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Metallurgy & Material Science,[object Object],Dr.S.Jose,[object Object],Dept of Mechanical Engg.,,[object Object],TKM College of Engineering, Kollam,[object Object],drsjose@gmail.com,[object Object]
2,[object Object],Module II,[object Object],[object Object]
Theory of Alloys
Equilibrium Diagrams
Iron Carbon Phase diagram
TTT Diagram
Heat Treatment
Recovery, Recrystallisation & Grain Growth,[object Object]
Purpose of heat treatment:,[object Object],Improvement in ductility,[object Object],Relieving internal stresses,[object Object],Grain size refinement,[object Object],Increase of strength and hardness,[object Object],Improvement in machinability and toughness ,[object Object]
Factors involved,[object Object],Temperature upto which material is heated,[object Object],Length of time that the material is held at the	elevated	temperature,[object Object],Rate of cooling,[object Object],The surrounding atmosphere under the thermal treatment.,[object Object]
Types of Heat Treatment,[object Object],Annealing,[object Object],Normalizing,[object Object],Hardening ,[object Object],Tempering,[object Object],Surface Hardening,[object Object],These differ mainly in the way material is cooled from an elevated temperature.,[object Object]
Hardness,[object Object],small,[object Object],moderate,[object Object],large,[object Object],Medium,[object Object],air,[object Object],oil,[object Object],water,[object Object],Severity of Quench,[object Object],small,[object Object],moderate,[object Object],large,[object Object],Effect of Quenching Medium,[object Object],The severity of quench: water > oil > air	,[object Object],[object Object]
 For hardening, material is immersed in water / oil quench bath.,[object Object]
F,[object Object],E,[object Object],L + Fe3C,[object Object],P,[object Object],G,[object Object],4.30,[object Object],2.14,[object Object],M,[object Object],O,[object Object],N,[object Object],H,[object Object],0.76,[object Object],0.022,[object Object],Cementite Fe3C,[object Object],C,[object Object],6.70,[object Object],The Iron–Iron Carbide Phase Diagram,[object Object]
Heat Treatment of Steel,[object Object]
Annealing Process,[object Object],Material is exposed to an elevated temperature for an extended time period and then slowly cooled, allowing phase changes.,[object Object],Utilized for low- and medium-carbon steels. ,[object Object],Full Annealing,[object Object],Process Annealing ,[object Object],	or Stress Relief Annealing,[object Object],Spheroidising,[object Object]
Three stages of annealing,[object Object],[object Object],Soaking or holding time: The material is held for 1h at the annealing temperature for every inch of thickness (a rule of thumb),[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
such as welding, cold working, casting, forging, or machining.
If internal stresses are allowed to remain in a metal, the part may eventually distort or crack.
Annealing helps relieve internal stresses and reduce the chances for distortion and cracking.,[object Object]
An annealed part will respond better to forming operations.Refinement of Grain Structures,[object Object],[object Object]
Annealing can change the shape of the grains back to the desired form.,[object Object]
Process Annealing (Intermediate Annealing),[object Object],A heat treatment used to negate the effects of cold work, i.e., to soften and increase the ductility of a previously strain-hardened metal,[object Object],In process annealing, parts are not as completely softened as they are in full annealing, but the time required is considerably lessened.,[object Object],Process annealing or stress-relief annealing is frequently used as an intermediate heat-treating step during the manufacture of a part.,[object Object],Recovery and recrystallization processes occur during the process.,[object Object]
Stress Relief Annealing,[object Object],Internal residual stresses may develop in metal pieces due to:,[object Object],Plastic deformation processes (machining and grinding),[object Object],Non-uniform cooling of a piece that was processed or fabricated at an elevated temperature (welding or casting),[object Object],Distortion and warpage may result if these residual stresses are not removed.,[object Object]
Stress Relief Annealing,[object Object],[object Object]
The annealing temperature is ordinarily a relatively low one such that effects resulting from cold work and other heat treatments are not affected,[object Object]
Spheroidising,[object Object],Heat to just below Lower Critical Temperature. (about 650-700 deg C),[object Object],Cool very slowly in the furnace.,[object Object],Structure will now be spheroidite, in which the Iron Carbide has ‘balled up’.,[object Object],Used to improve the properties of medium and high carbon steels prior to machining or cold working.,[object Object]
Normalising,[object Object],The name “normalising” comes from the original intended purpose of the process — to return steel to the “normal” conditionit was in before it was altered by cold working or other processing.,[object Object],Heating the alloy to 55 to 85C above the A3 or Acm and holding for sufficient time so that the alloy completely transforms to austenite, followed by air cooling,[object Object]
Normalising,[object Object],To refine the grains and produce a more uniform and desirable size distribution for steels that have been plastically deformed,[object Object],Normalising does not soften the material as much as full annealing does.  ,[object Object],The cooling process does not leave the material as ductile or as internally stress-free.,[object Object],A normalised part will usually be a little stronger, harder, and more brittle than a full-annealed part.,[object Object]
Normalising,[object Object],Heat to Upper Critical Temperature, at which point the structure is all Austenite,[object Object],Cool slowly in air.,[object Object],Structure will now be fine equi-axed pearlite.,[object Object],Used to restore the ductility of cold or hot worked materials whilst retaining other properties.,[object Object]
Annealing,[object Object],Heat to above Upper Critical Temperature, at which point the structure is all Austenite,[object Object],Cool very slowly in the furnace.,[object Object],Structure will now be large-grained pearlite.,[object Object],Used to improve the properties of cast and forged steels prior to machining.,[object Object]
Process Annealing,[object Object],Heat to below Upper Critical Temperature to cause recrystallisation,[object Object],Cool very slowly in the furnace.,[object Object],Structure will now be equi-axed pearlite.,[object Object],Used to maximise the ductility of low carbon steels and other materials after cold working.,[object Object]
Spheroidising,[object Object],Heat to just below Lower Critical Temperature. (about 650-700 deg C),[object Object],Cool very slowly in the furnace.,[object Object],Structure will now be spheroidite, in which the Iron Carbide has ‘balled up’.,[object Object],Used to improve the properties of medium and high carbon steels prior to machining or cold working.,[object Object]
Hardening,[object Object],Hardening of steels done to increase the strength and wear resistance,[object Object],Heated to 30-50 °C above the upper critical temperature and then quenched,[object Object],The quicker the steel is cooled, the harder it would be,[object Object]
	The steels shown in blue can be heat treated to harden them by quenching.,[object Object]
Hardening Temperatures,[object Object],The temperatures for hardening depend on the carbon content. ,[object Object],Plain carbon steels below 0.4% will not harden by heat treatment.,[object Object],The temperature decreases from approx 820 °C to 780 °C as carbon content increases from 0.4% up to 0.8%.  ,[object Object],Above 0.8% the temperature remains constant at 780 °C.,[object Object],Hardening temperature same as that for normalising ,[object Object]
Quenching Media,[object Object],Four commonly used quenching media:,[object Object],Brine – the fastest cooling rate,[object Object],Water – moderate cooling rate,[object Object],Oil – slowest cooling rate,[object Object],Gas – used in automatic furnaces, usually liquid nitrogen, can be very fast cooling.,[object Object],	Too rapid cooling can cause cracking in complex and heavy sections.,[object Object]
Hardenability,[object Object],The hardenability of a steel is broadly defined as the property which determines the depth and distribution of hardness induced by quenching.,[object Object],This is dependent upon the chemical composition of the steel alloy.,[object Object],The addition of Nickel, Chromium and Molybdenum will slow the transformation to other phases and allow more martensite to form.,[object Object],Most heat treatable steels are alloys rather than plain carbon steels.,[object Object]
T T T Diagram,[object Object]
Test for Hardenability ,[object Object],Jominy End Quench test - An austenitized steel bar is quenched at one end only, thus producing a range of cooling rates along the bar.,[object Object],Hardenability curves - Graphs showing the effect of the cooling rate on the hardness of as-quenched steel.,[object Object],Jominy distance - The distance from the quenched end of a Jominy bar. The Jominy distance is related to the cooling rate.,[object Object],Jominy End Quench Test video,[object Object]
Jominy End Quench Test,[object Object],video,[object Object]
Some related terms,[object Object],Retained austenite - Austenite that is unable to transform into martensite during quenching because of the volume expansion associated with the reaction.,[object Object],Tempered martensite - The microconstituent of ferrite and cementite formed when martensite is tempered.,[object Object],Marquenching - Quenching austenite to a temperature just above the MS and holding until the temperature is equalized throughout the steel before further cooling to produce martensite. Also called martempering.,[object Object]
T T T Diagram,[object Object]
Quench cracks,[object Object],Cracks that form at the surface of a steel during quenching due to tensile residual stresses that are produced because of the volume change that accompanies the austenite-to-martensite transformation.,[object Object],©2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc.  Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license.,[object Object]
Furnaces Widely Used in Heat Treatment of Steels,[object Object]
Furnaces Widely Used in Heat Treatment of Steels,[object Object]
Videos,[object Object],Traditional Heat treatment,[object Object],Oil quenching,[object Object]
Tempering,[object Object],The brittleness of martensite makes hardened steels unsuitable for most applications.,[object Object],Different cooling rates between edge and core of components result in internal stresses.,[object Object],This requires the steel to be tempered by re-heating to a lower temperature to reduce the hardness and improve the toughness.  ,[object Object],This treatment converts some of the martensite to bainite. ,[object Object]
Tempering Temperatures,[object Object]
Isothermal Heat Treatments,[object Object],Austempering - The isothermal heat treatment by which austenite transforms to bainite.,[object Object],Isothermal annealing - Heat treatment of a steel by austenitizing, cooling rapidly to a temperature between the A1 and the nose of the TTT curve, and holding until the austenite transforms to pearlite.,[object Object]
TTT Diagram,[object Object]
Surface Hardening,[object Object],[object Object]
Case depth - The depth below the surface of a steel at which hardening occurs by surface hardening and carburizing processes.
Case Hardening : Carburizing
Cyaniding , Carbonitriding
Flame Hardening, ,[object Object]
Cyaniding,[object Object],Hardening the surface of steel with carbon and nitrogen obtained from a bath of liquid cyanide solution.,[object Object],Steel is heated in molten cyanide at about 850 °C followed by quenching.,[object Object],Carbon and nitrogen are absorbed by steel.,[object Object]
Carbonitriding ,[object Object],Hardening the surface of steel with carbon and nitrogen ,[object Object],Steel is heated in a gaseous mixture of ammonia and hydrocarons,[object Object]
Nitriding,[object Object],Another process called Nitriding consists of the diffusion of nitrogen.,[object Object],Nitrogen is introduced into steel by passing ammonia gas through a muffle furnace containing the steel to be nitrided.,[object Object],Temperature used is below the lower critical temperature,[object Object],Greater resistance to wear and corrosion, greater surface hardness.,[object Object]
Flame Hardening,[object Object],Heating the surface being hardened above the upper critical temperature with an oxy acetylene flame before quenching it in a spray of water. ,[object Object],This is a surface hardening process resulting in a hard surface layer of about 2mm to 6mm deep. ,[object Object],The main difference between this process and other surface hardening processes is that the composition of the steel being hardened is not changed. ,[object Object]
Flame Hardening,[object Object],The steel must itself have sufficient hardenability . ,[object Object],Limits this process to steels having carbon contents of above 0.35%. ,[object Object],Steels with carbon contents of 0.4%-0.7% are most suitable for this process. ,[object Object],Steels with higher C content and high alloy steels may not be suitable as they a liable to cracking.  ,[object Object],Result similar to the conventional hardening process but with less hardness penetration.,[object Object]
Induction Hardening,[object Object],Surface to be hardened is heated using inductive heating.,[object Object],Depth of hardness can be closely monitored by controlling current. ,[object Object],Time required for the process is less.,[object Object],Used for producing hard surfaces on crankshafts, axles, gears etc.,[object Object]
Recovery, Recrystallization and Grain Growth,[object Object],The phenomena intimately associated with the annealing of a plastically deformed crystalline material	,[object Object],Plastic deformation increases the density of point imperfections in crystalline materials.,[object Object],This leads to an increase in internal strain energy,[object Object],On annealing, the material tends to lose the extra strain energy and revert to the original condition.,[object Object],This is achieved by the processes of recovery and recrystallisation.,[object Object]
Alteration of Grain Structure ,[object Object],as a Result of Plastic Deformation,[object Object],Before deformation the grains are equiaxed. ,[object Object],The deformation has produced elongated grains.,[object Object]
Heat Treatments
Recovery,[object Object],Takes place at low temperatures of annealing,[object Object],The point imperfections created during plastic deformations are absorbed at grain boundaries,[object Object],Dislocations of opposite sign come together and mutually annihilate each other. ,[object Object],Some of the stored internal strain energy is relieved by virtue of dislocation motion, as a result of enhanced atomic diffusion at the elevated temperature.,[object Object], ,[object Object]
Recrystallization,[object Object],The process of nucleation and growth of new strain free crystals, which replace the deformed crystals,[object Object],No change in crystal structure 	,[object Object],These equiaxed grains will have low dislocation densities and have characteristics of the pre cold-worked condition.,[object Object]
Grain Growth,[object Object],Increase in the average grain size on further annealing after all the cold worked material has recrystallised.,[object Object],Larger grains grow at the expense of smaller grains,[object Object],As the grains grow larger, rate of grain growth decreases.,[object Object],Larger grains will reduce the strength and toughness of the material.,[object Object]
Recrystallization,[object Object],[object Object]

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