This paper intends to analyse a set of empirical dimensions of the digital divide, based on the narratives of 17 individuals with low levels of schooling. Taking as references the constructs of techno-capital, techno-competencies and techno-dispositions (ROJAS et al., 2010), linked to Bourdieu’s social theory, and that of chronotope developed within the framework of the historical-cultural theory, a model of analysis is put forward, focusing on experiences related to the digital divide in which historical-cultural, axiological, educational, generational and gender dimensions emerge. The analysis of the narratives by individuals with low levels of schooling leads us to similar issues arising from the digital exclusion of older people, especially women. This reality emphasises the role of Public Pedagogy in promoting literacy and digital inclusion (SANDLIN, O’MALLEY & BURDICK, 2011).

1. “I HAVE NO IDEA HOW TO USE THE KEYBOARD”: CHRONOTOPES OF THE
DIGITAL DIVIDE
Luísa Aires, Universidade Aberta, Cristina Ponte, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, José Azevedo, Universidade do
Porto, Portugal
This paper intends to analyse a set of empirical dimensions of the digital divide, based on the narratives of 17
individuals with low levels of schooling. Taking as references the constructs of techno-capital, techno-
competencies and techno-dispositions (ROJAS et al., 2010), linked to Bourdieu’s social theory, and that of
chronotope developed within the framework of the historical-cultural theory, a model of analysis is put forward,
focusing on experiences related to the digital divide in which historical-cultural, axiological, educational,
generational and gender dimensions emerge.
The analysis of the narratives by individuals with low levels of schooling leads us to similar issues arising from the
digital exclusion of older people, especially women. This reality emphasises the role of Public Pedagogy in
promoting literacy and digital inclusion (SANDLIN, O’MALLEY & BURDICK, 2011).
Introduction
The expansion, dissemination and development of skills for the use of digital technologies is characterised by
great optimism, rupture and discrimination, according to social and age groups, levels of schooling or
geographical areas of reference, among others. This asymmetry is not limited to disparities in the use of
technology skills; it is associated with the paradoxes of a fragmented globalisation, of identities of resistance, of a
multiculturality often instrumentalised by superficial social policies that tend to ignore contextual and historical-
cultural specificities.
These paradoxes coexist with the rationales of a new participatory culture that facilitates a distributed cultural
construct, in which everyone has an active role in the culture being produced. This new rationale integrates the
potential benefits and opportunities for (re)defining literacy - by their remoteness from the purely individual and its
closeness to a social and group dimension, by the change of attitudes towards intellectual property, the
development of skills in the labour market, or a broader notion of citizenship (JENKINS et al).
Taking into account the digital divide and digital literacy in the processes of social participation, we propose an
approach to these constructs within the systems of locally situated cultural practices (SCRIBNER & COLE, 1981;
REDER & DAVILA, 2005; WARSCHAWER, 2002). Consequently, the purpose of this paper is to reflect on the
spatio-temporal dimensions of the digital divide present in the narratives of individuals with low levels of schooling,
in particular on the family and school experiences with technologies. A first level of the research explores the
narratives of the individuals based on the concepts of techno-capital, techno-skills and techno-dispositions
(ROJAS; STRAUBHAAR et al., 2010; Aires et al., 2011); in a second level, we deepen the analysis based on a
historical-cultural approach of chronotopes (LEMKE, 1995, BAKHTIN, 1981; HANNAN, 2011). From this spatial-
temporal matrix, we reach the relationships between contexts and meanings that form the memories of individuals
on their experiences with technologies within their family and school (BAKHTIN, 1981; HANNAN, 2011).
Method
The methodological approach used in this study is of an interpretative nature. The sample consists of 17
individuals with low levels of schooling - 16 have attended the 1st cycle of basic school, and 1 attended the 2 nd
year of schooling. Of these, 13 are women and 4 are men, and the average age is 59.3 years.
This sample represents a group of individuals with lower levels of schooling, from the two members of each of the
64 families that participated in the project ”Inclusion and digital participation. A comparative study of the use of
digital media by different social groups in Portugal and the United States“, coordinated by Ponte, Azevedo e
Straubhaar (2009-2011). We have chosen the “educational level” as the key criterion for selecting the sample
because, as in previous research works, we believe that this has a significant value in the interpretation of the
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2. processes of digital inclusion and of diversity of problems associated with, as is the case of the digital divide
(REZA, 1998, in ROJAS et al., 2010. We used the semi-structured interview.
Analysis
First level of analysis
The analysis of oral information collected in the interviews was done in two related levels. In the first level of
analysis, we used content analysis (BARDIN, 1977), and identified the three major categories of analysis:
Family Experiences, School Experiences and Skills and Uses of Technologies (AIRES, MELRO, CORREIA,
PONTE & AZEVEDO, 2011)]. In family experiences, the farming activity of parents and grandparents, and
early entry into the labour market by respondents are the key dominant features. The school experiences are
marked by low family expectations about school, economic problems and low level of schooling of parents. In
the uses of technology, the television and mobile phone are the dominant devices and the Internet is
associated to the lack of use skills. In this phase of analysis, gender (women) and age (average: 59 years)
emerge as the decisive explanatory factors. It should also be noted that whereas in women the techno-skills
are slim, in contrast, techno-expectations are high and are projected in the younger generations (sons and
grandchildren).
Although this first phase of analysis was important for the initial approach to the digital divide in older people
and women with low levels of schooling, we felt it did not exhaust the wealth of information collected through
the interviews. For that reason, we decided to complement this phase with a new perspective of analysis
more focused on discourse dynamics rather than on contents, choosing the chronotope as the unit of
analysis.
Second level of analysis
Based on the concept of chronotope, special emphasis is given to the spatial-temporal dimension of the
individuals’ memories. With this strategy, we recover macro elements of social and educational policies that have
marked the experiences, in particular childhood, youth and the entry into adulthood by respondents.
In this second level of analysis we identified 4 chronotopes: 1) Rural families in the Estado Novo. 2- School and
women/ school and the elderly; 3) Discovery of audiovisual; 4) The Digital World belongs to the “younger
generation”.
In the first chronotope, rural families in the Estado Novo, the discourses refer to a moral context associated to the
Judaeo-Christian cultural tradition, in particular to values such as respect, honesty, of no killing and no stealing.
Large family households with low incomes and the subordinate role of women associated to farming work,
illiteracy and early labour characterise the families of the respondents.
The second chronotope, school and women, school and seniors, integrates the memories of women and of the
elderly on school. Their experiences are linked to family history of illiteracy and of low school expectations, of
school dropout. We also find high expectation of school in relation to younger generations.
For this group of respondents, radio and, in particular, the introduction of television, are important milestones
in their relationship with the world. The chronotope discovery of audiovisual is characterised by the late
access to television, the networks of neighbours in accessing the television, in the current pervasiveness of
television, in particular the high consumption of recreational and information programmes.
Finally, the fourth chronotope, the digital world belongs to the younger generation, is characterized by the
paradox view of this group of respondents about digital technologies, in particular the Internet. Whereas, on
the one hand, the 13 women in the sample state that they do not know how to use the Internet, on the other
hand, they regard it as having social and educational value, stressing that it is an important channel of
communication for the younger people and, therefore, conditions must be provided in the family to facilitate its
access. Although not all respondents indicate it, the majority emphasise its informative value and the risks
associated to it. The lack of interest in learning how to use the Internet is associated with the recognition of its
low value in their professional activities.
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3. Final Remarks
The research on the phenomena associated with the digital divide brings us to a broader framework of social
exclusion. The narratives of individuals with low levels of schooling who participated in this study, on technologies
in a family context, bring us to historical-cultural issues that mark their life paths. The spatial-temporal
contextualisation of the respondents’ memories leads us to a conservative axiological and political context that
dominated the childhood, youth and entry into adulthood of respondents.
Women with low levels of schooling draw close to digital illiteracy, in close connection with the professional
activities of the respondents and the role they play within their families. In contrast, the younger generations are
part of cultural, educational and family constellations that invest more in education and technology to provide them
with higher educational and technological literacy levels.
In short, the multiple dimensions of the digital divide that emerge in the study are of a historical-cultural,
axiological, educational, generational and gender type. Intervention in this field is, therefore, not linear, nor does it
submit to rationales of intervention of a narrow spectrum. On the contrary, research and intervention on this issue
calls for the use of a broad spectrum of strategies, in network, and emphasise the importance of a public
pedagogy with particular emphasis on processes and places of informal education (SANDLIN, O’MALLEY &
BURDICK, 2011).
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