1. ENGLISH GRAMMAR
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nguyen Van Do

2. LANGUAGELANGUAGE
Phonology GrammarPhonology Grammar
MorphologyMorphology
Phonology (from thePhonology (from the GreekGreek:: φωνήφωνή,, phōnēphōnē,,
"voice, sound" and λόγος,"voice, sound" and λόγος, lógoslógos, "word,, "word,
speech, subject of discussion") is thespeech, subject of discussion") is the
systematic use of sound to encodesystematic use of sound to encode
meaning in any spokenmeaning in any spoken human languagehuman language,,
or the field of linguistics studying this use.or the field of linguistics studying this use.

3. • MorphologyMorphology is the identification, analysis andis the identification, analysis and
description of structure of words (words as unitsdescription of structure of words (words as units
in thein the lexiconlexicon are the subject matter ofare the subject matter of lexicologylexicology).).
While words are generally accepted as being (withWhile words are generally accepted as being (with
cliticsclitics) the smallest units of) the smallest units of syntaxsyntax, it is clear that, it is clear that
in most (if not all) languages, words can be relatedin most (if not all) languages, words can be related
to other words by rules. For example,to other words by rules. For example, EnglishEnglish
speakers recognize that the wordsspeakers recognize that the words dogdog,, dogsdogs, and, and dogdog
catchercatcher are closely related. English speakersare closely related. English speakers
recognize these relations from their tacitrecognize these relations from their tacit
knowledge of the rules of word formation inknowledge of the rules of word formation in
English. They infer intuitively thatEnglish. They infer intuitively that dogdog is tois to dogsdogs asas
catcat is tois to catscats; similarly,; similarly, dogdog is tois to dog catcherdog catcher asas dishdish is tois to
dishwasherdishwasher..

4. • The rules understood by the speaker reflectThe rules understood by the speaker reflect
specific patterns (or regularities = tính quy t c) inắspecific patterns (or regularities = tính quy t c) inắ
the way words are formed from smaller units andthe way words are formed from smaller units and
how those smaller units interact in speech. In thishow those smaller units interact in speech. In this
way,way, morphology is the branch ofmorphology is the branch of
linguistics that studies patterns of wordlinguistics that studies patterns of word
formation within and across languages,formation within and across languages,
and attempts to formulate rules thatand attempts to formulate rules that
model the knowledge of the speakers ofmodel the knowledge of the speakers of
those languages.those languages.

5. WHAT IS GRAMMAR?WHAT IS GRAMMAR?
- The science which treats of theThe science which treats of the principlesprinciples ofof
language; the study oflanguage; the study of formsforms of speech, andof speech, and
theirtheir relationsrelations to one another; the artto one another; the art
concerned with the right use and application ofconcerned with the right use and application of
the rules of a language, in speaking or writing.the rules of a language, in speaking or writing.
- The art of speaking or writing with correctnessThe art of speaking or writing with correctness
or according to established usage; speechor according to established usage; speech
considered with regard to the rules of aconsidered with regard to the rules of a
grammar.grammar.
- A treatise (luận thuyết) on the principles ofA treatise (luận thuyết) on the principles of
language; a book containing the principles andlanguage; a book containing the principles and
rules for correctnessrules for correctness in speaking or writing.in speaking or writing.

6. ENGLISHENGLISH GRAMMARGRAMMAR
I. PART OF SPEECHI. PART OF SPEECH
Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives, Adverbs, pronouns,Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives, Adverbs, pronouns,
Demonstratives, Conjunctions, Prepositions,Demonstratives, Conjunctions, Prepositions,
Articles, InterjectionsArticles, Interjections
II. GRAMATICAL UNITSII. GRAMATICAL UNITS
Sentences, Clauses, Phrases, Words,Sentences, Clauses, Phrases, Words,
Morphemes (morph, allomorph, text, inter-text)Morphemes (morph, allomorph, text, inter-text)
III. GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIESIII. GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES
Tenses, Aspects, Voices, Numbers,Tenses, Aspects, Voices, Numbers,
Genders, Cases, Persons, MoodsGenders, Cases, Persons, Moods

7. ELEMENTS OFELEMENTS OF
GRAMMARGRAMMAR
 Parts of a sentenceParts of a sentence
- SubjectSubject andand PredicatePredicate::
JohnJohn carefully searched the roomcarefully searched the room [1][1]
The girlThe girl is now a student at a large universityis now a student at a large university [2][2]
His brother grew happier graduallyHis brother grew happier gradually [3] (p. 10)[3] (p. 10)
* The* The subjectsubject has a close general relation to ‘whathas a close general relation to ‘what
is being discussed’ , the ‘is being discussed’ , the ‘themetheme’ of the sentence;’ of the sentence;
with the normal implication that something newwith the normal implication that something new
(the(the predicatepredicate) is being said about a ‘subject’.) is being said about a ‘subject’.

8. - The subject determinesThe subject determines concordconcord (p. 11); It(p. 11); It
changes its position as we go fromchanges its position as we go from
statement to question (ex. P. 11)statement to question (ex. P. 11)
 Operator, auxiliary, and predicationOperator, auxiliary, and predication
- Auxiliary as Operator (as in the followingAuxiliary as Operator (as in the following
sentence) from what we may call thesentence) from what we may call the
predicationpredication
 Range of operatorsRange of operators
((operator = hoạt tố; predication = vị tố/vị tốoperator = hoạt tố; predication = vị tố/vị tố
hóahóa))

9. sentencesentence
SubjectSubject predicatepredicate
auxiliaryauxiliary predicationpredication
asas
operatoroperator
He hadHe had given the girl an applegiven the girl an apple
Had he given the girl an apple?Had he given the girl an apple?
- Range of operatorsRange of operators
- Several auxiliaries (should, do/did, be, have) (p.12)Several auxiliaries (should, do/did, be, have) (p.12)

10. SENTENCE ELEMENTSSENTENCE ELEMENTS
(p12)(p12)
► SUBJECT, VERB, COMPLEMENT, OBJECT,SUBJECT, VERB, COMPLEMENT, OBJECT,
ADVERBIAL (S, V, C, O, A)ADVERBIAL (S, V, C, O, A)
John (S) carefully (A) searched (V) the roomJohn (S) carefully (A) searched (V) the room (O)(O) [1][1]
The girl (S) is (V) now (A) a student (C) at a largeThe girl (S) is (V) now (A) a student (C) at a large
university (A)university (A) [2][2]
His brother (S) grew (V) happier (C) graduallyHis brother (S) grew (V) happier (C) gradually (A) [3](A) [3]
It (S) rained (V) steadily (A) all dayIt (S) rained (V) steadily (A) all day (A) [4](A) [4]
He (S) had given (V) the girl (O) an apple (OHe (S) had given (V) the girl (O) an apple (O) [5]) [5]
They (S) made (V) him (O) the chairman (C) every yearThey (S) made (V) him (O) the chairman (C) every year
(A)(A) [6][6]

11. * We shall see in* We shall see in Element realization typesElement realization types
that considerable variety is possible inthat considerable variety is possible in
realizing each element of structure.realizing each element of structure.
S, O, and A can themselves readily have theS, O, and A can themselves readily have the
internal constituents of Sentences:internal constituents of Sentences:
She (S) saw (V) that [it (S) rained (V) all day (A)] (O)She (S) saw (V) that [it (S) rained (V) all day (A)] (O)
[7][7]
His brother (S) grew (V) happier (C) when [his friendHis brother (S) grew (V) happier (C) when [his friend
(S) arrived (V)] (A)(S) arrived (V)] (A) [8][8]
That [she (S) answered (v) the question (O) correctlyThat [she (S) answered (v) the question (O) correctly
(A)] (S) pleased (V) him (O) enormously (A)(A)] (S) pleased (V) him (O) enormously (A) [9][9]

12. COMPLEMENTS AND OBJECTSCOMPLEMENTS AND OBJECTS
direct object (Odirect object (Odd))
OBJECTOBJECT indirect (Oindirect (Oii))
COMPLEMENT subject complement (CCOMPLEMENT subject complement (Css))
object complement (Cobject complement (Coo))
John carefully searchJohn carefully search the roomthe room (O(Odd) [1]) [1]
He had givenHe had given the girlthe girl (O(Oii)) an applean apple (O(Odd) [5]) [5]
The girl is nowThe girl is now a studenta student (C(Css) at a large university [2]) at a large university [2]
His brother grewHis brother grew happierhappier (C(Css) gradually [3]) gradually [3]
They made himThey made him the chairmanthe chairman (C(Coo) every year [6]) every year [6]
He isHe is a chairmana chairman (C(Css))

13. CATEGORIES OF VERB (p14)CATEGORIES OF VERB (p14)
INTENSIVE, EXTENSIVE AND INTRANSITIVE verbsINTENSIVE, EXTENSIVE AND INTRANSITIVE verbs
Sentence [2] and [3] haveSentence [2] and [3] have Intensive verbsIntensive verbs and alland all
other sentences haveother sentences have Extensive verbsExtensive verbs. The latter are. The latter are
INTRANSITIVEINTRANSITIVE if as in:if as in: It rained steadily all day,It rained steadily all day, theythey
do not permit any of the four object and complementdo not permit any of the four object and complement
types so far distinguished. Extensive verbs aretypes so far distinguished. Extensive verbs are
otherwiseotherwise TRANSITIVETRANSITIVE..
((Intensive verbs = động từ kết chủ/tập trung; extensiveIntensive verbs = động từ kết chủ/tập trung; extensive
verbs = động từ kết động/phân tánverbs = động từ kết động/phân tán))

14. All transitive verbs take a direct object; some, likeAll transitive verbs take a direct object; some, like givegive
in [5], permit an indirect object, and these will bein [5], permit an indirect object, and these will be
distinguished asdistinguished as DITRANSITIVDITRANSITIV
tân). A few verbs, liketân). A few verbs, like makemake in [6], take an objectin [6], take an object
complement (complement (COMPLEX TRANSITIVECOMPLEX TRANSITIVE
phức tân). The rest arephức tân). The rest are MONOTRANSITIVEMONOTRANSITIVE
*The*The aspectual contrastaspectual contrast of the ‘progressive’ and ‘non-of the ‘progressive’ and ‘non-
progressive’:progressive’:
John carefully searched the roomJohn carefully searched the room [1][1]
or John was carefully searching the roomor John was carefully searching the room
But, it is impossible for [2] to be like the [1]But, it is impossible for [2] to be like the [1]
** The girl is now a student at a large universityThe girl is now a student at a large university [2][2]

15. INTENSIVE VERBINTENSIVE VERB
If the word or phrase following a verb is a noun, aIf the word or phrase following a verb is a noun, a
preposition or an adjective and it tells us somethingpreposition or an adjective and it tells us something
about the subject of the sentence, then that sentence'sabout the subject of the sentence, then that sentence's
verb is called "intensive":verb is called "intensive":
(a) Max became(a) Max became a doctora doctor. (noun). (noun)
=> "a doctor" tells us who Max is.=> "a doctor" tells us who Max is.
(b) The cat is(b) The cat is in the kitchenin the kitchen. (preposition). (preposition)
=> "in the kitchen" tells us where the cat is located.=> "in the kitchen" tells us where the cat is located.
(c) Sam seems(c) Sam seems happyhappy. (adjective). (adjective)
=> "happy" describes Sam's state of being.=> "happy" describes Sam's state of being.

16. Note, "intensive" means, to cover a fixed areaNote, "intensive" means, to cover a fixed area
(similar to agricultural term "intensive farming" i.e., to(similar to agricultural term "intensive farming" i.e., to
work the same, fix plot of land), whereas "extensive"work the same, fix plot of land), whereas "extensive"
means, to cover a wider area.means, to cover a wider area.
Intensive verbsIntensive verbs are concentrated to one, fixedare concentrated to one, fixed
structure. Words or phrases following an intensivestructure. Words or phrases following an intensive
verb function as subject complements; i.e., theyverb function as subject complements; i.e., they
complement the subject (they tell us about thecomplement the subject (they tell us about the
subject), they work with the subject, not the verb.subject), they work with the subject, not the verb.
Extensive verbsExtensive verbs are not concentrated to a fixedare not concentrated to a fixed
structure. Words or phrases following an extensivestructure. Words or phrases following an extensive
verb function as the verb's object; they work with theverb function as the verb's object; they work with the
verb, not the subject.verb, not the subject.

17. - All- All transitivetransitive verbs take a directverbs take a direct
object; some likeobject; some like givegive in [5], permitsin [5], permits
an indirect object, and these will bean indirect object, and these will be
distinguished asdistinguished as DITRANSITIVEDITRANSITIVE..
- A few verbs, like make in [6], take an objectA few verbs, like make in [6], take an object
complement and are referred to ascomplement and are referred to as
COMPLEXT TRANSITIVECOMPLEXT TRANSITIVE. The rest are. The rest are
MONOTRANSITIVEMONOTRANSITIVE. (p 14). (p 14)
((transitive v. = đt cập vật; intransitive v. = đttransitive v. = đt cập vật; intransitive v. = đt
bất cập vật; ditransitive v.= đt ngoại độngbất cập vật; ditransitive v.= đt ngoại động
song chuyển; complex tran.v. đt ~ phứcsong chuyển; complex tran.v. đt ~ phức
chuyển; monotransitive v. đt ~ đơn chuyểnchuyển; monotransitive v. đt ~ đơn chuyển))

18.  Transitive and Intransitive VerbsTransitive and Intransitive Verbs
 Depending on the type of object they take,Depending on the type of object they take,
verbsverbs may be transitive, intransitive, ormay be transitive, intransitive, or
linkinglinking..
 The meaning of aThe meaning of a transitive verbtransitive verb isis
incomplete without aincomplete without a direct objectdirect object, as in the, as in the
following examples:following examples:
 INCOMPLETEINCOMPLETE
– The shelfThe shelf holdsholds
 COMPLETECOMPLETE
– The shelfThe shelf holdsholds three books and a vase ofthree books and a vase of
flowers.flowers.
 INCOMPLETEINCOMPLETE
– The committeeThe committee namednamed
 COMPLETECOMPLETE
– The committeeThe committee namednamed a new chairperson.a new chairperson.

19.  INCOMPLETEINCOMPLETE
– The childThe child brokebroke
 COMPLETECOMPLETE
– The childThe child brokebroke the plate.the plate.
 AnAn intransitive verbintransitive verb, on the other hand,, on the other hand,
cannotcannot take a direct object:take a direct object:
– This plant has thrived on the south window sill.This plant has thrived on the south window sill.
 TheThe compound verbcompound verb "has thrived" is"has thrived" is
intransitive and takes no direct object in thisintransitive and takes no direct object in this
sentencesentence. The. The prepositional phraseprepositional phrase "on the"on the
south windowsill" acts as ansouth windowsill" acts as an adverbadverb
describing where the plant thrives.describing where the plant thrives.

20. – The sound of the choir carried through theThe sound of the choir carried through the
cathedral.cathedral.
 The verb "carried" is used intransitively inThe verb "carried" is used intransitively in
this sentence and takes no direct object. Thethis sentence and takes no direct object. The
prepositional phrase "through the cathedral"prepositional phrase "through the cathedral"
acts as an adverb describing where theacts as an adverb describing where the
sound carried.sound carried.
– The train from Montreal arrived four hours late.The train from Montreal arrived four hours late.
 The intransitive verb "arrived" takes noThe intransitive verb "arrived" takes no
direct object, and thedirect object, and the noun phrasenoun phrase "four"four
hours late" acts as an adverb describinghours late" acts as an adverb describing
when the train arrived.when the train arrived.

21. InIn grammargrammar, a, a ditransitive verbditransitive verb is ais a verbverb
which takes awhich takes a subjectsubject and twoand two objectsobjects..
According to certain linguisticsAccording to certain linguistics
considerations, these objects may be calledconsiderations, these objects may be called
directdirect andand indirectindirect, or, or primaryprimary andand
secondarysecondary. This is in contrast to. This is in contrast to
monotransitivemonotransitive verbsverbs, which take only one,, which take only one,
direct, object.direct, object.

22.  Some verbs are followed by two phrases, but theySome verbs are followed by two phrases, but they
have a different order and function from VD (verbhave a different order and function from VD (verb
requires direct object) verbs:requires direct object) verbs:
 (16) My grandpa calls [teenagers] [blithering idiots(16) My grandpa calls [teenagers] [blithering idiots
 In (16), we have two NPs after the verb, but noticeIn (16), we have two NPs after the verb, but notice
that the relationship between the two is not whatthat the relationship between the two is not what
we saw with ditransitive verbs. The first NP,we saw with ditransitive verbs. The first NP,
teenagersteenagers is not receivingis not receiving idiotsidiots. It's not an indirect. It's not an indirect
object at all. In fact, it's the direct object ofobject at all. In fact, it's the direct object of callscalls
(the thing that's being named). The second NP(the thing that's being named). The second NP
isn't receiving anything either. It's renaming theisn't receiving anything either. It's renaming the
direct object. If that sounds similar to what an NPdirect object. If that sounds similar to what an NP
after a linking verb does that's no accident.after a linking verb does that's no accident.

23.  This too is a complement, but since it refers to theThis too is a complement, but since it refers to the
object, we will, sensibly enough, call it an objectobject, we will, sensibly enough, call it an object
complement. An object complement renames orcomplement. An object complement renames or
defines a quality of the direct object. Like subjectdefines a quality of the direct object. Like subject
complements, object complements can also becomplements, object complements can also be
adjective phrases:adjective phrases:
 (17) Some linguists consider [Noam Chomsky](17) Some linguists consider [Noam Chomsky]
[mistaken].[mistaken].
 Just as linking verbs are a type of intransitive verbJust as linking verbs are a type of intransitive verb
with complex predication, these verbs are a formwith complex predication, these verbs are a form
of complex predication for transitive verbs. We willof complex predication for transitive verbs. We will
label such verbs VC (verb requires complement).label such verbs VC (verb requires complement).

24. AA monotransitive verbmonotransitive verb is ais a verbverb that takesthat takes
two arguments: atwo arguments: a subjectsubject and a singleand a single
direct objectdirect object. For example, the verbs. For example, the verbs buybuy,, bitebite,,
breakbreak, and, and eateat are monotransitive in English.are monotransitive in English.
Verbs are categorized in terms ofVerbs are categorized in terms of transitivitytransitivity (i.(i.
e. how many and which types ofe. how many and which types of syntacticsyntactic
argumentsarguments cooccurcooccur with),with),
the basic distinction being betweenthe basic distinction being between
transitive verbstransitive verbs (taking two or more arguments)(taking two or more arguments)
andand intransitive verbsintransitive verbs (taking one argument).(taking one argument).
The transitive category is further divided intoThe transitive category is further divided into
subclasses.subclasses.

25. The following examples showThe following examples show
monotransitive verbs in sentences (themonotransitive verbs in sentences (the
direct object is in boldface):direct object is in boldface):
Yesterday, IYesterday, I boughtbought a cata cat..
The catThe cat bitbit meme!!
HeHe brokebroke the toothpickthe toothpick..
The chefThe chef ateate his own watermelon souphis own watermelon soup ..

26.  Traditionally,Traditionally, transitivitytransitivity patterns are assigned topatterns are assigned to
the verb asthe verb as lexicallexical information, but recent researchinformation, but recent research
inin construction grammarconstruction grammar has argued that this ishas argued that this is
actually a wrong conception, since the same verbactually a wrong conception, since the same verb
very often appears in different contexts ofvery often appears in different contexts of
transitivitytransitivity. Consider:. Consider:
 The man bought his wife a ring.The man bought his wife a ring. ((ditransitiveditransitive))
 Stop me before I buy again.Stop me before I buy again. (intransitive;(intransitive;
antipassiveantipassive construction)construction)
 The cat bit him in the arm.The cat bit him in the arm. (complex transitive)(complex transitive)
 Can you bite me a piece of banana?Can you bite me a piece of banana? (ditransitive)(ditransitive)
 The vase broke.The vase broke. (intransitive;(intransitive; middle voicemiddle voice
construction)construction)

27.  The vase broke.The vase broke. (intransitive;(intransitive; middle voicemiddle voice
construction)construction)
 Can you break me some toothpicks for my modelCan you break me some toothpicks for my model
castle?castle? (ditransitive)(ditransitive)
 She broke the toothpick into tiny pieces.She broke the toothpick into tiny pieces. (complex(complex
transitive)transitive)
 Not now, I'm eating.Not now, I'm eating. (intransitive; antipassive(intransitive; antipassive
construction)construction)
 Thus, inThus, in grammatical construction theorygrammatical construction theory,,
monotransititivy is assigned to , which are schematicmonotransititivy is assigned to , which are schematic
types oftypes of grammatical constructiongrammatical construction, rather than to the, rather than to the
verb.verb.
 Transitivity is roughlyTransitivity is roughly synonymoussynonymous withwith
subcategorization.subcategorization.
 Retrieved fromRetrieved from
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monotransitive_verb""http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monotransitive_verb"

28. STATIVE AND DYNAMIC VERBS (p15)STATIVE AND DYNAMIC VERBS (p15)
Verbs in English can be classified into twoVerbs in English can be classified into two
categories:categories: stativestative verbs andverbs and dynamicdynamic verbs.verbs.
Dynamic verbsDynamic verbs (sometimes referred to as "action(sometimes referred to as "action
verbs") usually describe actions we can take, orverbs") usually describe actions we can take, or
things that happen;things that happen; stative verbsstative verbs usually refer to ausually refer to a
state or condition which is not changing or likely tostate or condition which is not changing or likely to
change. The difference is important, becausechange. The difference is important, because
stative verbs cannot normally be used in thestative verbs cannot normally be used in the
continuous (BE + ING) forms.continuous (BE + ING) forms.
((Stative verbs = động từ tĩnh trạng; Dynamic verbs =Stative verbs = động từ tĩnh trạng; Dynamic verbs =
động từ hành độngđộng từ hành động))

29.  There are many types ofThere are many types of dynamic verbsdynamic verbs,,
but most of them describe activities orbut most of them describe activities or
events which can begin and finish. Here areevents which can begin and finish. Here are
some examples:some examples:
 Play (activity)Play (activity)
 She plays tennis every Friday.She plays tennis every Friday.
She's playing tennis right now.She's playing tennis right now.
 Melt (process)Melt (process)
The snow melts every spring.The snow melts every spring.
The snow is melting right now.The snow is melting right now.

30.  Hit (momentary action)Hit (momentary action)
When one boxer hits another, brainWhen one boxer hits another, brain
damage can result. (This suggests onlydamage can result. (This suggests only
ONE punch.)ONE punch.)
When one boxer is hitting another,When one boxer is hitting another,
brain damage can result. (Thisbrain damage can result. (This
suggests MANY repeated punches.)suggests MANY repeated punches.)

31. Stative verbsStative verbs usually refer to a state orusually refer to a state or
condition which is quite static or unchanging.condition which is quite static or unchanging.
They can be divided into verbs ofThey can be divided into verbs of perceptionperception
or cognitionor cognition (which refer to things in the(which refer to things in the
mind), or verbs ofmind), or verbs of relationrelation (which describe(which describe
the relationships between things). Here arethe relationships between things). Here are
some examples:some examples:
 Hate (perception)Hate (perception)
I hate chocolate.I hate chocolate.
 Believe (perception)Believe (perception)
She believes in UFOs.She believes in UFOs.
 Contain (relation)Contain (relation)
The box contains 24 cans of soda.The box contains 24 cans of soda.
 Own (relation)Own (relation)
Yong owns three motorbikes.Yong owns three motorbikes.

32.  In English language there are verbs that areIn English language there are verbs that are
not normally used in the Continuous Tense,not normally used in the Continuous Tense,
because they describe rather state than anbecause they describe rather state than an
action. They are calledaction. They are called state verbstate verb ((stativestative
verbsverbs,, non-progressive verbsnon-progressive verbs).).
The verbs that can be used in the ContinuousThe verbs that can be used in the Continuous
Tense are calledTense are called action verbsaction verbs ((dynamicdynamic
verbsverbs).).
Some verbs can be bothSome verbs can be both statestate andand actionaction
verbsverbs depending on their meaning.depending on their meaning.

33. Here are some verbs that are notHere are some verbs that are not
normally used in the Continuous Tense.normally used in the Continuous Tense.
like, dislike; love, hatelike, dislike; love, hate
prefer, remember, forget,prefer, remember, forget,
believe,believe, mean, seem, understandmean, seem, understand
want,want, need, know, belong, ownneed, know, belong, own

34.  Here are some a few verbs that can beHere are some a few verbs that can be
bothboth statestate andand action verbsaction verbs
depending on their meaning.depending on their meaning.
 I think you made a mistake.I think you made a mistake.
think = believethink = believe
I am thinking about my mum now.I am thinking about my mum now.
think = mental processthink = mental process

35.  I have two cars.I have two cars.
have = possess, ownhave = possess, own
I am having my lunch now.I am having my lunch now.
have = eathave = eat
 I am seeing my friend tomorrow evening.I am seeing my friend tomorrow evening.
see = meeting withsee = meeting with
I see what you mean.I see what you mean.
See = understandSee = understand

36. Categories of Adverbial (p15)Categories of Adverbial (p15)
The girl isThe girl is nownow a studenta student at a large universityat a large university

The girl is a studentThe girl is a student at a large universityat a large university
The girl is a studentThe girl is a student
The girl isThe girl is nownow a studenta student
The girl isThe girl is at a large universityat a large university
but we cannot say *The girl isbut we cannot say *The girl is nownow
We may say thatWe may say that nownow andand at a largeat a large
universityuniversity are adverbials but belong toare adverbials but belong to
different classes (time & place) (p. 15)different classes (time & place) (p. 15)

37.  carefullycarefully in the following case can bein the following case can be
replaced by many others:replaced by many others:
carefullycarefully
slowlyslowly
John searched the roomJohn searched the room noisilynoisily
sternlysternly
without delaywithout delay
But if these same adverbials were inserted inBut if these same adverbials were inserted in
stative verb sentences, these sentences wouldstative verb sentences, these sentences would
become unacceptable (p. 15). Ex.become unacceptable (p. 15). Ex.
** The girl is now a student carefullyThe girl is now a student carefully

38. TYPES OF SENTENCE STRUCTURE (p.16)TYPES OF SENTENCE STRUCTURE (p.16)
- She is in London- She is in London (now) [1](now) [1]
- She is a student- She is a student (in London) (now) [2](in London) (now) [2]
- John heard the explosion- John heard the explosion (from his office)(from his office)
(when he was locking the door) [3](when he was locking the door) [3]
-- UniversitiesUniversities (gradually)(gradually) becamebecame
famousfamous (in Europe)(in Europe)
(during the Middle Ages) [4](during the Middle Ages) [4]

39. -- They ate the meatThey ate the meat (hungrily) (in their hut)(hungrily) (in their hut)
(that night) [5](that night) [5]
-- He offeredHe offered (her)(her) some chocolatessome chocolates
(politely) (outside the hall) [6](politely) (outside the hall) [6]
-- They elected him chairmanThey elected him chairman
(without argument) (in(without argument) (in
Washington) (this morning) [7]Washington) (this morning) [7]
-- The train had arrivedThe train had arrived (quietly)(quietly)
(at the station) (before(at the station) (before
We noticed it) [8]We noticed it) [8]

40. A place [[1]A place [[1]
CCss [2][2]
intensintens
Vstat ext & tras: OVstat ext & tras: Odd [3][3]
S intens: CS intens: Css [4] (A (A[4] (A (A
momo: Omomo: Odd [5] place)[5] place)
time)time)
trans di: (Otrans di: (O11) O) Odd [6] (A[6] (A
Vdyn complex: OVdyn complex: Odd CCoo [7] proc)[7] proc)
ext intransitive [8]ext intransitive [8]

41. ELEMENT REALIZATIONELEMENT REALIZATION
TYPESTYPES
((p. 16p. 16))
 Sentence elements can be realized by linguisticSentence elements can be realized by linguistic
structures of very different form.structures of very different form.
 The verb element is always aThe verb element is always a verb phraseverb phrase..
 The verb element may be ‘finite’ (showingThe verb element may be ‘finite’ (showing tense,tense,
mood, aspectmood, aspect,, andand voicevoice) or ‘non-finite’ (not showing) or ‘non-finite’ (not showing
tensetense oror moodmood but still capable of indicatingbut still capable of indicating aspectaspect
andand voicevoice).).
 Consider the three types ofConsider the three types of non-finite verb phrasenon-finite verb phrase
functioning as the V element in the italicizedfunctioning as the V element in the italicized non-non-
finite clausesfinite clauses::

42. Mary wantedMary wanted [[to beto be (v)(v) a studenta student (C(Css)) at thatat that
universityuniversity (A)] (O(A)] (Odd).).
[[CarefullyCarefully (A)(A) searchingsearching (V)(V) the roomthe room (O(Odd)] (A),)] (A),
John found a ringJohn found a ring
[[MadeMade (v)(v) the chairmanthe chairman (C(Coo)) every yearevery year (A)](A)]
(A),(A), he was very busyhe was very busy
non-finitenon-finite
clausesclauses::

43.  TheThe verb phraseverb phrase (VP) in English has a(VP) in English has a
noticeably different structure, since thenoticeably different structure, since the
information it carries aboutinformation it carries about mood, tense,mood, tense,
modality, aspectmodality, aspect, and, and voicevoice is quite differentis quite different
from the information carried by afrom the information carried by a nounnoun
phrasephrase. The verb phrase has two functional. The verb phrase has two functional
parts,parts, thethe auxiliaryauxiliary, a grammatical morpheme, a grammatical morpheme
carrying information about mood, tense,carrying information about mood, tense,
modality, and voice; andmodality, and voice; and thethe main verbmain verb, a, a
lexical morpheme carrying its lexicallexical morpheme carrying its lexical
information and, usually, an inflection.information and, usually, an inflection.

45. TheThe moodmood system in English is divided into four