Principles of Learning: A Conceptual Framework for Domain-Specific Theories of Learning Christian J. Weibell (we'-bull) Department of Instructional Psychology and Technology Doctor of Philosophy This study is predicated on the belief that there does not now exist, nor will there ever exist, any single theory of learning that is broad enough to account for all types of learning yet specific enough to be maximally useful in practical application. Perhaps this dichotomy is the reason for the apparent gap between existing theories of learning and the practice of instructional design. As an alternative to any supposed grand theory of learning—and following the lead of prominent thinkers in the fields of clinical psychology and language teaching—this study proposes a shift toward principles. It presents a principle-based conceptual framework of learning, and recommends use of the framework as a guide for creating domain-specific theories of learning. The purpose of this study was to review theories of learning in the behavioral, cognitive, constructive, human, and social traditions to identify principles of learning local to those theories that might represent specific instances of more universal principles, fundamentally requisite to the facilitation of learning in general. Many of the ideas reviewed have resulted from, or been supported by, direct empirical evidence. Others have been suggested based on observational or practical experience of the theorist. The ideas come from different points in time, are described from a variety of perspectives, and emphasize different aspects and types of learning; yet there are a number of common themes shared among them regarding the means by which learning occurs. It is hypothesized that such themes represent universal and fundamental principles of learning. These principles were the objective of the present study. They have been sought through careful review and analysis of both theoretical and empirical literature by methods of textual research (Clingan, 2008) and constant comparative analysis (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). By way of textual research a methodological lens was defined to identify general themes, and by way of constant comparative analysis these themes were developed further through the analysis and classification of specific instances of those themes in the texts reviewed. Ten such principles were identified: repetition, time, step size, sequence, contrast, significance, feedback, context, engagement, and agency. These ten facilitative principles were then organized in the context of a comprehensive principles-of-learning framework, which includes the four additional principles of potential, target, change, and practice. Keywords: principles of learning, domain-specific theories of learning, learning framework, learning theories, learning theory, learning principles, learning, principles, theory, theories

1. Principles of Learning
Dr. Christian Weibell, PhD

2. Research Methods
• Relationships between variables
– Causal
– Correlational

3. Causation
A causes B
Example:
– Cutting your finger causes pain.
– Prolonged shouting causes laryngitis.

4. A is correlated with B
Examples:
– Evergreen tree sales are correlated with
Christmas

5. But…
Correlation
Causation

8. Correlation
Causation

9. First Language Acquisition

10. “What causes language acquisition?”

11. Language Teaching Methods

12. A shift away from “one right method”
toward a principle-based approach.

13. Broader Scope
• Not just language acquisition
• Not just language teaching
• But rather, learning, in general

14. Assumptions:
1. The causal basis of learning exists and can be
identified
2. If not laws (always true), than perhaps at
least principles (generally true)

15. 8 year long study
• Learning is complex, but not entirely
unpredictable
• Learning has been the subject of formal study
throughout recorded history
• The study of learning has been approached
from a variety of perspectives

16. Approaches to the Study of Learning
• Behavioral (observable performance)
• Cognitive (operational constructs, memory
structures, and mental processes)
• Constructive (construction of mental
representations by the learner rather than the
teacher)
• Human (the learner as a whole person)
• Social (the learner as a member of society)

17. Resulting Theories and Methods
•
•
•
•
Theories of learning
Theories of instruction
Theories of instructional design
Methods of teaching

18. Instructional Design
• Eclectic Approach
– Behavioral learning theory -> classroom
management and engagement
– Cognitive learning theory -> organization and
structure of content to be learned (e.g., advance
organizers, mnemonics, etc.)
– Constructive learning theory -> discovery learning
– Human -> learner choice
– Social -> collaborative and project base learning

19. Issues
• In the act of repurposing and combining
fragments of multiple theories, instructional
designers may be haphazardly generating new
theories on the fly in a rather undisciplined
manner
• “A week does not go by that I don’t have the
opportunity to review products that DO NOT
TEACH” (Merrill, 1997, p. 1)

20. Eclectic Borrowing
• Kelly (1963) suggested that “instead of poking
about in the neighbor’s backyards for
methodological windfalls” we should “start
abstracting the scientific principles that are
beginning to emerge from our experiences” (p.
23). He further advised that we should “examine
a variety of scientific theories, not to find one
that can be copied concretely, but to discover
common principles that can be applied to the
building of brand new theories” (p. 23)—
theories that are especially designed to fit the
realm of events we wish to account for.

21. Method
• Textual Research
– research in which the principal data collection
method used is the review and analysis of existing
literature (Clingan, 2008)
• Constant Comparative Analysis
– “inductive category coding with a simultaneous
comparison of all social incidents observed”
(Goetz & LeCompte, 1981, p. 58).

22. Textual Research vs Lit Review
• Clingan (2008) clarified this difference by
saying:
What makes textual research result in a thesis—rather than
just producing a literature review—is that the
scholar/researcher will take the data gathered through
reading the literature, analyze it according to whatever
methodological lenses her work is based on, consider various
opposing theorists and methodologies, and present an
original hypothesis and conclusive interpretation. (p. 1)

23. Methodological Lens
• Fundamentality
• Universality

24. Fundamental Principles
• Fundamental principles are those that have a
critical influence on learning—that is basic,
vital principles upon which successful learning
depends.

25. Universal Principles
• Universal principles are those that might
reasonably be construed to apply broadly to
many different types of learning, including:
changes in behavior, the acquisition of factual
and conceptual knowledge, the mastery of
complex motor skills, the development of
intellectual capacity, and even changes in
attitudes, desires, or beliefs.

26. Constant Comparative Analysis
• The application of constant comparative
analysis was described by Glaser and Strauss
(as cited in Lincoln & Guba, 1985, p. 339) as
having four stages:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Comparing incidents applicable to each category
Integrating categories and their properties
Delimiting the theory
Writing the theory

27. Selecting Theories for Review
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Clarity – meaning the theory has been articulated with enough
clarity and precision so as to be distinct from other theories.
Stability – meaning the theory has been developed sufficiently so
as to be relatively stable in its ideas.
Utility – meaning the theory provides greater insight and
understanding of the process of learning than that which is readily
apparent to the layman and that it might be of practical use in
facilitating learning.
Impact – meaning the theory has attracted attention from people
outside of the direct influence of the originator of the theory.
Durability – meaning the theory has endured as the subject of
formal study or application for several years.

28. Behavioral
• Focuses on the experimental study of
learning,
• Accepting observable performance as the only
valid source of evidence for learning, and
• Motivates learning primarily through the use
of reward or punishment administered
according to carefully planned schedules of
reinforcement

29. Cognitive
• Uses operational constructs to describe:
– knowledge representation,
– memory structures, and
– mental processes
• Learning is promoted by:
– manipulating the presentation of knowledge,
– providing encoding strategies, and
– prescribing rehearsal schedules—in order to facilitate
linking new information with existing knowledge
structures

30. Constructive
• Emphasizes the individual uniqueness of
mental models and the need for learners to
construct their own knowledge structures
• Promotes learning primarily through discovery

31. Human
• Based on the observation that human beings:
– act with intentionality and are
– guided by values
• Learning is promoted by understanding:
– the whole person,
– his or her motives, and
– his or her goals

32. Social
• Emphasizes that people learn from one
another, via:
– observation,
– imitation, and
– modeling

34. 10 Themes Identified
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Repetition
Time
Step Size
Sequence
Contrast
Significance
Feedback
Context
Engagement
Agency

36. Principle #1 – Potential
• Humans are endowed with an inherent
potential for increase in capacity, the
establishment of habit, and the definition of
being.

37. Capacity Increase

38. Principle #2 – Target
• Human potential may be channeled
intentionally toward a specific, predetermined
target of learning, or will otherwise follow
incidentally from the conditions to which a
person is subjected

39. Principle #2 – Target

40. Simple and Complex Learning Targets

41. Principle #3 – Change
• Learning is a specific type of change, which is
governed by principles of (a) repetition, (b)
time, (c) step size, (d) sequence, (e) contrast,
(f) significance, and (g) feedback

42. Principle #3 – Change

43. Principle #3a – Repetition
• Learning is facilitated by repeated experience

44. Principle #3b – Time
• Learning takes time

45. Principle #3c – Step Size
• Smaller increments of attainment are more
easily and more quickly achieved than larger
ones
“Step size of attainment is a measure of effort.”

46. Principle #3d – Sequence
• Prior learning may facilitate or hinder ensuing
attainment

47. Principle #3e – Contrast
• That which is to be learned must be
differentiated from and related to that which
has already been learned, or from that which
is similar, but critically different

48. Principle #3f – Significance
• That which is to be learned must be significant
in some way to the learner

49. Principle #3g – Feedback
• Feedback is the means by which learning is
directed toward a specific target of attainment

50. Principle #4 – Practice
• Principles of change are activated and aligned
with learning targets through models of
practice, exercise, or experience

51. Principle #4 – Practice

52. Principle #5 – Context
• Learning is facilitated by a context of practice
that is the same as, or accurately represents,
the context of performance

53. Principle #5 – Context

54. Principle #6 – Engagement
• Learners will often engage in certain activities
as a matter of habit, though they are also
influenced by their current capacity to engage,
as well as factors of motivation and inhibition
related to the activity as a whole, part of the
activity, its circumstances, or its expected
results.

55. Principle #6 – Engagement

56. Principle #6 – Engagement

57. Factors of Motivation
• Pleasant Sensation – intellectual, emotional, or physical
pleasure
• Pleasant Affiliation – interaction and relationships with
others
• Positive Validation – establishment and validation of one's
identity, self-worth, self-efficacy, self-esteem, or reputation
• Extension – increase in one's capacity (learning itself can
be motivating128)
• Opportunity – the future possibility of engagement in some
activity which brings pleasant sensation, pleasant
affiliation, positive validation, extension, or additional
opportunity

58. Factors of Inhibition
• Unpleasant Sensation – unpleasant intellectual,
emotional, or physical sensation
• Unpleasant Affiliation – unpleasant interaction and
relationships with others
• Negative Validation – diminution of one's identity, selfworth, self-efficacy, self-esteem, or reputation
• Interference – conflict with a more preferred activity
• Responsibility – any future social or moral obligation
incurred through increase in capacity, including the
need to consistently meet or exceed one's own selfestablished standard

59. Principle #7 – Agency
• Learners are not passive recipients of learning,
but active agents with the ability to choose
how they will apply their attention and effort,
and to choose what learning activities they
will engage in. Others may exercise their
agency to promote or inhibit the agency of the
learner, and may play a role in facilitating or
impeding successful learning

60. Four Roles of Agency

61. 2 Nephi 2:14
And now, my sons, I speak unto you these
things for your profit and alearning; for there
is a God, and he hath bcreated all things, both
the heavens and the earth, and all things that
in them are, both things to act and things to
be cacted upon.

63. Using the Principles-of-Learning
Framework in Practical Application
• (a) communicating about the learning process,
• (b) evaluating instructional products and
methods,
• (c) diagnosing very specifically why a particular
product or method fails to result in effective or
efficient learning,
• (d) developing effective instructional products
and methods, and
• (e) conducting research to investigate meaningful
hypotheses suggested by the framework

66. Domain-Specific Theories of Learning

67. Domain-Specific Theories of Learning
A domain-specific theory of learning should:
• Account for each component in the principles-oflearning framework
• Describe the learning pathways through the
domain with the task models they represent and
instruments for measuring and reporting
progress
• Describe the means by which attainments are
made (i.e., the seven principles of change and
expected values), the context of practice, factors
of engagement, and the roles of agents involved

68. Conclusion
• There are many ways by which the general
process of learning might be modeled or
described.
• The ultimate value of any particular model is
its accuracy, utility, and range of convenience
in anticipating, predicting, and explaining
learning in a variety of contexts.

69. References
• http://tinyurl.com/PrinciplesOfLearning

70. Slide Share