedagogical practice in
early childhood classrooms
Young children’s competence in using digital technologies
to conduct sophisticated open-ended learning tasks such as
Web-searching are observable in everyday life and have been docu-
mented in detailed observational analyses (Davidson, 2011; Houen,
2012; Spink et al., 2010). Yet the ability of emergent readers to
conduct such sophisticated tasks is not well understood and the
value and appropriateness of such activities questioned (Lindahl
& Folkesson, 2012a, 2012b; Livingstone, 2003). Further, against a
background of many competing curriculum demands and peda-
gogical ideologies use of digital technologies in early childhood
classrooms may not be a priority (Lentz et al., 2014). Epistemo-
logical beliefs and specific conceptualisation of the usage of digital
technologies have been found to affect the degree to which digi-
tal information searching is included in classroom practice (Acker,
Buuren, Kreijns, & Vermeulen, 2011; Blackwell et al., 2013; Lindahl
& Folkesson, 2012b). Importantly, teachers’ beliefs have been
shown to affect the quality of the learning experiences afforded
young children (Brownlee & Berthelsen, 2006). Thus while teachers
may employ digital technologies on a daily basis for the access of
knowledge, their practices may be for personal use and knowl-
edge transmission rather than as an interactive tools for individual
and group inquiry (Lentz et al., 2014; Smerdon et al., 2000). The
available data on child learning suggest that optimal and equi-
table outcomes are achieved through constructivist pedagogical
practice in which digital technologies are employed in open-ended,
interactive and responsive exchanges that allow social construc-
tion of knowledge (Andrew, 2007; Hermans, Tondeur, van Braak, &
Valcke, 2008; Hillman & Moore, 2004; Lentz et al., 2014; O’Dwyer,
Russell, & Bebell, 2004). The third question addressed by the current
study, therefore, directs attention to the association of belief sys-
tems about children’s learning and the role of digital technologies
within teachers’ knowledge searching practices.
Method
This paper reports on data from Kids and the Web (KWEB).
KWEB is a study funded by the Australian Research Council that
employs survey and video-recorded observation in the class and
home to gain understanding of both when and how preschool
children access the Internet. As preschool children are emergent
readers, the focus extends beyond the content of Web-searches
to consider the process by which these searches are undertaken
in home and early education settings. Such searches are often
achieved through social interaction with adults and other children.
This paper reports on KWEB survey data to provide an overview
of digital knowledge searching across an entire population of ECE
teachers employed by the major provider of preschool in one Aus-
tralian State. Observational data based on a subset of 9 classrooms
and 18 homes are presented elsewhere (Danby, Davidson, Given,
& Thorpe, in press; Danby et al., 2013; Davidson, Danby, Given, &
Thorpe, 2014). The analyses of these data presented in the current
report focus on preschool teachers as a gateway to digital knowl-
edge access in the classroom.
Respondents were 131 early childhood educators (99% female)
participating in KWEB. All were teachers in the State of Queensland,
Australia, and employed by the Crèche and Kindergarten Associ-
ation (C&K), a not-for profit organisation that provides 92.9% of
preschool education in Queensland (Dowling & O’Malley, 2009).
The state of Queensland is Australia’s third most populous state
(population 4.7 million) and second largest in area (1.7 million
square kilometres). The population is largely urban, residing in
cities and towns on the Eastern seaboard, with almost half of all
residents living in the capital Brisbane (population 2.2 million)
though some populations live in regional and remote locations sup-
porting agricultural and mining industries. The social makeup of
the population is broadly similar to other major states of Australia
with the exception that it has a larger population of Aboriginal
and Torres Strait Island peoples (6% vs 3% of the National popula-
tion of 4 year olds) (Queensland Government Statics Office, 2014).
The study was confined to Queensland where the researchers are
located because of the demands of the observational component
of the study, however, as all Australian states work to a National
early childhood curriculum and Nationally prescribed standards of
teacher training (Australian Children’s Education and Care Quality
Authority (ACEQUA), 2014) the findings are, at least in these signif-
icant respects, applicable beyond Queensland.
The participating teachers ranged in age from 23 to 65 years
(M = 35 years, SD = 10 years) and had between 1 and 38 years
of teaching experience. The highest levels of education attained
were 3-year diploma (11%), 4-year university degree in Education
(67%), or a Masters qualification (15%). These levels are represen-
tative of the population of kindergarten teachers in Queensland
(DETE, 2014) and Australia (ACEQUA, 2014). The social diversity
of communities in which the teachers worked at the time of this
study is representative of the population of children 3–4 year-olds
attending early education programmes in Queensland (Queensland
Government Statics Office, 2014). The classes studied are the equiv-
alent of Pre-kindergarten (Pre-K) in the USA and nursery school
in Britain. They provide 15 h per week of educational programme
across a minimum of 40 weeks per year. The classes typically have
one accredited teacher and an assistant for class groups of 22 chil-
dren, aged 3.5–4.5 years. Comparison with nursery programmes in
Britain and Pre-K programmes in the USA using standard observa-
tions (ECERS, CLASS) identify similar levels of structural, emotional,

4. K. Thorpe et al. / Early Childhood Research Quarterly 32 (2015) 174–182 177
organisational and instructional quality (Tayler, Ishimine, Cloney,
Cleveland, & Thorpe, 2013). Initial recruitment was through the
C&K newsletter and an email to each C&K centre explaining the
purpose of the study, inviting teachers to participate, and providing
the website link for teachers to complete the questionnaire online.
All 350 C&K early childhood centres have Internet access. Surveys
were distributed via the C&K centres intranet to the centre direc-
tor. While we were able to confirm delivery of the surveys to each
centre, follow-up indicated that some centres had not distributed
surveys to teachers within centres. While our inability to verify
teacher receipt limited response rate calculations, the known lower
bound of response rate was 38%.
Measures
An online survey was constructed using Key Survey software.
The survey was developed with reference to prior studies and
included, with permission, items from the British study of Marsh
and colleagues published in 2005 (Marsh et al., 2005) to allow
comparability across time. New questions were developed by
the research team with reference to studies conducted in early
childhood (Plowman et al., 2010) and other available items from
studies conducted within the school and home setting (Moursund
& Bielefeldt, 1999; Pew Internet in American Life Project, 2000). Our
aim was to increase focus on digital knowledge searching. A hard
copy was produced from the online form to allow offline comple-
tion, thereby avoiding the confounding of method of delivery with
the substantive focus of the study. A copy of the survey is provided
in Appendix 1, in the online supplementary materials. The survey
sought information in three broad areas:
1. Classrooms: including computer and Internet access in class-
rooms, computer-based activities and educational practices
(including frequency and type of use);
2. Teachers: teachers’ demographic information, their at-home
digital technology and Internet use (including hardware, soft-
ware and types of Internet access), and their comfort with digital
technologies and Internet access;
3. Teachers’ beliefs: about use of digital technologies and Internet
access in early childhood classrooms.
The key variables are outlined below.
Teacher everyday technology use
Teachers provided details on the number of digital devices
in their homes, including computers (desktop, laptops, netbooks,
tablets), televisions, game consoles and smart phones. They also
provided details of their Internet use, including whether they had
internet access at home, whether they used cloud computing, how
often they used the Internet in a typical week at home and at work,
and which search engines they used.
Classroom Internet-access
Teachers provided details on the availability of different types of
computers in the classroom, including desktop computers, laptops,
netbooks, tablets, TV and electronic whiteboards, and indicated
whether these devices were Internet-enabled.
Demographic information
Data were collected on teachers’ gender, age, educational qua-
lifications, and years of teaching experience with children.
Teacher personal comfort with digital technology
Teachers’ comfort with digital technology was assessed using
a 14-item self-report scale. Teachers were asked to respond to
the question ‘How comfortable are you in using the following?’
with respect to a range of different digital technologies, using a
6-point scale from 0 don’t use to 5 very comfortable. The digital tech-
nologies included software applications such as Microsoft Word,
PowerPoint, Paint and Photo Story, editing digital photos, adding
computer software, adding programmes to mobile phones, using
DVD players, computer games, searching online, using email, Skype
and social networking sites (such as Facebook and Twitter), and
explaining technology to children. Responses to these questions
were aggregated to derive a total comfort score (Cronbach’s ˛ = .84).
Classroom computer-based activities
Teachers were asked to nominate how frequently they and the
children in their classrooms used educational games, Web search-
ing, word processing, and drawing programmes. The response scale
ranged from every day to never/do not have in classroom.
Classroom Web-searching
Teachers were asked about the frequency of a range of prac-
tices using the Internet in their classrooms using 10 items with
responses on a 5-point scale from never to every day. These prac-
tices included whole-class or small group discussions about how
to find information on the Web, intentional teaching of Web
searching skills, child-initiated discussions with classmates or the
teacher about how to use technology, and children’s computer and
Web-searching activities working individually or with an adult.
Preliminary investigation using Horn’s parallel analysis indicated
that this scale was unidimensional. A classroom Web searching
practice score was derived through averaging scores on the items,
so that the summary score reflected the original scale from 1 never
to 5 everyday.
Teacher beliefs about digital technologies and children’s learning
Teachers were asked to indicate their level of agreement with
a series of 20 statements about the role of digital technologies and
the Internet in early childhood classrooms. Responses were on a
5-point scale (from strongly disagree to strongly agree). A princi-
pal components analysis was used to summarise these data for
regression analyses. The Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin measure of sampling
adequacy suggested good factorability (KMO = .82), and Horn’s par-
allel analysis identified two components with eigenvalues above
chance values (upper 95% CI = 1.79). A two-component, orthogonal
solution accounted for 42.5% of total variance. The first compo-
nent, relating to the Value of digital technologies for young children’s
learning, accounted for 32.2% of total variance. The 14 questions
loading on the Values component had high internal consistency
(Cronbach’s ˛ = .90). Questions relating to value included Having
one of more computers in the classroom is an essential part of learn-
ing and Giving children access to the Internet is a priority for me. The
second component was comprised of five questions relating to Con-
cerns and Constraints, including Safety concerns stop me using the
Internet in the classroom and Young children do not have the liter-
acy skills necessary for Web searching. The Concerns and Constraints
component, accounting for only 10.3% of the variance, had low reli-
ability (Cronbach’s ˛ = .49) that could not be appreciably improved
by deleting items. One item did not load on any component. The
two scales, based on Factor 1, Valuing of digital technology, and
Factor 2, Constraints to using digital technology, were calculated by
averaging scores on the items related to each component, so that

5. 178 K. Thorpe et al. / Early Childhood Research Quarterly 32 (2015) 174–182
summary scores reflect the original 5-point scales (from strongly
disagree to strongly agree).
Procedure
Teachers were provided with the options of online and hard
copy completion to ensure that our method did not exclude any
teacher less comfortable with digital communication. The major-
ity of teachers responded through online survey although 18 (14%)
took the option of completion by hard copy. Using both compari-
son of mean and of distribution, we examined whether there was
any difference between those who did and did not respond by hard
copy on classroom centre (SES of centre location, number of com-
puters) and respondent (age, teaching experience, qualification,
with digital technology, beliefs and teaching practice) character-
istics. One significant difference emerged. Those responding by
hardcopy on average had higher scores for Web-searching practice
in their classroom [t(125) = 4.575, p < .001]. The finding is counter-
intuitive and possibly a statistical artefact of multiple comparisons
though the significance is strong and remains significant after Bon-
ferroni adjustment of alpha levels. Full results of comparisons are
presented in the Appendix 2 online supplementary materials.
The first page of the survey contained study information and
sought participant consent in line with approved ethics procedures.
The questions were presented using the Key Survey programme.
Participants were requested, but not required, to answer all ques-
tions. Upon completion, participants were given the opportunity to
provide personal details so that they could enter a prize draw for
an iPod Touch.
Analytic strategy
Descriptive statistics were examined to assess the distribution
of levels of computer access and Internet access. Distributions and
bivariate relationships between all variables were explored. Multi-
ple regression analyses were employed to model teacher-reported
integration of digital technology into their pedagogical practice
in those classrooms where there was Internet access (and there-
fore the full possibility of integrated practice). Predictor variables
included in the model were number of Internet-enabled devices,
teacher age, teacher personal comfort with digital technology, and
teacher beliefs (Values and Constraints).
Prior to data analysis, distributions of variables were checked for
normality, outliers, linearity and homoscedasticity in bivariate rela-
tionships. Issues regarding breaches of assumptions are reported,
where relevant, as part of the analyses below. Considering the large
number of statistical tests carried out, a Type I error rate of .01 was
adopted for all analyses.
Results
Descriptive Statistics
Table 1 presents a summary of teachers’ responses to question-
naire items regarding access, use, comfort and beliefs about use
of digital technologies, and specific items about Internet access
both in their home and work context. Work context included both
classroom and non-classroom access. While all centres and 98%
of teachers had access to the Internet this was not necessarily
in their classrooms. In 82% of classrooms, there was access to at
least one desktop or laptop computer, however, only 53% (n = 69)
of classrooms were Internet-enabled. The majority of classrooms
had a single digital device. The range was 0–4 devices. All tea-
chers reported regular use of digital technologies and the Internet
at home or at work or both; 83% accessed the Internet at home, and
82% accessed the Internet at work every, or most days, although
access at work was not necessarily within the classroom. Most tea-
chers reported being comfortable or very comfortable using a range
of programmes. All teachers reported being comfortable search-
ing online, and all but one were comfortable using Two-thirds
reported being comfortable using communication programmes
such as Skype and social networking programmes such as Facebook
and Twitter.
Overall, teachers reported positive beliefs about the relevance
and usefulness of the Internet in their early childhood classrooms.
More than 80% of teachers agreed that it was of value to: use Web-
searching to build on the interests children bring to the classroom
(81.5%); build upon children’s existing experiences with technol-
ogy (86.6%); have young children learn literacy skills through use
of computers (85.4%); and facilitate young children’s’ experiences
with the computer at home (82.7%). The majority of teachers also
agreed that: using technology in the classroom is an everyday
part of learning (63.6%); and computers enable learning opportu-
nities for children to interact with each other (69%). In contrast,
few teachers identified concerns about risk (17.2%), with greatest
impediment to Internet use being lack of access (53%).
Association and Independent Contribution of Internet Access and
Teacher Demographics, Comfort and Beliefs
Table 2 shows inter-correlations among key variables in the sur-
vey: teachers’ age; years of teaching experience; teachers’ comfort
with technology; beliefs about the relevance of digital technologies
and the Internet in children’s learning; potential impediments;
and the frequency of digital technologies and Internet-related
classroom practice; the number of Internet-enabled devices in
the classroom. Because absence of Internet in the classroom
precludes the employment of digital searching within the range
of pedagogical practices, these correlations are presented for the
full sample (below diagonal) and for the subsample (n = 69) of
teachers with Internet access in their classrooms (above diagonal).
Inspection of the correlations among comfort and belief variables
identifies differences in values but not direction of association. For
example, comfort with technology and teacher’s age is −.34 for the
total sample but −.36 for those with Internet enabled classrooms.
In contrast, comparison of correlations between teacher age,
teaching experience and availability of digital devices and practice
evidences higher values among the sample with Internet-enabled
classrooms compared with the total sample. In Internet-enabled
classrooms practice was more strongly associated with demo-
graphic variables (age −0.21 vs −0.06; years of teaching −0.14 vs
−0.06). This suggests that in Internet-enabled classrooms, younger
and more recently trained teachers are more likely to utilise digital
technologies.
Table 3 presents the results of the multiple-regression mod-
elling for classroom practice in Internet-enabled classrooms
(n = 69). All predictors, except Concerns and Constraints about using
the Internet, were bivariately correlated with classroom practice.
When all predictors were considered together, the model explained
40% of the variability in reported classroom practice. The significant
predictors were beliefs about advantage in use of the Internet, which
uniquely explained 19% of the variance, and teachers’ age, which
explained 4.7% of variance. Although correlated with classroom
practice, teachers’ comfort with technology did not independently
predict practice.
Discussion
Digital technologies are a significant part of the everyday
life of the majority of people, including the very young. These

6. K. Thorpe et al. / Early Childhood Research Quarterly 32 (2015) 174–182 179
Table 1
Percentage of teacher access, use, comfort, beliefs about digital technology and impediments to use (n = 131).
Home Work
n % n %
Access
Computer 128 98 131 100
Internet 128 98 131 100
Computer – classroom – – 107 82
Internet – classroom – – 69 53
Internet use
By teacher: daily 92 70 24 18
Most days 17 13 72 55
<Weekly 22 17 22 17
By child: daily – – 3 2
Most days – – 14 11
<Weekly – – 101 77
Comfort (mod/high)
Email 131 100 130 99
Web search 131 100 131 100
Social media 86 66 – –
Skype 84 64 – –
Beliefs about value digital technology (agree/strongly agree)
Having one or more computers in the classroom is an essential part of learning – – 94 72
Young children learn literacy skills through use of the computer – – 111 85
A computer enables learning opportunities for children to interact with each other – – 90 69
It is important to build on children’s existing experiences with technology – – 114 87
It is good to use technology to build on the interests children bring to the classroom – – 121 92
Using technology in the classroom is an everyday part of learning – – 84 64
It is good for young children to have experiences with the computer at home – – 109 83
I am concerned that children spend too much time with technology – – 75 57
Internet use in the classroom is a learning resource like other learning resources (e.g. easel or puzzles) – – 107 82
Internet use in the classroom is an unnecessary learning resource – – 10 8
My main technology role is to actively initiate ideas and engage children with the Internet – – 60 50
I like to encourage children to bring their Web search activities from home – – 54 41
Giving children access to the Internet is a priority for me – – 47 36
I like to model how to do searches on the Internet – – 77 59
Impediment to Internet searching in class
No access – – 62 47
Child safety – – 21 16
Child competence – – 24 18
Table 2
Intercorrelations among teachers’ age and teaching experience, Internet-enabled devices in classroom, teachers’ comfort with technology and beliefs about ICTs and Internet
in children’s learning and ICT/Internet-related classroom practices.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1. Teacher’s age – .63**
.25*
−.36**
.09 .00 −.21
2. Years teaching .63**
– .20 −.31*
−.09 .01 −.14
3. Internet-enabled devices .21*
.05 – .08 .33**
−.42**
.23
4. Comfort with technology −.34**
−.31**
.06 – .36**
−.21 .39**
5. Beliefs: Internet is important −.04 −.22*
.29**
.43**
– −.07 .57**
6. Beliefs: barriers to internet use −.10 .01 −.26**
−.12 −.13 – −.10
7. Classroom practice −.06 −.06 .45**
.32**
.40**
−.01 –
Note: All classrooms (N = 131) below diagonal; Internet-enabled classrooms only (N = 69) above diagonal.
*
p < .05.
**
p < .01 (2-tailed).
Table 3
Multiple regression analysis predicting classroom practice in Internet-Enabled classrooms from teacher demographics, comfort and beliefs, and Internet-enabled devices in
the classroom (N = 69).
Predictor B [95% CI] ˇ sr2
Teacher age −.023 [−0.043, −0.002] −.248*
.047
Internet-enabled devices in classroom .159 [−0.158, 0.477] .120 .009
Teacher comfort with technology .009 [−0.012, 0.031] .102 .007
Teacher beliefs (Internet value) .057 [0.032, 0.083] .506**
.191
Teacher beliefs (Internet risk/barriers) .004 [−0.061, 0.069] .013 .000
Note: Internet-enabled classrooms only (N = 69); sr2
= squared semi-partial correlation (unique variance).
*
p < .05.
**
p < .01 (2-tailed).

7. 180 K. Thorpe et al. / Early Childhood Research Quarterly 32 (2015) 174–182
technologies afford a range of creative and social interaction oppor-
tunities. They are also important sources of access to fast and
current knowledge. While digital technologies afford social and
creative potentials, the specific focus of the current paper was
their use in accessing knowledge. The specific framing aligns with
an internationally expressed concern that access to knowledge
via the Internet is an issue of social equity (NAEYC & the Fred
Rogers Center for Early Learning and Children’s Media at St Vincents
College, 2012; UNESCO, 2014). Just as in past decades, limited
access to books was an index of disadvantage so, in the digital age,
is limited digital access to knowledge. The current study of Aus-
tralian preschool classrooms assessed the role of three potential
gateways to digital knowledge access: (1) availability of Internet-
enabled technology, (2) teacher comfort with digital technologies
and teacher beliefs and (3) concerns and beliefs about the value of
children accessing the Internet.
What is the role of classroom access to the Internet in determining
digital knowledge access?
Our findings indicate that while Australian children attending
preschool programmes have almost universal access to the Internet
in their home, this high level of availability is not reflected in their
preschool classrooms. While most teachers reported that comput-
ers were present in their classrooms, in almost half (48%), there
was no Internet access. Our findings provide an interesting com-
parison with Digital Beginnings, a British study reported in 2005
(Marsh et al., 2005; see Appendix 3 in the online supplementary
materials). Across the nine-year period between the two studies,
reported classroom computer use by young children has remained
comparable (79% and 82% for Digital Beginnings and the present
study respectively). There has, however, been a notable increase
in reported classroom access to the Internet (12% vs 52%). Digi-
tal Beginnings reported a lag between digital technologies in the
classroom compared with the home context (Marsh et al., 2005).
Our data identify a continued disjuncture between access in the
early childhood classroom (52%) and that occurring in the everyday
lives of young children outside of the early education context. The
meaning of this finding for children is not yet understood. While
the Internet affords immediate, visual access to a world beyond
the classroom and provides opportunity to immediately connect
children’s learning outside the classroom to that within (Arrow &
Finch, 2013), there are also arguments that digital technologies are
overly dominant in the lives of young children and detract from
alternative learning experiences that are the tradition of preschool
education (Lindahl & Folkesson, 2012a, 2012b). With respect to
fast and responsive access to current knowledge, however, digital
access is a necessary resource. Without the Internet, the possibility
of open-ended information searching is substantially limited.
Our findings indicate that the key barrier to Internet access
within classrooms studied was the low prioritisation for provision
of Internet-enabled devices in early childhood settings. Though the
imperative for Internet-enabled devices is identified across all lev-
els of the national curriculum documents in Australia, in practice,
provision has been prioritised to the later years of schooling. We
were unable to find any public data on the level of provision of
digital technologies in the compulsory school sector with which
to compare early childhood, however, policy analysis identify the
prioritisation of digital technologies for primary and secondary
schools (Beale, 2014). One example is the secondary schools’ laptop
initiative (Australian Government, 2010). Our study was limited to
the State of Queensland but our findings highlight the need for addi-
tional data from other Australian states and across other nations to
document the extent of the discrepancy between expressed and
documented curriculum ideals and the reality of enabling digital
access to knowledge in early childhood classrooms.
What is the role of teacher comfort in determining digital
knowledge access?
Teachers reported that use of digital technologies and digi-
tal access to knowledge was part of their everyday lives outside
of the classroom. Within the classroom, however, not all were
comfortable with the use of digital technologies in general or Inter-
net access in particular. Older teachers were those least likely to
utilise Internet-enabled technologies in classroom practice. This
finding suggests that among Australian preschool teachers there
may still be a generational divide. The findings parallel those
reported by the Digital Beginnings study in the Britain (Marsh
et al., 2005). The strength of association between age and practice,
however, was low, with the predictive value of belief systems far
greater.
What is the role of teacher beliefs and concerns in determining
digital knowledge access?
Within digitally enabled classrooms, variation in beliefs about
the benefits of using Internet-enabled digital technology indepen-
dently predicted teacher practice. Our results suggest that those
teachers who did not include Web-searching in their classroom
practice were both more cautious about the value of these tech-
nologies for children and less certain about their pedagogical role.
Constraints and concerns about risk did not independently pre-
dict practise, although the items used to measure this construct
had poor internal consistency that may have contributed to this
outcome.
The findings identify a disconnection between current class-
room practice, and aims specified in early childhood curriculum
documents. These documents emphasise the importance of digital
literacies and knowledge access, and urge connection between chil-
dren’s classroom learning and their prior knowledge and learning
outside of the classroom (Arrow & Finch, 2013). The findings also
direct attention to a need for professional development to enhance
teacher knowledge about the potential of Web-searching in young
children’s learning, and build teacher confidence in using the Inter-
net in their practice. Specific teaching regarding digital technology,
both in initial teacher training and ongoing professional develop-
ment, is likely to be the best direction to ensure digital equity
within early childhood education (Bolstad, 2004; Burnett, 2009,
2010; Livingstone, 2012).
Limitations and future directions
Our study provides evidence of a discrepancy between aims
expressed in early years curricula, and actual provision and practice
in early childhood classrooms. The sample of 131 teachers from
whom the data derive were all employed by the major provider of
preschool education in the state of Queensland. Examination of the
demographic and geographic distribution of centres participating
suggests that we have captured the diversity of Queensland popu-
lations. The sample is relatively small, however, and may not be
nationally or internationally representative beyond the structural
features of training and curriculum. The key finding pertains to
identifying discrepancy between national curriculum documents
that assert the need for acquisition of digital literacies, including
Web-searching, and classroom practice. There is a need for more
extensive studies beyond the case presented here of Queensland,
Australia.
The instruments used to assess teacher comfort and beliefs
did not have existing psychometric information and were mostly
newly developed. Although our analyses indicate that most meas-
ures exhibit predictive value and adequate internal consistency,

8. K. Thorpe et al. / Early Childhood Research Quarterly 32 (2015) 174–182 181
there is a need for further measure development, particularly con-
firmatory factor analyses, based on new samples. The absence of
existing measures to assess early education teachers’ beliefs neces-
sitated our approach and provides further directions for measure
development for the research team and others.
Our study relied on a single source, teacher report, and would
benefit from validation through observational work, both within
KWEB and beyond. We recognise that the possibility that the tea-
chers who identified themselves as confident and frequent users
of digital technologies and Web-searching may not necessarily be
actively engaging children in collaborative learning. For example,
regular use for “drill and skill” activities does not utilise the poten-
tial of digital technologies in accessing knowledge or advancing
digital competencies.
Finally, the present study used a cross-sectional design and
therefore cannot speak to direction of effect. Longitudinal follow-
up of the sample of teachers, and intervention studies in which the
inputs of professional development are assessed is the next step in
our study of children’s access of digital knowledge in their home
and educational contexts.
Conclusion: implications for policy and practice
Our study draws attention to the disjuncture between stated
aims of curriculum documents and practice in the field. While
digital access and the promotion of digital literacy are clearly
named in Australia’s early childhood national curriculum docu-
ments, the reality for almost half of the early childhood classrooms
in this study was that this was not possible. Availability of Internet-
enabled access was the major barrier. Our study draws attention
to the need for improved provision of Internet-enabled devices
in early childhood classrooms if the ideal of knowledge access
expressed in curriculum documents is to be met. Achievement
of this aim may well need advocacy for early childhood educa-
tion. Those determining budget priorities may not understand that
young children can, and do, use Internet-enabled technologies in
their everyday learning. Only when resources are available will the
next step, providing professional development to support safe and
positive digital learning, become possible.
Acknowledgements
The study was funded by the Australian Research Council
(DP110104227), with ethics approval by Queensland University of
Technology’s University Human Research Ethics Committee (Ref-
erence No.: 1100001480) and Charles Sturt University’s Research
Ethics Office. We thank the teachers, children and families of the
Crèche and Kindergarten Association for their participation in this
study.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found,
in the online version, at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2015.04.
001
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