1. 
Contemporary Europe
The Evolution of the EU:
1950s to present
PART II
POLS 208 European Studies
European University of Lefke

2. From Community to Union (1992 – 2003)
Developments in WE understood within int’l context (changes
taking place: e.g. breakup of Yugoslavia)
End of Cold War, WE failed in the violence outbreak of YS
Political integration disregarded: political union – economic union
– cooperation on foreign policy
False starts: European Political Community (1961), European
Political Cooperation (1970)
(1974) European Council first meeting in March 1975
The Idea of Europe
Part II
POLS 208 European Studies
European University of Lefke

3.  Fontainebleau European Council 1984 (Mitterand) – decision is
taken in 1990 June E. Council to convene Intergovt’l conference
(IGC) on political union
 Treaty on the European Union in Maastricht 1991, signed in
1992
 Treaty had to be ratified by 12 member states, due to referendum
issues it was accepted by November 1993
The Idea of Europe
Part II
POLS 208 European Studies
European University of Lefke

4.  Just as SEA, the Treaty on the EU (Maastricht Treaty) - changes
to the contract between member states
- Reflect the lengths to which MS were to reach compromises
- Three “pillars” created to the new structure of the “EU”
- 1st
Pillar: European Community
- 2nd
and 3rd
Pillars: a Common Foreign and Security Policy and
justice and home affairs (more formal cooperation), but final
responsibility remained with the individual gov’ts
The Idea of Europe
Part II
POLS 208 European Studies
European University of Lefke

5. - The plan for monetary union was confirmed
- EU new responsibilities: consumer protection, public health
policy, education, social policy
- Greater cooperation on immigration and asylum, Eropean police
intelligence agency to be created, new Committee of the Regions
to be set up, regional funds got increased
- New rights for EU citizens, EU “citizenship”
- New powers of the EU parliament: “co-decision procedure” - third
reading of certain legislation
The Idea of Europe
Part II
POLS 208 European Studies
European University of Lefke

6.  The Danish rejection and near miss in France prove significant
 Ordinary Europeans awake
 Debate about pros and cons expand in line with EU expansion
 Much of this Debate due to public confusion and misinformation
 Euroskepticism has become new factor in debates over EU
The Idea of Europe
Part II
POLS 208 European Studies
European University of Lefke

7.  Enlargement: still on the agenda
 End of Cold War: EU turns to the east
 June 1993 Copenhagen: new set of requirements for membership
agreed
 Copenhagen Conditions: applicant state must
a) Be democratic, with respect of human rights and the rule of law
b) Have a viable market economy and the ability to respond to
market forces within the EU
The Idea of Europe
Part II
POLS 208 European Studies
European University of Lefke

8. c) Be able to take on the obligations of the acquis communautaire
(the body of laws and policies already adopted by the EU)
d) Adapt their administrative structures in order to meet the
demands of integration
January 1995: Austria, Finland and Sweden join the EU (only 4
WE countries left out: Norway, Iceland and Switzerland)
-Norway (due to referendum issues) but still impacted by the EU
via the membership of the EEA, Iceland kept distance till the
economic crisis of 2007 damaged its banking industry
The Idea of Europe
Part II
POLS 208 European Studies
European University of Lefke

9.  Switzerland, rejects EEA, and by 1995 surrounded by the EU.
2001 National Referendum
 Two new treaties signed, due to imminent eastern enlargement and
to account for the EU integration:
 - Treaty of Amsterdam – October 1997 – May 1999 (confirm
eastern enlargement plans, launch the single currency ), plans for
the CFSP, extend EU policy responsibilities, incorporate the
Schengen Agreement into the treaties, expand the power of the EP
The Idea of Europe
Part II
POLS 208 European Studies
European University of Lefke

10.  -Treaty of Nice – Feb.2001 (few more changes to the structure of
the EU Institutions, increase the size of the EC and the EP,
redistribute votes in the Council of Ministers)
 June 2001, Irish reject T of N, argue it surrender too much nat’l
control, concern about Irish neutrality
 Nice Treaty came into force in Feb.2003
 The Treaty also integrated the Charter of Fundamental Rights of
the EU (dates back to the ECHR), which is now part of the legal
structure
The Idea of Europe
Part II
POLS 208 European Studies
European University of Lefke

11. The euro, Lisbon and beyond
Rapid progress on the single currency, 1995 decision to name it the
“euro”
Maastricht required MS to fix exchange rates by Jan.1999
Several “convergence criteria” considered essential prerequisites:
limits on national budget deficits, public debt, consumer inflation, and
long-term interest rates
Summit May 1998 concludes all but Greece fit the criteria
The Idea of Europe
Part II
POLS 208 European Studies
European University of Lefke

12.  Public resistance in Britain and Germany esp., also confusion on
which should or would fix exchange rates (MS inflation rate low,
unemployment high, slowing industrial growth)
 January 1999 euro becomes electronic currency in all but Denmark,
Sweden and UK, banknotes start circulating in Jan.2002, 12
members of the Eurozone abolish own currencies in March
 Concerns over the ability of the market to improve rates of
productivity or create new jobs to meet demand (Eurosclerosis)
 March 2000, EC launches the Lisbon Startegy
The Idea of Europe
Part II
POLS 208 European Studies
European University of Lefke

13.  Lisbon sets the goal: make the EU most dynamic economy in the
world (demands creation of more jobs, more women into the
workplace, liberalize telecommunications & energy markets,
improve transport, open up labor markets)
 Lisbon strategy superseded by Europe 2020: focus on innovation,
education, sustainable growth, low-carbon economy, and job
creation)
The Idea of Europe
Part II
POLS 208 European Studies
European University of Lefke

14.  May 2004, 10 eastern European and Mediterranean states join:
Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia,
Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovenia, and Slovakia (their
economies smaller than that of Netherlands, population increase
less than 20%)
 Symbolic confirmation of the Cold War division in Europe,
accelerate the process of transforming the economies and
democratic structures of EE countries
 January 2007, Romania and Bulgaria join (second phase of 2004
EU enlargement)
The Idea of Europe
Part II
POLS 208 European Studies
European University of Lefke

15.  Croatia, Iceland, Macedonia, Montenegro and Turkey also accepted as
“candidate countries”, Croatia joins in 2013
 All policy and membership changes required to rewrite the rules of the EU,
esp. to make it more democratic and closer to its citizens
 Laeken EC Dec.2001: agreed to draw up a treaty containing a constitution
to simplify and replace all other treaties
 Convention on the future of the EU, Feb. 2002 to July 2003, numerous
proposals, e.g. elected president of the EC, foreign minister to the EU, limit
on the membership of the EU Commission, common EU foreign and
Security policy, legal responsibility of the EU (whose laws would cancel
out those of nat’l parliaments in areas of EU competence)
The Idea of Europe
Part II
POLS 208 European Studies
European University of Lefke

16.  Lithuania: 1st
to ratify it through a parliamentary vote in Nov.2004
 Spain: 1st
to ratify through a nat’l referendum in Feb.2005
 Signs of political and public resistance, opinion that the treaty
won’t survive a referendum in eurosceptical Britain
 It was French and Dutch: negative votes in May and June 2005
 The Constitution's debate took place against a background of the
most serious rift in transatlantic relations (2001 terrorist attack in
US, followed a multinational attack on Afghanistan, then US turns
attention to Iraq)

The Idea of Europe
Part II
POLS 208 European Studies
European University of Lefke

17.  Europe public opinion strongly against Iraq attack, but EU gov’ts
divided: France and Germany leading the opposition, Britain and
Spain offer support
 Questionable: American leadership in NATO, EU’s ability to
make a mark on the global stage
 Despite transatlantic tensions EU leaders still discuss constitutional
change, early 2007 agree to save as many elements as possible of
the failed consitution
The Idea of Europe
Part II
POLS 208 European Studies
European University of Lefke

18.  The New Treaty of Lisbon, almost a replica of the constitution
 The treaty considered to be amendment to the previous treaties
(thus no need for nat’l referendum)
 Ireland, required by law, voted against in June 2008
 Special protocol negotiated to address Irish concerns over neutrality
and tax issues, October 2009 Irish vote positive
 Lisbon ends the pillar arrangement of Maastricht, key institutional
changes (creation of a new president of the EC and a single legal
personality for the EU)
The Idea of Europe
Part II
POLS 208 European Studies
European University of Lefke

19.  The identity of the EU on the global stage has undergone transformation all
the while
 EU leaders embarrassed by their failure to provide leadership (Yugoslavia),
but EU policy succeeds in EE (took the lead on post cold war
reconstruction)
 The US role in EU Affairs declining (esp. the fallout over Iraq’s crisis)
 More to come with the US rooted global economic crisis (too little
regulation allowed extension of credit to consumers), much of the debt
bought up by EU Banks and financial institutions
 Greece, Ireland, Spain and Portugal budget crisis in 2010
The Idea of Europe
Part II
POLS 208 European Studies
European University of Lefke

20. The Idea of Europe
Part II
POLS 208 European Studies
European University of Lefke