B.Sc NURSING III YEAR

1. PRESENTED BY:
Mrs. DEVA PON PUSHPAM.I,
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR.

2. INTRODUCTION
• Data are the observable and measurable facts
that provide information about the
phenomenon under study.
• There are two types of data: Quantitative data
and Qualitative data.
• Quantitative data are numerical or
quantitative in nature collected in quantitative
research.
• Qualitative data are narrative or descriptive
data collected in qualitative research.

3. SOURCES OF DATA
• In research studies, two types of data are
collected; primary and secondary data.
• Primary data (first hand information collected
by the researcher directly from the respondents or
the situations) are directly collected from the
research units, which may be individuals, objects,
programmes or institutions. These may be
collected through interviews, observation,
questioning, biochemical measurements and
psychological measurement scales.

4. Contd.,
• Secondary data are collected from either
internal or external secondary sources.
External sources are published (journals,
magazines, newspapers, government reports,
etc.,) or unpublished records (official records,
patient records, thesis, dissertations, reports,
etc.,). Internal sources are private documents
which include biographies, personal diaries,
letters, etc.,

5. PURPOSES OF DATA
∞Testing hypothesis, addressing research
questions.
∞Describing the sample.
∞Controlling confounding variables.
∞Analyzing potential biases.
∞Understanding subgroup effects.
∞Interpreting results.
∞Assessing treatment fidelity.
∞Assessing costs.
∞Obtaining administrative information.

6. DATA COLLECTION
* Data collection is nothing more than planning
for and obtaining useful information on key
quality characteristics.
* The essentials of data collections are what,
how, who, where and when the data will be
collected.
* The data collection plan should be clear,
unambiguous and operationally defined to get
useful data.

7. Contd.,
* Methods of data collection: These are various
steps or strategies used for gathering and
analyzing data in a research investigation.
* Technique of data collection: The means of
gathering data with the use of specific tools
that are used in given methods are known as
techniques of data collection.
* Instrument / tools for data collection: A
research instrument is a device used to measure
the concept of interest in a research project that
a researcher uses to collect data.

8. SELECTION OF DATA COLLECTION
METHODS
* The nature of phenomenon under study
* Type of research subjects
* Type of research study
* Purpose of the research study
* Size of the study sample
* Distribution of the target population
* Time frame of the study
* Literacy level of the subjects
* Availability of the resources and manpower
* Researcher’s knowledge level and competence

9. QUESTIONNAIRE

10. QUESTIONNAIRE
* Questionnaire is developed by Francis Galton.
* A questionnaire is a systematically developed series
of questions prepared by investigators to fill or
complete by participants in order to collect
required information on construct under study.
* The instrument called as ‘questionnaire’ or ‘self-
administered questionnaire’, when subjects having
instruction to complete the questionnaire on their
own.
* A researcher will play a passive role in
administration and data collection through
questionnaire.

11. TYPES OF QUESTIONS
• Open ended questions
• Closed ended or fixed alternative questions
OPEN ENDED QUESTIONS:
This allow people to respond in their own words,
in narrative fashion. The respondents are asked
to give a written reply to open ended questions
and so adequate space must be provided to
permit a full response.
Eg. What is your opinion about health services?

12. Contd.,
CLOSED ENDED QUESTIONS:
These offer response options, from which
respondents choose the one that most closely
matches the appropriate answer.
Dichotomous question: The respondents have to
select choice of response between two
alternatives.
Eg. Have you undergone any surgery?
1. Yes 2. No

13. Contd.,
Multiple choice question: The respondents have
to select most relevant or correct response from
3 or more alternatives.
Eg. Which of the following is the most common
cause of HIV/AIDS?
1. Sharing clothes
2. Sharing toilets
3. Sharing utensils
4. Unprotected sexual intercourse

14. Contd.,
Rank order question: The respondents should
rank the concepts along a continuum, such as
most to least important.
Eg. What according to you is most important for
your life?
1. Money
2. Education
3. Family
4. Health

15. Contd.,
Rating question: The respondents are asked to
evaluate a particular construct / phenomena
along an ordered continuum. These are
typically on a bipolar scale.
Eg. Rate your job satisfaction on a scale ranging 0
means ‘extremely unsatisfied’ to 10 means ‘fully
satisfied’.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Extremely unsatisfied Fully satisfied

16. Contd.,
Chesk list: It includes several questions with the
same response options. It is a two dimensional
matrix in which a series of questions is listed
on one dimension and response options are
listed on the other.
Eg. Please tick (√) in the given option:
Steps of procedure Yes No Remarks
Explain procedure
Prepare patient
Wash hands
Arrange articles

17. Contd.,
Cafetaria question: The respondents are asked to
select a response that most closely corresponds
to their views.
Eg. What do you think about hormone
replacement therapy?
1. It is dangerous, should be avoided.
2. One should be cautious while using it.
3. I’m uncertain about my views.
4. It is beneficial, should be promoted.

18. Contd.,
Contingency question: It is also known as ‘lead
questionnaire’ in which respondents are asked
further questions in case they are able to answer
the previous question.
Eg. Are you stressed?
1. Yes
2. No
If ‘yes’, mention the reason _______

19. Contd.,
Matrix question: This include multiple questions
and their concerned responses in matrix format.
Eg. Which is your favourite leisure time activity?
1 – Most often 5 – Least often
Leisure time activity 1 2 3 4 5
Reading books
Gardening
Listening to music

20. Contd.,
Importance question: The respondents are asked
to rate the importance of a particular issue, on a
rating scale of 1 – 5.
Eg. Exercising everyday is _________ for health.
1 2 3 4 5
Extremely
important
Very
important
Somewhat
important
Not very
important
Not at all
important

21. Contd.,
Bipolar question: These are questions that have
two extreme answers. Respondent has to mark
his or her response between two opposite ends
of scale.
Eg. At times I am much more active than usual.
Never () () () () () Very often

22. STEPS OF CONSTRUCTION OF
QUESTIONNAIRE
• Selection of construct / concept
• Selection of a pool of items
• Deciding number of items and response
alternatives
• Wording of questionnaire
• Organization of questionnaire
• Administration of questionnaire in pilot project
• Evaluation of psychometric properties
• Preparation of final draft

23. METHODS OF QUESTIONNAIRE
ADMINISTRATION
METHODS
Self
administration
(Face to face)
Computer
Assisted
E mail
Telephonic
Web based

24. ESSENTIALS OF A GOOD
QUESTIONNAIRE
• A cover letter
• Do not overcrowd questionnaire
• Use a large, clear print
• Provide clear instructions
• Do not split question across page
• Pre code all questions
• Easy language
• Short questions
• Logical flow
• Avoid duplications
• Provide blue print
• End the questionnaire in proper way
• Avoid leading questions

25. STRENGTHS OF QUESTIONNAIRE
• Effective method to study a large population.
• Inexpensive, rapid and easy way to collect
information.
• Cost effective.
• Easy to analyse.
• Less time and energy to administer.
• Face to face administration control
respondent bias.

26. LIMITATIONS OF QUESTIONNAIRE
• Only focus on superficial information.
• Not suitable for all (illiterate, blind, etc).
• Mostly forced choice category does not give
freedom to respondent to choose the right
response.
• Subject’s non verbal cues cannot be recorded.
• Sometimes participant may miss or omit
question and provide incomplete
information.

27. RATING SCALE

28. RATING SCALE
• Rating is the term used to express the opinion
or judgement regarding some performance of a
person, object, situation or character.
• Rating scale is used for recording structured
observation that requires observers to rate a
phenomenon along a descriptive continuum
that is typically bipolar.
• The ratings are quantified for subsequent
analysis.

29. Contd.,
• Rating scale refers to a scale with a set of
opinion, which describes varying degree of the
dimensions of an attitude being observed.
• Rating scale could be 3-point, 5-point or 7-
point scale.
Eg. How good was the nursing care you received?
Not good Very good
1 2 3 4 5

30. TYPES OF RATING SCALE
1. GRAPHIC RATING SCALE: It includes
numerical points on the scale which is
printed horizontally at various points from
lowest to highest.
Eg. How much are you satisfied?
Least Most

31. 2. DESCRIPTIVE RATING SCALE: This type
of rating scale do not use number, but divide
the assessment into series of verbal phrases
to indicate the level of performance.
Eg. Judge the level of performance of nursing
personnel in Medical ICU.
Contd.,
NURSING
PERSONNEL
IN THE WARD
LEVEL OF CLINICAL PERFORMANCE
Very active Active Moderately
active
Passive
X
Y
Z

32. 3. NUMERICAL RATING SCALE: It divides the
evaluation criteria into a fixed number of
points but defines only numbers at the
extremes. Each statement is generally assigned
a numerical score ranging from 1 to 10 or even
more.
Eg. Pain assessment numerical scale
No pain 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Worst pain
Contd.,

33. 4. COMPARATIVE RATING SCALE: In this
type, the researcher makes a judgment about
an attribute of a person by comparing it with
that of a similar another person. The researcher
must have pre hand knowledge about the
selected attributes of the people with whom
the subjects are suppose to be compared.
Eg. Mr X’s nursing care skills are closely resemble
those of Mr.Y and Mr.Z.
Contd.,

34. CHARACTERISTICS OF RATING
SCALE
According to Guilford (1954),
• Clarity
• Relevance
• Variety
• Objectivity
• Uniqueness

35. STRENGTHS OF RATING SCALE
∆ Easy to administer and score the attributes.
∆ Graphic rating scales are easy to make and less
time consuming.
∆ Can be easily used for large groups.
∆ Also be used for assessment of interests,
attitudes and personnel characteristics.
∆ Used to evaluate performance and skills and
product outcomes.
∆ Adaptable and flexible research instruments.

36. LIMITATIONS OF RATING SCALE
∆ Misuse can result in decrease in objectivity.
∆ Chances of subjective evaluation.
∆ Dangerous or difficult to fix up rating about
many aspects of an individual.

37. LIKERT SCALE

38. LIKERT SCALE
• Likert scale was developed by Rensis Likert in
1932 as a psychological concept measurement
scale.
• It was developed to measure the attitudes, values
and feelings of people.
• Original version of this scale was developed with
five point scale (strongly agree, agree, uncertain,
disagree and strongly disagree) containing a
mixture of positive and negative declarative
statements regarding measuring variables.
• One can observe four points to seven points
scaling categories.

39. Contd.,
•Likert scale is used to measure value, belief, feeling,
practices and attitude towards a particular attribute.
•It helps to quantify subjective phenomena and
opinions towards a particular construct like attitude
and stigma towards mental illness, etc.
Eg.

40. CHARACTERISTICS OF LIKERT
SCALE
• Psychological measurement tool
• Illustrative in nature
• Neutral statements
• Bipolar scaling method
• Measurement of the specific number of
scaling categories.

41. SCORING OF LIKERT SCALE
• Scoring is done on the basis of the type of
statement and level of respondents.
• For a positive statement, respondent must
get higher score if there is agreement with
statement.
• In negative statement, respondent gets
higher score if there is disagreement with
statement.

42. STRENGTHS OF LIKERT SCALE
• Easy to construct.
• More reliable and valid tool to measure the
psychological variables.
• Only method to assess attitude, belief, value
and perception towards a particular construct.
• Easy to administer for a large population at a
time.
• Less time consuming.

43. • Respondents may feel forced to answer the
questions against all pre planned items.
• Researcher find it difficult to generate
adequate amount of items pool.
• Not appropriate for illiterate and mentally
challenged.
• Difficulty in justifying the selection of the
number of categories and numerical
assignment to these categories.
LIMITATIONS OF LIKERT SCALE

44. SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE

45. SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE
• Charles Osgood, Suci and Tannenbaum (1967)
introduced this method to measure
connotative and denotative meaning attached
to a object, event or concept.
• This is used in patient satisfaction survey,
customer satisfaction survey, employee survey,
marketing survey, operational research,
personality measurements and clinical
psychology.

46. Contd.,
• Bipolar adjective pairs can be used for a variety
of subjects.
• The adjective pairs are selected according to
the objectives of the survey.
• These adjective pairs can be grouped into
three large categories:
➢Evaluation (Good -------- Bad)
➢Potency (Hard ---------- Soft)
➢Activity (Active ---------- Passive)

47. STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS
STRENGTHS:
• Convenient method to assess beliefs, attitudes
and values in quantitative form.
• Easy to administer.
• Provide valid and reliable data.
LIMITATIONS:
• Difficult to select relevant concepts.
• Time consuming to find the appropriate
adjective pairs.

48. VISUAL ANALOGOUS SCALE

49. VISUAL ANALOGOUS SCALE
• Visual analogous scale is used to measure the
intensity of certain sensations and feelings such
as pain, discomfort, anxiety, alertness, quality of
sleep, severity of clinical symptoms, functional
ability and attitude towards environmental
conditions.
• It is a self-report measure consisting of a 10cm
line with a statement at each end representing
one extreme of the dimension being measured.

50. STRENGTHS:
• Valid and reliable tool to measure intensity of
certain sensations and feelings.
• Quantitative assessment is highly subjective.
• Helps to track the progress or improvement in
patient’s condition in clinical area.
LIMITATIONS:
• Cannot be used for comparing results of group
of individuals.
• Chances of subjective bias.
STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS

52. CHECK LIST
• Check list is a simple instrument consisting
prepared list of expected items of
performance or attributes, which are checked
by a researcher for their presence or absence.
• Checklists are constructed by breaking a
performance and the quality of a product,
which specifies the presence or absence of an
attribute or trait which is then “checked” by
the rater / observer.

53. CHARACTERISTICS OF CHECK LIST
• Observe one respondent at a time.
• Clearly specify the characteristics of behaviour
to be observed.
• Use only carefully prepared checklist to avoid
more complex traits.
• The observer should be trained how to observe,
what to observe and how to record the observed
behaviour.
• Use checklists only when you are interested in
calculating a particular characteristic.

54. CONSTRUCTION OF CHECK LIST
• Clear and simple language should be used.
• May be continuous or divided into groups.
• Avoid negative statements.
• Avoid using technical jargons.
• Review the items independently.
• Checklist must have the quality of
completeness and comprehensiveness.
• Each item should have clear response : yes or
no, true or false, etc.

55. STRENGTHS:
• Easy to construct and administer.
• Useful in evaluating learning activities and
procedural work.
• Decreases the chances of errors in observation.
LIMITATIONS:
• Does not indicate quality of performance.
• Has limited use in qualitative research.
• Chances of bias in self-reported checklist.
• Only the presence or absence of attribute is
assessed, not the degree of accuracy.
STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS

56. INTERVIEW

57. INTERVIEW
• It is the most widely used method of data
collection in quantitative and qualitative
research.
• It is a process of communication or interaction
in which the subjects or interviewee gives the
needed information verbally in a face-to-face
situation.
• It is a two way systematic conversations
between an investigator and an informant
initiated for obtaining information relevant to
underlying construct.

58. BENEFITS OF INTERVIEW
• Provide in depth and detailed information.
• Clarify misunderstandings.
• Ask questions at several levels.
• Helps to gather other supplementary
information.
• Use of special devices.
• Accuracy can be checked.
• Flexible and adaptable.

59. TYPES OF INTERVIEW
Structured
Unstructured
Semi
structured
Focused
group
In depth
Joint

60. STRUCTURED INTERVIEW
• It is otherwise called as directive interview or
standardized interview.
• In this, the interviewer has an interview
schedule in which the questions are listed in
the order in which they are to be answered.
• Same questions are put to all respondents.
• Interview schedule is formalized and has
limited set of questions.
• It increases the reliability and credibility of
research data.

61. UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEW
• It is otherwise called as nondirective interview
or nonstandardized interview.
• In this method, the questions can be changed
to meet the respondent’s intelligence,
understanding and beliefs.
• The respondent is encouraged to talk freely
about given topic with minimum prompting.
• It has open ended questions and aim to explore
the information from the respondents.

62. SEMISTRUCTURED INTERVIEW
• It is a flexible method that allows new
questions to be brought up during the
interview, depending upon the situation
during the interview.
• Interviewer prepares an interview guide, which
is an informal list of topics and questions that
the interviewer can ask in different ways from
different participants.
• Interview guide helps the researcher to focus
on the topics at hand without constraining
them to a particular format.

63. FOCUSED GROUP INTERVIEW
• It is a unstructured group interview technique
where 8-12 members are brought together
under the guidance of a trained interviewer to
focus on a specific phenomenon.
• The interviewer direct or guide the interview
according to interview guide.
• The role of interviewer is moderator.
• It is also important to select a comfortable
setting for conducting focus group interview.

64. Contd.,
• The members should be homogeneous in
terms of demographic and socioeconomic
characteristics.
• Duration of the interview is 1.5 to 2 hours.
• All information including facial expression
and body language is recorded.
• It is free from inflexibility of formal methods.
• There are plenty of opportunities for the
interviewee to present their views.

65. FOCUSED GROUP INTERVIEW

66. IN DEPTH INTERVIEW
• This is an intensive and investigative interview
conducted and aimed at studying the
respondent’s opinion and emotions on the
basis of interview guide.
• This requires more training and interpersonal
skills.
• This encourage free expressions of affectively
charged information.

67. JOINT INTERVIEW
• This is common in qualitative studies.
• In this two or more than two people are
interviewed or questioned simultaneously to
develop a consensus on a issue from a different
perspective.
• Mostly, the participants know each other.

68. INTERVIEWING PROCESS
• Preparation for interview
– Fix up appointment
– Appearance and dress
– Familiarity with the interview schedule
• Pre interview introduction
• Developing rapport
• Carrying the interview forward
• Recording the interview
• Closing the interview

69. STRENGTHS OF INTERVIEW
• Facilitates in depth exploration of the topic
and provide detail information.
• Great control over respondents.
• High response rate is achieved.
• Suitable method for illiterate and challenged
population.
• Well planned interview able to furnish
supplementary information.
• Ambiguities can be clarified and incomplete
answers can be followed up.

70. LIMITATIONS OF INTERVIEW
• Inappropriate to study a wide scattered
population.
• Poorly planned interview schedule and guide may
furnish inconsistent and biased information.
• Use of recording devices is a challenge.
• Tabulation, analysis and interpretation of
findings from an unstructured interview is a
challenge.
• Time consuming and high chances of interviewer
bias.

72. OBSERVATION
• It is a process of systematic watching and
recording the behavior of the participants in
their natural setting.
• This process enable the researcher to record
the behavior pattern, functions, actions and
interactions.
• Observation can be overt (everyone knows
they are being observed) or covert (they do
not know that they are being observed).

73. THE OBSERVER-OBSERVED
RELATIONSHIP
• NO CONCEALMENT AND PARTICIPANT:
Observer make no alteration in the social
setting and subjects are aware of the presence
of observer.
• CONCEALMENT AND PARTICIPANT:
Researcher observes subject’s behavior in their
natural setting but adopts a passive role while
observing subjects. Researcher records
observation with minimum intervention.

74. Contd.,
• CONCEALMENT AND NON-PARTICIPANT:
Researcher makes observation from the
periphery of a social setting in such a way that
he is present but does not interact with others
(also called lurking)
• NO CONCEALMENT AND NON-
PARTICIPANT: Participants are aware about
observer’s presence and underlying motive as
well. Commonly used in interventional
nursing studies.

75. TYPES OF OBSERVATION
Observation
Structured
Unstructured
Participant
Non
participant

76. STRUCTURED OBSERVATION
¶ This method of data collection records specific
behaviour, phenomena, incident and events.
¶ The researcher prepares a structured or semi
structured tool to observe the phenomenon.
¶ Observer may record the incident as a whole
(molar approach) or in parts (molecular
approach).
¶ Tools used are check list, rating scale and
category system.

77. UNSTRUCTURED OBSERVATION
¶ This method is generally used in qualitative
studies.
¶ This consists of loosely developed observation
protocol or schedule.
¶ Observed information is recorded either in
daily notes (log book) or field notes, but
photographs and video recording can
supplement the information.

78. PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
➢Ethnographical researchers have been strongly
associated with participant observation, where
observer may live or work in the field and
actively participate in ongoing activities for the
extended period.
➢The level of participation of the observer may
range from minimal state to completely
absorbed state in the group or community.
➢Tools used are log books, field notes, diary,
tape and video recording, etc.

79. NONPARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
➢The observer works as an eavesdropper
(secretly listening or observing), where an
attempt is made to observe people without
interacting with them.
➢People are observed without their knowledge
that they are being observed.
➢This method is used by psychologists to study
children or animals.
➢This possess ethical problems due to observing
people without consent.

80. DEVELOPMENT OF OBSERVATION
SCHEDULE
1. Determine the focus
2. Design a system for data collection
3. Select the sites
4. Select the observers
5. Train the observers
6. Time your observations appropriately

81. STRENGTHS OF OBSERVATION
# Record the behaviour and phenomenon which
cannot be recorded by any other method.
# Enable the researcher to utilize the maximum
information collected through observation.
# Use recording device which makes the
information reproducible anytime and
anywhere.
# Provide depth and variety of information to
study an event from different angles.

82. LIMITATIONS OF OBSERVATION
# Time consuming and expensive.
# Susceptible to observer bias.
# Observer need training to observe a
phenomenon.
# Lack of consent may creep ethical problems.
# Susceptible to Hawthorne effect (subjects
awareness of being observed).
# Observer need to get trained for operating
devices.

83. BIOPHYSIOLOGICAL METHODS

84. BIOPHYSIOLOGICAL METHODS
• Bio physiological measures is an objective data.
• Researchers may use bio physiological data
collection process either alone or in
combination with other methods.
• Specific technical instruments and equipments
are used to measure the physiological and
physical variables, and specialized training is
needed for the interpretation of results.
• Data on physiological activity or dysfunction can
often be gathered through direct
observation(cyanosis, vomiting, oedema, etc.)

85. • To study basic physiological process.
• To study physiological outcome of nursing
care.
• To evaluate nursing interventions.
• To study correlation of physiological
functioning in patients with health problems.
• To assess or compare clinical procedures.
PURPOSES OF
BIOPHYSIOLOGICAL METHODS

86. Bio
physiological
methods
In vivo
(temperature,
blood pressure)
In vitro
Bio chemical
(hormone level,
urea)
Radiological
(MRI, CT, X-ray)
Micro biological
(culture and
sensitivity)
Cytological
(tissue biopsies)
TYPES OF BIOPHYSIOLOGICAL
METHODS

87. STRENGTHS OF
BIOPHYSIOLOGICAL METHODS
• More accurate and error less.
• More objective in nature.
• Provide valid measures for targeted
variables.
• Easy access to most of the instruments in
hospital setting.
• Easy to analyze as it provide quantitative
numerical data.

88. LIMITATIONS OF
BIOPHYSIOLOGICAL METHODS
• Some of the instruments are very expensive.
• Requires significant amount of training,
knowledge and experience.
• Results may be affected by environment
(temperature by room environment).
• May cause fear and anxiety among
participants.
• Some methods have harmful effects on the
participants (radiological).

89. RECORD ANALYSIS

90. RECORD ANALYSIS
• Records are the primary sources of information
and serve important purpose by providing
useful and pertinent information.
• Records could be the best source of information
if they are maintained adequately and
completely.
• Health care organization maintain different
types of record like admission record, drug
administration record, etc.
• Historical research use records as the primary
source of information to collect data.

91. PROBLEMS IN RECORD ANALYSIS
• Organization may refuse to give permission.
• Interpretation of records is a problem.
• Difficult to locate records.
• Maintaining privacy and confidentiality is a
problem.
• Researcher must check the validity and
reliability by internal and external criticism of
the records.

92. STRENGTHS OF RECORD ANALYSIS
• Primary and economical source of information.
• Free from bias.
• Provides all information at a time.
• Do not rely on recall of information and so
chances of forgetfulness can be avoided.
• Availability of large quantity of record makes
the data collector to choose the best record for
gaining information.

93. LIMITATIONS OF RECORD ANALYSIS
• Its challenging to maintain consistency as
different organization prepare record in their
own manner and pattern.
• Difficult to get institutional permission.
• Gaining access is not possible.
• Lack of awareness regarding use of records.
• Not sure about the accuracy of records.
• Incompleteness and inadequacy may be a
problem.

94. Q-SORT

95. Q-SORT
• Q-sort is a measurement strategy first introduced by the
psychologist William Stephenson (1953) as a self-report
technique for determining the relative relevance to an
individual subject of a set of declarative statements.
• Q-sorts are the powerful tools in which the participants
are presented with card arrangement.
• In this technique, participants are provided prewritten
cards with words, phrases or statements and asked to
arrange these cards in an order along with a specific
bipolar dimension (most liked to least liked).
• There are approximately 60-100 such cards that can be
sorted out in 9 to 11 piles with few numbers of cards in
each pile.

96. PURPOSES OF Q-SORT
• Q-sorts can be used in a variety of ways,
depending on the interest of the researchers.
With appropriate modifications, the scope of
the research can be expanded to answer many
difficult issues. Eg. Nurse –patient relationship.
• The Q-sorts can also be applied before and
after an intervention to evaluate the
effectiveness of intervention. Eg. To evaluate
whether attitudes or perceptions of nurses
change following implementation.

97. • Offers a means for in-depth study of small
population.
• Help in exploratory research.
• Captures subjectivity in operation through a
person’s self-reference.
• Participant’s need not be randomly selected.
• May be administered over the internet.
• It focuses on in-depth analysis of small number
of cases rather than superficial study of large
number of cases.
STRENGTHS OF Q-SORT

98. • Time consuming and exhaustive procedure.
• Only small sample can be studied.
• Cannot be used to test hypothesis.
• Population and sample is not rigidly
distributed.
LIMITATIONS OF Q-SORT

100. VIGNETTES
• Vignettes are self-report measure which provide a
brief description of an event or situation to which
participants are asked to react.
• Vignettes provide a valuable technique for
exploring people’s perceptions, beliefs and
meanings about specific situations and are
especially useful for sensitive areas of inquiry that
may not be readily accessible through other
means.
• Vignettes are short scenarios in written or in
pictorial form, intended to elicit responses to
typical scenarios. - Hill, 1997

101. USES OF VIGNETTES
• To tap general attitudes and beliefs.
• To explore sensitive topics.
• To compare perceptions of disparate groups.
• Used in focus group discussions.
• Used in multi method approach.

102. DESIGNING GOOD VIGNETTES
• Stories must appear plausible and real to participants.
• Stories need to avoid depicting eccentric characters and
disastrous events.
• Vignettes need to contain sufficient context.
• Participant’s ability to engage with the story may be
enhanced.
• Vignettes must be presented in an appropriate format.
• Participants may initially provide socially desirable
responses.
• Vignettes should be readily understood, internally
consistent and not too complex.
• It may be desirable to include a control vignette to see if
any significant differences emerge.

103. STRENGTHS OF VIGNETTES
• Permit face-to-face contact with respondents.
• Provide opportunity to explore topics in
depth.
• Allow interviewer to explain or help clarify
questions, increasing the likelihood of useful
responses. Make easy for respondents to reply
to the concerned topic.
• Provides detailed data.

104. LIMITATIONS OF VIGNETTES
• Interviewee may distort information through
recall error, selective perceptions, desire to please
interviewer.
• Interviewer clarifications can result in
inconsistencies.
• Volume of information can be large, may be
difficult to record and reduce data clarity.
• Covers limited sample size.
• Involves subjective interpretations to wider extent.
• No guidelines for analysis and interpretations.
• Hypothetical in nature; participants may react
differently in real situation.

105. PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES

106. PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES
• Projective techniques are methods for
measuring psychological attributes (value,
attitudes and personality) by providing
respondents with unstructured stimuli to
which they respond.
• Scope of projective techniques is increasing in
psychology for personality assessment, clinical
and psychoanalytic treatment.

107. TYPES OF PROJECTIVE
TECHNIQUES
Word
association
Completion
Construction
Expressive
Choice
ordering
Miscellaneous

108. WORD ASSOCIATION TECHNIQUE
• The subjects are given a stimulus or situation
to which they have to respond with the first
word comes in their mind.
• The investigator correlates the response with
given stimulus.
• This technique is commonly used to illicit
inner conflict regarding particular construct.
Eg. If the investigator announce word ‘fire’ the
subject may respond ‘danger’.

109. COMPLETION TECHNIQUE
• Completion techniques supply the subject with
stimulus that is incomplete and subject is required
to complete it as he or she wishes.
• Sentence completion test: The subject is needed
to complete a sentence. This permits to test not
only the words but also the attitudes and ideas
and thus helps in developing hypothesis. Eg.
Working with others all the time is ________.
• Story completion test: The researcher contrives
stories and asks the informants to complete them.

110. CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUE
• The focus is on the product or outcome of the
subject for certain stimulus.
• Researcher ask to construct a story or a picture
for a given stimuli or concept.
• Researcher can give stimulus in the form of
single picture or in ambiguous picture.

111. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
The TAT consists
of a set of pictures of a
normal every day
event and the
respondents are asked
to describe what they
think the pictures
represent.

112. Rosenzweig Test
This test uses a
cartoon format
wherein we have series
of cartoons with no
words inserted in
‘balloons’. The
respondents are asked
to put their own words
in an empty balloon
space.

113. Rorschach Test
This test consists
of 10 cards having
prints of inkblots,
wherein the design
happens to be
symmetrical but
meaningless.
Respondents are asked
to describe what they
perceive in them.

114. Holtzman Inkblot Test (HIT)
It is a modification
of Rorschach test and
consists of 45 cards,
which are based on
colour, movement,
shading and other
factors. One response
per card is interpreted
at three levels of
appropriateness.

115. Tomkins-Horn picture arrangement
Test
This test is
designed for group
administrations with
five plates, each
containing three
sketches that may be
arranged in different
ways to portray
sequences which
participants considers
reasonable.

116. EXPRESSIVE TECHNIQUE
• A subject is asked to role-play, act, draw or
paint a specific concept or situation.
• Expressive technique focus on the manner
in which the subject constructs something,
rather than on what it represents.

117. CHOICE ORDERING
• This is frequently used in quantitative
research and informally used in qualitative
research.
• Subjects are asked to explain why certain
things are ‘most important’ or ‘least
important’ or to ‘rank’ or ‘order’ or
‘categorize’ certain factors associated with
topic under research.

118. MISCELLANEOUS TYPE
• Drawing a picture: Each participant is given a
blank piece of paper and pencil and is asked to draw
a picture that might offer some insights on
behaviour and attitudes.
• Creating families: Using a family analogy, this
technique is used to uncover relationships between
the target category and other categories.
• Using fantasy and daydreams: Participants are
asked to describe topic related fantasies and
daydreams in order to surface characteristics or
features that are important to the study.
• Clay modelling: Participants are provided with
different coloured clays and are requested to give
shape to them to reflect their feelings and thoughts.

119. STRENGTHS OF PROJECTIVE
TECHNIQUES
• The information collected are reliable to an
appreciating extent.
• Provide a view of overall functioning of
individuals.
• Used in individual interviews or focus group
interviews.
• Provide new energy in group discussion.
• Novel and unstructured.
• Little or no demand in terms of literacy and
academic skills.

120. LIMITATIONS OF PROJECTIVE
TECHNIQUES
• Researcher should be skilled and trained.
• Considerable degree of subjectivity applies in the
interpretation of responses to projective
techniques.
• Expensive as highly skilled research staff should
be employed.
• Difficult to perform projective techniques with
statistically significant samples.
• Some subjects may not agree to participate in
exercises such as role playing.

121. THANK YOU