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Chapter 8
- 1. Chapter 8
Human Development
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Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 2. Chapter 8 Overview
Theories of development
Prenatal development
Infancy
Early and middle childhood
Adolescence
Early and middle adulthood
Later adulthood
Death and dying
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 3. Theories of Development
Developmental psychology
– The study of how humans grow, develop,
and change throughout the life span
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 4. What did Piaget find regarding
stages of cognitive development?
Piaget proposed that cognitive ability develops
in four stages, each involving a qualitatively
different way of reasoning and understanding
the world
Four stages of development
– Sensori-motor stage
– Preoperational stage
– Concrete operational stage
– Formal operational stage
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 5. What did Piaget find regarding
stages of cognitive development?
During the sensorimotor stage (birth to 2
years), infants gain an understanding of the
world through their senses and motor
activities
– Infants act on objects and events that are
directly perceived
Major achievement of this stage is object
permanence
– The realization that objects continue to exist
when they can no longer be perceived
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 6. What did Piaget find regarding
stages of cognitive development?
During the preoperational stage (age
2-7), children acquire symbolic function
– Understanding that one thing can stand for
another
During this stage, children exhibit
egocentrism
– Belief that everyone sees what they see, thinks
what they think, etc.
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 7. What did Piaget find regarding
stages of cognitive development?
In the concrete operational stage (7 to
11 or 12 years), children acquire the
concept of conservation
– Understanding that a given quantity of matter
stays the same despite rearrangement or change
in its appearance, as long as nothing is added or
taken away
– Conservation develops because children begin to
understand reversibility
Realizing that any change in the shape, position, or
order of matter can be reversed mentally
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 9. What did Piaget find regarding
stages of cognitive development?
In the formal operational stage (age 11
or 12 years and beyond) preadolescents and
adolescents acquire the capacity for
hypothetico-deductive thinking
– The ability to apply logical thought to abstract
and hypothetical situations in the past, present,
and future
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 10. What are some alternative
approaches to Piaget’s theory?
Information processing theorists argue
that stage-like advances in cognition are
due to improvements in processes such as
working memory
Vygotsky’s sociocultural approach
emphasizes that cognitive development
occurs within a sociocultural context in
which parents and teachers provide age-
appropriate guidance
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 11. What did Kohlberg claim about the
development of moral reasoning?
Lawrence Kohlberg proposed a stage theory
of moral development
He presented moral dilemmas to research
participants and analyzed the moral
reasoning that they described
He classified moral reasoning into three
levels, with each level having two stages
– People progress through the levels and stages in
a fixed order
– Each level has a prerequisite stage of cognitive
development
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 12. What did Kohlberg claim about the
development of moral reasoning?
Preconventional level
– Lowest level of moral development
– “Right” is whatever gains a reward or avoids
punishment
Conventional level
– Right and wrong are based on the internalized
standards of others
– “Right” is whatever is approved by others or is
consistent with the laws of society
Postconventional level
– Highest level of moral reasoning
– “Right” is whatever furthers basic human rights
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 13. Colby & Kohlberg’s longitudinal
study of moral development
Studied moral reasoning
at different ages
Conventional thinking
(stages 3 and 4) is not
predominant until after
age 12
Postconventional thinking
(stage 5) first appears in
adulthood, but is still rare
in 30’s
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 14. How does Erickson’s theory
describe the process of
psychosocial development?
Erik Erikson proposed eight psychosocial
stages that encompass the entire lifespan
Each stage is defined by a conflict that must
be resolved for healthy personality
development to occur
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 15. How does Erickson’s theory
describe the process of
psychosocial development?
Basic trust vs. basic mistrust
– Birth to 1 year
Autonomy vs. shame and doubt
– 1 to 3 years
Initiative vs. guilt
– 3 to 6 years
Industry vs. inferiority
– 6 years to puberty
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 16. How does Erickson’s theory
describe the process of
psychosocial development?
Identity vs. role confusion
– Adolescence
Intimacy vs. isolation
– Young adulthood
Generativity vs. stagnation
– Middle adulthood
Ego integrity vs. despair
– Late adulthood
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 18. What happens during each of the
three stages of prenatal
development?
Period of the zygote
– Zygote attaches to the uterine lining
– Ends 1 to 2 weeks after conception
Period of the embryo
– Major systems, organs, and structures of the
body develop
– Ends when bone cells appear, 3 to 8 weeks after
conception
Period of the fetus
– Rapid growth and development of body
structures, organs, and systems
– 9 weeks after conception until birth
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 19. Infancy
A neonate, a newborn infant up to
one month old, comes equipped with
an impressive range of reflexes,
built-in responses to certain stimuli
that they need to ensure survival in
their new world
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 20. How do infants’ perceptual and
motor abilities change over the
first 18 months of life?
Robert Fantz found that
infants prefer to fixate on
some objects over others
Newborn infants can
discriminate between
objects
Newborns’ visual acuity is
about 20/600, but improves
rapidly during infancy
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 21. How do infants’ perceptual and
motor abilities change over the
first 18 months of life?
Most infants develop
motor skills in the
sequence shown in the
figure
Ages listed are averages
– normal infants may reach
any milestone months earlier
or later than average
Motor development is
largely determined by
maturation
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 22. Temperament
A person’s behavioral style or
characteristic way of responding to the
environment
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- 23. How does temperament shape
infants’ behavior?
Thomas, Chess, and Birch (1970) identified
three general types of temperament
– Easy
Have pleasant moods, approach new people and
situations positively
– Difficult
Have generally unpleasant moods, react negatively to
new people and situations
– Slow-to-warm-up
Tend to withdraw, are slow to adapt, somewhat
negative in mood
Infant temperament is strongly influenced by heredity and is
somewhat predictive of personality later in life
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 24. How do the four attachment
patterns identified in infants differ?
Attachment is the strong affectionate bond
a child forms with the mother or primary
caregiver
Harry Harlow found that contact comfort
forms the basis of attachment in rhesus
monkeys
Human infants exhibit separation anxiety
and stranger anxiety once attachment
has formed, at about 6 to 8 months of age
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 25. How do the four attachment
patterns identified in infants differ?
Secure attachment
– About 65% of infants
– Use mother as a secure base for exploring
– Distressed by separation from caregivers, greet
caregivers when they return
– More cooperative and content than other infants
– Display better social skills as preschool children
Avoidant attachment
– About 20% of infants
– Not responsive to mother, not troubled when
she leaves
– May actively avoid contact with mother after
separation Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 26. How do the four attachment
patterns identified in infants differ?
Resistant attachment
– 10 to 15% of infants
– Seek close contact with mother, and tend not to
branch out and explore
– After separation, may display anger toward
mother; not easily comforted
Disorganized/disoriented attachment
– 5 to 10% of infants
– Protest separation, but exhibit contradictory and
disoriented behavior when reunited
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 27. Early and Middle
Childhood
Mastery of language, both spoken and
written, is just one of several
important developmental processes
that happen in early and middle
childhood.
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 28. What are the milestones of
language development, and how do
various theorists explain them?
Babbling
– Vocalization of basic speech sounds, which
begins between 4 and 6 months
One-word stage
– First words spoken at about 1 year
– First words usually represent objects that move
or that infants can act on
Two-word stage
– Usually begins about 18-20 months
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 29. What are the milestones of
language development, and how do
various theorists explain them?
Telegraphic speech
– Between 2 and 3 years, children start using
short sentences that contain only essential
content words
Children follow grammatical rules in their
speech, as indicated by
overregularization
– Misapplying a grammatical rule, such as adding
“ed” to form a past tense
Children say “goed”, comed”, “doed”, etc.
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 30. What are the milestones of
language development, and how do
various theorists explain them?
Learning theories
– Language is acquired in the same way as other
behaviors– through imitation and reinforcement
Noam Chomsky’s nativist position
– Language ability is largely innate
– The brain contains a language acquisition
device
Most researchers endorse an
interactionist approach
– Acknowledging that infants have innate capacity
for acquiring language, but also recognizing
environmental influences on language learning
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 31. What outcomes are often
associated with the three parenting
styles identified by Baumrind?
Authoritarian parents
– Make arbitrary rules, expect unquestioning
obedience, punish transgressions
Authoritative parents
– Set high but realistic standards, reason with the
child, enforce limits, and encourage open
communication and independence
Permissive parents
– Make few rules or demands, allow children to
make their own decisions and control their own
behavior
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 32. What outcomes are often
associated with the three parenting
styles identified by Baumrind?
Children with authoritative parents
– tend to be happier and have higher self-esteem,
and be more self-reliant, socially competent, and
responsible than their peers
Children with authoritarian parents
– tend to be withdrawn, anxious, and unhappy
Children with permissive parents
– tend to be the most immature, impulsive, and
dependent, and the least self-reliant and self-
controlled
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 33. How do social learning, cognitive
developmental, and gender-schema
theorists explain gender role
development?
Social learning theory
– Gender role development results from
modeling and reinforcement
Cognitive developmental theory
– Development occurs in stages marked by
increasingly sophisticated reasoning about the
permanence of gender
Gender-schema theory
– Children acquire schemas for maleness and
femaleness from their culture and use them to
process information about gender
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 34. Adolescence
The developmental stage that begins
at puberty and encompasses the
period from the end of childhood to
the beginning of adulthood
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 35. How does puberty influence
adolescents’ self-concepts and
behavior?
A period of rapid physical growth and
change that culminates in sexual maturity
Puberty and self-concept
– Early maturation in boys is associated with
higher self-esteem
But may also be associated with greater aggression
and hostility
– Early maturation in girls is associated with
higher risk of eating disorders, earlier sexual
experiences, more unwanted pregnancies, and
earlier exposure to alcohol and drug use
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 36. How does puberty influence
adolescents’ self-concepts and
behavior?
Incidence of sexual activity
increases dramatically
through teen years
Factors associated with
later onset of sexual
activity include
Living with both biological
parents
Higher academic
achievement
Involvement in sports
Frequent attendance of
religious services
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 37. In what ways do parents and peers
contribute to teens’ development?
Most adolescents have good relationships
with their parents
Parenting style affects adolescent behavior
– Permissive parenting is associated with higher
incidence of drug and alcohol use and lower
motivation for academic success in adolescents
– Authoritative parenting is associated with more
psychological distress and lower self-confidence
in adolescents
Peer groups provide adolescents with
standards of comparison and a vehicle for
developing social skills
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 38. What are the neurological and
psychosocial characteristics of
emerging adulthood?
Neuroimaging studies indicate that parts of
the brain involved in decision making and
self control mature between the late teens
and early twenties
Jeffrey Arnett has proposed that this age-
range is a unique developmental period,
which he calls emerging adulthood
– A period when individuals explore options and
develop new skills in work and romantic domains
before committing to adult roles
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- 39. Early and Middle
Adulthood
Early adulthood
– Ages 20 to 45 or 45
Middle adulthood
– Ages 40 or 45 to 65
Late adulthood
– After age 65 or 70
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- 40. How does the body change in the
early and middle adult years?
Presbyopia
– Lens of the eye can longer accommodate
adequately for near vision
– Occurs almost universally in mid to late 40s
Menopause
– Cessation of menstruation, signifying end of
reproductive capacity in women
– Usually occurs between 45 and 55
Gradual decline in testosterone in men
– From age 20 until about 60
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 41. In what ways does intellectual
capacity improve and decline in
adulthood?
Young adults outperform older adults on
tasks requiring speed or rote memory
But older adults outperform younger ones
on tests measuring general information,
vocabulary, reasoning ability, and social
judgment
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 42. What are two themes of social
development in early and middle
adulthood?
Establishment of an intimate partnership
– Majority of adults marry and have children
– But they do so at later ages today than in past
generations
Career development
– Job satisfaction is strongly related to satisfaction
with other aspects of life, such as romantic
relationships
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 43. Later Adulthood
The life expectancy in the United
States has increased from 49 to 76
years from the beginning to the end of
the 20th century
People older than age 65 constitute
about 15% of the U.S. population
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 44. How does the body change in the
later adult years?
General slowing, the reduction in the
speed of neural transmission leading to a
slowing of physical and mental functions
Decline in sensory capacity
Development of chronic conditions such as
arthritis, heart disease, high blood pressure
But, physical exercise can improve strength
and mobility in older adults
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 45. What happens to cognitive ability
in later adulthood?
Crystallized intelligence tends to
increase over the lifespan
– Verbal ability and accumulated knowledge
Fluid intelligence peaks in early 20s and
declines slowly as people age
– Reasoning and mental flexibility
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 46. What are some of the adjustment
challenges in the social lives of
older adults?
Retirement
Loss of a spouse
Altered living arrangements
Most older adults cope with these
adjustments and maintain a sense of life
satisfaction
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 47. What are the components of
successful aging?
Maintaining one’s physical health, mental
abilities, social competence, and overall
satisfaction with life
– An optimistic outlook
– Eating a healthy diet
– Staying active cognitively and socially
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 48. Death and Dying
A developmental task for every elderly
person is to accept the inevitability of
death and to prepare for it
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 49. How do individuals with terminal
illnesses respond to their
circumstances?
Elisabeth Kübler-Ross identified 5 stages
people go through in coming to terms with
death
– Denial
– Anger
– Bargaining
– Depression
– Acceptance
But, critics doubt the universality of these
stages, and argue that reactions to
impending death vary widely between
individuals and across cultures
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon