MEANING,OBJECTIVES,TYPES AND PROCESS OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

1. MEANING OF RESEARCH
Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. Once can also define research as
a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. In fact, research is
an art of scientific investigation. Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be
used in a technical sense. Research is, thus, an original contribution to the existing stock of
knowledge making for its advancement. It is the persuit of truth with the help of study,
observation, comparison and experiment. In short, the search for knowledge through objective
and systematic method of finding solution to a problem is research. The systematic approach
concerning generalisation and the formulation of a theory is also research. As such the term
„research‟ refers to the systematic method consisting of enunciating the problem, formulating a
hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analyzing the facts and reaching certain conclusions
either in the form of solutions(s) towards the concerned problem or in certain generalisations for
some theoretical formulation.
Business research is defined as the systematic and objective process of gathering, recording, and
analyzing data for aid in making business decisions.
OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific
procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not
been discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think
of research objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings:
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this
object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group
(studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated
with something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research
studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as
hypothesis-testing research studies).
MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH
What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of fundamental importance. The
possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following:
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical
problems initiates research;
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
4. Desire to be of service to society;
5. Desire to get respectability.

2. However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to undertake research studies.
Many more factors such as directives of government, employment conditions, curiosity about
new things, desire to understand causal relationships, social thinking and awakening, and the like
may as well motivate (or at times compel) people to perform research operations.
Significance of Research
“All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often better than overconfidence, for it leads to inquiry,
and inquiry leads to invention” is a famous Hudson Maxim in context of which the significance
of research can well be understood. Increased amounts of research make progress possible.
Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes the development of logical
habits of thinking and organisation.
The role of research in several fields of applied economics, whether related to business or
to the economy as a whole, has greatly increased in modern times. The increasingly complex
nature of business and government has focused attention on the use of research in solving
operational problems. Research, as an aid to economic policy, has gained added importance, both
for government and business.
Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic system.
For instance, government‟s budgets rest in part on an analysis of the needs and desires of the
people and on the availability of revenues to meet these needs. The cost of needs has to be
equated to probable revenues and this is a field where research is most needed. Through research
we can devise alternative policies and can as well examine the consequences of each of these
alternatives.
Decision-making may not be a part of research, but research certainly facilitates the decisions of
the policy maker. Government has also to chalk out programmes for dealing with all facets of the
country‟s existence and most of these will be related directly or indirectly to economic
conditions. The plight of cultivators, the problems of big and small business and industry,
working conditions, trade union activities, the problems of distribution, even the size and nature
of defence services are matters requiring research. Thus, research is considered necessary with
regard to the allocation of nation‟s resources. Another area in government, where research is
necessary, is collecting information on the economic and social structure of the nation. Such
information indicates what is happening in the economy and what changes are taking place.
Collecting such statistical information is by no means a routine task, but it involves a variety of
research problems. Theseday nearly all governments maintain large staff of research technicians
or experts to carry on this work. Thus, in the context of government, research as a tool to
economic policy has three distinct phases of operation, viz., (i) investigation of economic
structure through continual compilation of facts; (ii) diagnosis of events that are taking place and
the analysis of the forces underlying them; and (iii) the prognosis, i.e., the prediction of future
developments.
Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning problems of
business and industry. Operations research and market research, along with motivational
research, are considered crucial and their results assist, in more than one way, in taking business
decisions.
Market research is the investigation of the structure and development of a market for the purpose
of formulating efficient policies for purchasing, production and sales. Operations research refers
to the application of mathematical, logical and analytical techniques to the solution of business

3. problems of cost minimisation or of profit maximisation or what can be termed as optimisation
problems. Motivational research of determining why people behave as they do is mainly
concerned with market characteristics.
In other words, it is concerned with the determination of motivations underlying the consumer
(market)
behaviour. All these are of great help to people in business and industry who are responsible for
taking business decisions. Research with regard to demand and market factors has great utility in
business. Given knowledge of future demand, it is generally not difficult for a firm, or for an
industry to adjust its supply schedule within the limits of its projected capacity. Market analysis
has become an integral tool of business policy these days. Business budgeting, which ultimately
results in a projected profit and loss account, is based mainly on sales estimates which in turn
depends on business research. Once sales forecasting is done, efficient production and
investment programmes can be set up around which are grouped the purchasing and financing
plans. Research, thus, replaces intuitive business decisions by more logical and scientific
decisions.
Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships and in seeking
answers to various social problems. It provides the intellectual satisfaction of knowing a few
things just for the sake of knowledge and also has practical utility for the social scientist to know
for the sake of being able to do something better or in a more efficient manner. Research in
social sciences is concerned both with knowledge for its own sake and with knowledge for what
it can contribute to practical concerns. “This double emphasis is perhaps especially appropriate
in the case of social science. On the one hand, its responsibility as a science is to develop a body
of principles that make possible the understanding and prediction of the whole range of human
interactions. On the other hand, because of its social orientation, it is increasingly being looked
to for practical guidance in solving immediate problems of human relations.”
In addition to what has been stated above, the significance of research can also be understood
keeping in view the following points:
(a) To those students who are to write a master‟s or Ph.D. thesis, research may mean a careerism
or a way to attain a high position in the social structure;
(b) To professionals in research methodology, research may mean a source of livelihood;
(c) To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet for new ideas and insights;
(d) To literary men and women, research may mean the development of new styles and creative
work;
(e) To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the generalisations of new theories.
Thus, research is the fountain of knowledge for the sake of knowledge and an important source
of providing guidelines for solving different business, governmental and social problems. It is a
sort of formal training which enables one to understand the new developments in one‟s field in a
better way.

4. TYPES OF RESEARCH
The basic types of research are as follows:
(i) Descriptive vs. Analytical: Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries
of different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs
as it exists at present. In social science and business research we quite often use the term Ex post
facto research for descriptive research studies. The main characteristic of this method is that the
researcher has no control over the variables; he can only report what has happened or what is
happening. Most ex post facto research projects are used for descriptive studies in which the
researcher seeks to measure such items as, for example, frequency of shopping, preferences of
people, or similar data. Ex post facto studies also include attempts by researchers to discover
causes even when they cannot control the variables. The methods of research utilized in
descriptive research are survey methods of all kinds, including comparative and correlational
methods. In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use facts or information
already available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material.
(ii) Applied vs. Fundamental: Research can either be applied (or action) research or
fundamental (to basic or pure) research. Applied research aims at finding a solution for an
immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/business organisation, whereas fundamental
research is mainly concerned with generalisations and with the formulation of a theory.
“Gathering knowledge for knowledge‟s sake is termed „pure‟ or „basic‟ research.”
Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are examples of
fundamental research. Similarly, research studies, concerning human behaviour carried on with a
view to make generalisations about human behaviour, are also examples of fundamental
research, but research aimed at certain conclusions (say, a solution) facing a concrete social or
business problem is an example of applied research. Research to identify social, economic or
political trends that may affect a particular institution or the copy research (research to find out
whether certain communications will be read and understood) or the marketing research or
evaluation research are examples of applied research. Thus, the central aim of applied research is
to discover a solution for some pressing practical problem, whereas basic research is directed
towards finding information that has a broad base of applications and thus, adds to the already
existing organized body of scientific knowledge.
(iii) Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Quantitative research is based on the measurement of
quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.
Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, ie.
phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. For instance, when we are interested in
investigating the reasons for human behaviour (i.e., why people think or do certain things), we
quite often talk of „Motivation Research‟, an important type of qualitative research. This type of
research aims at discovering the underlying motives and desires, using in depth interviews for
the purpose. Other techniques of such research are word association tests, sentence completion
tests, story completion tests and similar other projective techniques.
Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed to find out how people feel or what they think
about a particular subject or institution is also qualitative research. Qualitative research is
specially important in the behavioural sciences where the aim is to discover the underlying
motives of human behaviour. Through such research we can analyse the various factors which

5. motivate people to behave in a particular manner or which make people like or dislike a
particular thing. It may be stated, however, that to apply qualitative research in practice is
relatively a difficult job and therefore, while doing such research, one should seek guidance from
experimental psychologists.
(iv) Conceptual vs. Empirical: Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or
theory. It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to
reinterpret existing ones. On the other hand, empirical research relies on experience or
observation alone, often without due regard for system and theory. It is data-based research,
coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation or experiment.
We can also call it as experimental type of research. In such a research it is necessary to get at
facts firsthand, at their source, and actively to go about doing certain things to stimulate the
production of desired information. In such a research, the researcher must first provide himself
with a working hypothesis or guess as to the probable results. He then works to get enough facts
(data) to prove or disprove his hypothesis. He then sets up experimental designs which he thinks
will manipulate the persons or the materials concerned so as to bring forth the desired
information. Such research is thus characterised by the experimenter‟s control over the variables
under study and his deliberate manipulation of one of them to study its effects. Empirical
research is appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables affect other variables in some
way. Evidence gathered through experiments or empirical studies is today considered to be the
most powerful support possible for a given hypothesis.
(v) Some Other Types of Research: All other types of research are variations of one or more
of the above stated approaches, based on either the purpose of research, or the time required to
accomplish research, on the environment in which research is done, or on the basis of some other
similar factor. Form the point of view of time, we can think of research either as one-time
research or longitudinal research. In the former case the research is confined to a single time-
period, whereas in the latter case the research is carried on over several time-periods. Research
can be field-setting research or laboratory research or simulation research, depending upon the
environment in which it is to be carried out.
Research can as well be understood as clinical or diagnostic research. Such research follow
case-study methods or indepth approaches to reach the basic causal relations. Such studies
usually go deep into the causes of things or events that interest us, using very small samples and
very deep probing data gathering devices. The research may be exploratory or it may be
formalized. The objective of exploratory research is the development of hypotheses rather than
their testing, whereas formalized research studies are those with substantial structure and with
specific hypotheses to be tested. Historical research is that which utilizes historical sources like
documents, remains, etc. to study events or ideas of the past, including the philosophy of persons
and groups at any remote point of time. Research can also be classified as conclusion-oriented
and decision-oriented. While doing conclusion oriented research, a researcher is free to pick up a
problem, redesign the enquiry as he proceeds and is prepared to conceptualize as he wishes.
Decision-oriented research is always for the need of a decision maker and the researcher in this
case is not free to embark upon research according to his own inclination. Operations research is
an example of decision oriented research since it is a scientific method of providing executive
departments with a quantitative basis for decisions regarding operations under their control.

6. Importance of Knowing How Research is Done
The study of research methodology gives the student the necessary training in gathering material
and arranging or card-indexing them, participation in the field work when required, and also
training in techniques for the collection of data appropriate to particular problems, in the use of
statistics, questionnaires and controlled experimentation and in recording evidence, sorting it out
and interpreting it. In fact, importance of knowing the methodology of research or how research
is done stems from the following considerations:
(i) For one who is preparing himself for a career of carrying out research, the importance of
knowing research methodology and research techniques is obvious since the same constitute the
tools of his trade. The knowledge of methodology provides good training specially to the new
research worker and enables him to do better research. It helps him to develop disciplined
thinking or a „bent of mind‟ to observe the field objectively. Hence, those aspiring for careerism
in research must develop the skill of using research techniques and must thoroughly understand
the logic behind them.
(ii) Knowledge of how to do research will inculcate the ability to evaluate and use research
results with reasonable confidence. In other words, we can state that the knowledge of research
methodology is helpful in various fields such as government or business administration,
community development and social work where persons are increasingly called upon to evaluate
and use research results for action.
(iii) When one knows how research is done, then one may have the satisfaction of acquiring a
new intellectual tool which can become a way of looking at the world and of judging every day
experience. Accordingly, it enables use to make intelligent decisions concerning problems facing
us in practical life at different points of time. Thus, the knowledge of research methodology
provides tools to took at things in life objectively.
(iv) In this scientific age, all of us are in many ways consumers of research results and we can
use them intelligently provided we are able to judge the adequacy of the methods by which they
have been obtained. The knowledge of methodology helps the consumer of research results to
evaluate them and enables him to take rational decisions.
Research Process
Before embarking on the details of research methodology and techniques, it seems appropriate to
present a brief overview of the research process. Research process consists of series of actions or
steps necessary to effectively carry out research and the desired sequencing of these steps.
The chart indicates that the research process consists of a number of closely related activities,
as shown through 1 to 8. But such activities overlap continuously rather than following a strictly
prescribed sequence. At times, the first step determines the nature of the last step to be
undertaken. If subsequent procedures have not been taken into account in the early stages,
serious difficulties may arise which may even prevent the completion of the study. One should
remember that the various steps involved in a research process are not mutually exclusive; nor
they are separate and distinct. They do not necessarily follow each other in any specific order
and the researcher has to be constantly anticipating at each step in the research process the

7. requirements of the subsequent steps. However, the following order concerning various steps
provides a useful procedural guideline regarding the research process:
(1) formulating the research problem;
(2) extensive literature survey;
(3) developing the hypothesis;
(4) preparing the research design;
(5) determining sample design;
(6) collecting the data;
(7) execution of the project;
(8) analysis of data;
(9) hypothesis testing;
(10) generalisations and interpretation, and
(11) preparation of the report or presentation of the results,i.e., formal write-up of conclusions
reached.
A brief description of the above stated steps will be helpful.
1. Formulating the research problem: There are two types of research problems, viz., those
which relate to states of nature and those which relate to relationships between variables. At the
very outset the researcher must single out the problem he wants to study, i.e., he must decide the
general area of interest or aspect of a subject-matter that he would like to inquire into. Initially
the problem may be stated in a broad general way and then the ambiguities, if any, relating to the
problem be resolved. Then, the feasibility of a particular solution has to be considered before a
working formulation of the problem can be set up. The formulation of a general topic into a
specific research problem, thus, constitutes the first step in a scientific enquiry. Essentially two
steps are involved in formulating the research problem, viz., understanding the problem
thoroughly, and rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an analytical point of view.
The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with one‟s own colleagues or with
those having some expertise in the matter. In an academic institution the researcher can seek the
help from a guide who is usually an experienced man and has several research problems in mind.
Often, the guide puts forth the problem in general terms and it is up to the researcher to narrow it
down and phrase the problem in operational terms. In private business units or in governmental
organisations, the problem is usually earmarked by the administrative agencies with whom the
researcher can discuss as to how the problem originally came about and what considerations are
involved in its possible solutions.
The researcher must at the same time examine all available literature to get himself acquainted
with the selected problem. He may review two types of literature—the conceptual literature
concerning the concepts and theories, and the empirical literature consisting of studies made
earlier which are similar to the one proposed. The basic outcome of this review will be the
knowledge as to what data and other materials are available for operational purposes which will
enable the researcher to specify his own research problem in a meaningful context. After this the
researcher rephrases the problem into analytical or operational terms i.e., to put the problem in as
specific terms as possible. This task of formulating, or defining, a research problem is a step of
greatest importance in the entire research process. The problem to be investigated must be
defined unambiguously for that will help discriminating relevant data from irrelevant ones. Care
must, however, be taken to verify the objectivity and validity of the background facts concerning
the problem. Professor W.A. Neiswanger correctly states that the statement of the objective is of

8. basic importance because it determines the data which are to be collected, the characteristics of
the data which are relevant, relations which are to be explored, the choice of techniques to be
used in these explorations and the form of the final report. If there are certain pertinent terms, the
same should be clearly defined along with the task of formulating the problem. In fact,
formulation of the problem often follows a sequential pattern where a number of formulations
are set up, each formulation more specific than the preceeding one, each one phrased in more
analytical terms, and each more realistic in terms of the available data and resources.
2. Extensive literature survey: Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should be
written down. It is compulsory for a research worker writing a thesis for a Ph.D. degree to write
a synopsis of the topic and submit it to the necessary Committee or the Research Board for
approval.
At this juncture the researcher should undertake extensive literature survey connected with the
problem. For this purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and published or unpublished
bibliographies are the first place to go to. Academic journals, conference proceedings,
government reports, books etc., must be tapped depending on the nature of the problem. In this
process, it should be remembered that one source will lead to another. The earlier studies, if any,
which are similar to the study in hand should be carefully studied. A good library will be a great
help to the researcher at this stage.
3. Development of working hypotheses: After extensive literature survey, researcher should
state in clear terms the working hypothesis or hypotheses. Working hypothesis is tentative
assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences. As such the
manner in which research hypotheses are developed is particularly important since they provide
the focal point for research. They also affect the manner in which tests must be conducted in the
analysis of data and indirectly the quality of data which is required for the analysis. In most types
of research, the development of working hypothesis plays an important role. Hypothesis should
be very specific and limited to the piece of research in hand because it has to be tested. The role
of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting the area of research and to keep him on
the right track. It sharpens his thinking and focuses attention on the more important facets of the
problem. It also indicates the type of data required and the type of methods of data analysis to be
used.
How does one go about developing working hypotheses? The answer is by using the following
approach:
(a) Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and the objectives in
seeking a solution;
(b) Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the problem for possible trends,
peculiarities and other clues;
(c) Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar problems; and
(d) Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field interviews on a limited scale
with interested parties and individuals with a view to secure greater insight into the practical
aspects of the problem.
Thus, working hypotheses arise as a result of a-priori thinking about the subject, examination of
the available data and material including related studies and the counsel of experts and interested
parties.

9. Working hypotheses are more useful when stated in precise and clearly defined terms. It may as
well be remembered that occasionally we may encounter a problem where we do not need
working hypotheses, specially in the case of exploratory or formulative researches which do not
aim at testing the hypothesis. But as a general rule, specification of working hypotheses in
another basic step of the research process in most research problems.
4. Preparing the research design: The research problem having been formulated in clear cut
terms, the researcher will be required to prepare a research design, i.e., he will have to state the
conceptual structure within which research would be conducted. The preparation of such a
design facilitates research to be as efficient as possible yielding maximal information. In other
words, the function of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant evidence with
minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. But how all these can be achieved depends
mainly on the research purpose. Research purposes may be grouped into four categories, viz.,
(i) Exploration,
(ii) Description,
(iii) Diagnosis, and
(iv) Experimentation.
A flexible research design which provides opportunity for considering many different aspects of
a problem is considered appropriate if the purpose of the research study is that of exploration.
But when the purpose happens to be an accurate description of a situation or of an association
between variables, the suitable design will be one that minimises bias and maximises the
reliability of the data collected and analysed.
There are several research designs, such as, experimental and non-experimental hypothesis
testing. Experimental designs can be either informal designs (such as before-and-after without
control, after-only with control, before-and-after with control) or formal designs (such as
completely randomized design, randomized block design, Latin square design, simple and
complex factorial designs), out of which the researcher must select one for his own project.
The preparation of the research design, appropriate for a particular research problem, involves
usually the consideration of the following:
(i) The means of obtaining the information;
(ii) The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any);
(iii) Explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be organized
and the reasoning leading to the selection;
(iv) The time available for research; and
(v) The cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance available for the purpose.
5. Determining sample design: All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry
constitute a „universe‟ or „population‟. A complete enumeration of all the items in the
„population‟ is known as a census inquiry. It can be presumed that in such an inquiry when all
the items are covered no element of chance is left and highest accuracy is obtained. But in
practice this may not be true. Even the slightest element of bias in such an inquiry will get larger
and larger as the number of observations increases. Moreover, there is no way of checking the
element of bias or its extent except through a resurvey or use of sample checks. Besides, this
type of inquiry involves a great deal of time, money and energy. Not only this, census inquiry is

10. not possible in practice under many circumstances. For instance, blood testing is done only on
sample basis. Hence, quite often we select only a few items from the universe for our study
purposes. The items so selected constitute what is technically called a sample.
The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly known as the
sample design. In other words, a sample design is a definite plan determined before any data are
actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given population. Thus, the plan to select 12 of a
city‟s 200 drugstores in a certain way constitutes a sample design. Samples can be either
probability samples or non-probability samples. With probability samples each element has a
known probability of being included in the sample but the non-probability samples do not allow
the researcher to determine this probability. Probability samples are those based on simple
random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, cluster/area sampling whereas non-
probability samples are those based on convenience sampling, judgement sampling and quota
sampling techniques. A brief mention of the important sample designs is as follows:
(i) Deliberate sampling: Deliberate sampling is also known as purposive or non-probability
sampling. This sampling method involves purposive or deliberate selection of particular units of
the universe for constituting a sample which represents the universe. When population elements
are selected for inclusion in the sample based on the ease of access, it can be called convenience
sampling. If a researcher wishes to secure data from, say, gasoline buyers, he may select a fixed
number of petrol stations and may conduct interviews at these stations. This would be an
example of convenience sample of gasoline buyers. At times such a procedure may give very
biased results particularly when the population is not homogeneous. On the other hand, in
judgement sampling the researcher‟s judgement is used for selecting items which he considers as
representative of the population. For example, a judgement sample of college students might be
taken to secure reactions to a new method of teaching. Judgement sampling is used quite
frequently in qualitative research where the desire happens to be to develop hypotheses rather
than to generalise to larger populations.
(ii) Simple random sampling: This type of sampling is also known as chance sampling or
probability sampling where each and every item in the population has an equal chance of
inclusion in the sample and each one of the possible samples, in case of finite universe, has the
same probability of being selected. For example, if we have to select a sample of 300 items from
a universe of 15,000 items, then we can put the names or numbers of all the 15,000 items on slips
of paper and conduct a lottery. Using the random number tables is another method of random
sampling. To select the sample, each item is assigned a number from 1 to 15,000. Then, 300 five
digit random numbers are selected from the table. To do this we select some random starting
point and then a systematic pattern is used in proceeding through the table. We might start in the
4th row, second column and proceed down the column to the bottom of the table and then move
to the top of the next column to the right.
When a number exceeds the limit of the numbers in the frame, in our case over 15,000, it is
simply passed over and the next number selected that does fall within the relevant range.
Since the numbers were placed in the table in a completely random fashion, the resulting sample
is random. This procedure gives each item an equal probability of being selected. In case of
infinite population, the selection of each item in a random sample is controlled by the same
probability and that successive selections are independent of one another.

11. (iii) Systematic sampling: In some instances the most practical way of sampling is to select
every 15th name on a list, every 10th house on one side of a street and so on. Sampling of this
type is known as systematic sampling. An element of randomness is usually introduced into this
kind of sampling by using random numbers to pick up the unit with which to start.
This procedure is useful when sampling frame is available in the form of a list. In such a design
the selection process starts by picking some random point in the list and then every nth element
is selected until the desired number is secured.
(iv) Stratified sampling: If the population from which a sample is to be drawn does not
constitute a homogeneous group, then stratified sampling technique is applied so as to obtain a
representative sample. In this technique, the population is stratified into a number of
nonoverlapping subpopulations or strata and sample items are selected from each stratum. If the
items selected from each stratum is based on simple random sampling the entire procedure, first
stratification and then simple random sampling, is known as stratified random sampling.
(v) Quota sampling: In stratified sampling the cost of taking random samples from individual
strata is often so expensive that interviewers are simply given quota to be filled from different
strata, the actual selection of items for sample being left to the interviewer‟s judgement. This is
called quota sampling. The size of the quota for each stratum is generally proportionate to the
size of that stratum in the population. Quota sampling is thus an important form of non-
probability sampling. Quota samples generally happen to be judgement samples rather than
random samples.
(vi) Cluster sampling and area sampling: Cluster sampling involves grouping the population
and then selecting the groups or the clusters rather than individual elements for inclusion in the
sample. Suppose some departmental store wishes to sample its credit card holders. It has issued
its cards to 15,000 customers. The sample size is to be kept say 450. For cluster sampling this list
of 15,000 card holders could be formed into 100 clusters of 150 card holders each. Three clusters
might then be selected for the sample randomly. The sample size must often be larger than the
simple random sample to ensure the same level of accuracy because is cluster sampling
procedural potential for order bias and other sources of error is usually accentuated. The
clustering approach can, however, make the sampling procedure relatively easier and increase
the efficiency of field work, specially in the case of personal interviews.
Area sampling is quite close to cluster sampling and is often talked about when the total
geographical area of interest happens to be big one. Under area sampling we first divide the total
area into a number of smaller non-overlapping areas, generally called geographical clusters, then
a number of these smaller areas are randomly selected, and all units in these small areas are
included in the sample. Area sampling is specially helpful where we do not have the list of the
population concerned. It also makes the field interviewing more efficient since interviewer can
do many interviews at each location.
(vii) Multi-stage sampling: This is a further development of the idea of cluster sampling. This
technique is meant for big inquiries extending to a considerably large geographical area like an
entire country. Under multi-stage sampling the first stage may be to select large primary
sampling units such as states, then districts, then towns and finally certain families within towns.

12. If the technique of random-sampling is applied at all stages, the sampling procedure is described
as multi-stage random sampling.
(viii) Sequential sampling: This is somewhat a complex sample design where the ultimate size
of the sample is not fixed in advance but is determined according to mathematical decisions on
the basis of information yielded as survey progresses. This design is usually adopted under
acceptance sampling plan in the context of statistical quality control.
In practice, several of the methods of sampling described above may well be used in the same
study in which case it can be called mixed sampling. It may be pointed out here that normally
one should resort to random sampling so that bias can be eliminated and sampling error can be
estimated. But purposive sampling is considered desirable when the universe happens to be small
and a known characteristic of it is to be studied intensively. Also, there are conditions under
which sample designs other than random sampling may be considered better for reasons like
convenience and low costs.
The sample design to be used must be decided by the researcher taking into consideration the
nature of the inquiry and other related factors.
6. Collecting the data: In dealing with any real life problem it is often found that data at hand
are inadequate, and hence, it becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate. There are
several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably in context of money
costs, time and other resources at the disposal of the researcher.
Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey. If the researcher
conducts an experiment, he observes some quantitative measurements, or the data, with the help
of which he examines the truth contained in his hypothesis. But in the case of a survey, data can
be collected by any one or more of the following ways:
(i) By observation: This method implies the collection of information by way of investigator‟s
own observation, without interviewing the respondents. The information obtained relates to what
is currently happening and is not complicated by either the past behaviour or future intentions or
attitudes of respondents. This method is no doubt an expensive method and the information
provided by this method is also very limited. As such this method is not suitable in inquiries
where large samples are concerned.
(ii) Through personal interview: The investigator follows a rigid procedure and seeks answers
to a set of pre-conceived questions through personal interviews. This method of collecting data is
usually carried out in a structured way where output depends upon the ability of the interviewer
to a large extent.
(iii) Through telephone interviews: This method of collecting information involves contacting
the respondents on telephone itself. This is not a very widely used method but it plays an
important role in industrial surveys in developed regions, particularly, when the survey has to be
accomplished in a very limited time.
(iv) By mailing of questionnaires: The researcher and the respondents do come in contact with
each other if this method of survey is adopted. Questionnaires are mailed to the respondents with
a request to return after completing the same. It is the most extensively used method in various

13. economic and business surveys. Before applying this method, usually a Pilot Study for testing
the questionnaire is conduced which reveals the weaknesses, if any, of the questionnaire.
Questionnaire to be used must be prepared very carefully so that it may prove to be effective in
collecting the relevant information.
(v) Through schedules: Under this method the enumerators are appointed and given training.
They are provided with schedules containing relevant questions. These enumerators go to
respondents with these schedules. Data are collected by filling up the schedules by enumerators
on the basis of replies given by respondents. Much depends upon the capability of enumerators
so far as this method is concerned. Some occasional field checks on the work of the enumerators
may ensure sincere work. The researcher should select one of these methods of collecting the
data taking into consideration the nature of investigation, objective and scope of the inquiry,
finanical resources, available time and the desired degree of accuracy. Though he should pay
attention to all these factors but much depends upon the ability and experience of the researcher.
In this context Dr A.L. Bowley very aptly remarks that in collection of statistical data
commonsense is the chief requisite and experience the chief teacher.
7. Execution of the project: Execution of the project is a very important step in the research
process. If the execution of the project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected would
be adequate and dependable. The researcher should see that the project is executed in a
systematic manner and in time. If the survey is to be conducted by means of structured
questionnaires, data can be readily machine-processed. In such a situation, questions as well as
the possible answers may be coded. If the data are to be collected through interviewers,
arrangements should be made for proper selection and training of the interviewers. The training
may be given with the help of instruction manuals which explain clearly the job of the
interviewers at each step. Occasional field checks should be made to ensure that the interviewers
are doing their assigned job sincerely and efficiently.
A careful watch should be kept for unanticipated factors in order to keep the survey as much
realistic as possible. This, in other words, means that steps should be taken to ensure that the
survey is under statistical control so that the collected information is in accordance with the pre-
defined standard of accuracy. If some of the respondents do not cooperate, some suitable
methods should be designed to tackle this problem. One method of dealing with the non-
response problem is to make a list of the non-respondents and take a small sub-sample of them,
and then with the help of experts vigorous efforts can be made for securing response.
8. Analysis of data: After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of
analyzing them. The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as
establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding,
tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences. The unwieldy data should necessarily be
condensed into a few manageable groups and tables for further analysis. Thus, researcher should
classify the raw data into some purposeful and usable categories. Coding operation is usually
done at this stage through which the categories of data are transformed into symbols that may be
tabulated and counted. Editing is the procedure that improves the quality of the data for coding.
With coding the stage is ready for tabulation.
Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the classified data are put in the form of
tables. The mechanical devices can be made use of at this juncture. A great deal of data, specially

14. in large inquiries, is tabulated by computers. Computers not only save time but also make it
possible to study large number of variables affecting a problem simultaneously.
Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on the computation of various percentages,
coefficients, etc., by applying various well defined statistical formulae. In the process of analysis,
relationships or differences supporting or conflicting with original or new hypotheses should be
subjected to tests of significance to determine with what validity data can be said to indicate any
conclusion(s). For instance, if there are two samples of weekly wages, each sample being drawn
from factories in different parts of the same city, giving two different mean values, then our
problem may be whether the two mean values are significantly different or the difference is just a
matter of chance. Through the use of statistical tests we can establish whether such a difference
is a real one or is the result of random fluctuations. If the difference happens to be real, the
inference will be that the two samples come from different universes and if the difference is due
to chance, the conclusion would be that the two samples belong to the same universe. Similarly,
the technique of analysis of variance can help us in analysing whether three or more varieties of
seeds grown on certain fields yield significantly different results or not. In brief, the researcher
can analyse the collected data with the help of various statistical measures.
9. Hypothesis-testing: After analysing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a position to
test the hypotheses, if any, he had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the hypotheses or they
happen to be contrary? This is the usual question which should be answered while testing
hypotheses. Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test, have been developed by
statisticians for the purpose. The hypotheses may be tested through the use of one or more of
such tests, depending upon the nature and object of research inquiry. Hypothesis-testing will
result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it. If the researcher had no hypotheses to
start with, generalisations established on the basis of data may be stated as hypotheses to be
tested by subsequent researches in times to come.
10. Generalisations and interpretation: If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it
may be possible for the researcher to arrive at generalisation, i.e., to build a theory. As a matter
of fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalisations. If the
researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on the basis of
some theory. It is known as interpretation. The process of interpretation may quite often trigger
off new questions which in turn may lead to further researches.
11. Preparation of the report or the thesis: Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of
what has been done by him. Writing of report must be done with great care keeping in view the
following:
1. The layout of the report should be as follows:
(i) The preliminary pages;
(ii) The main text, and
(iii) The end matter.
In its preliminary pages the report should carry title and date followed by acknowledgements
and foreword. Then there should be a table of contents followed by a list of tables and list of
graphs and charts, if any, given in the report.

15. The main text of the report should have the following parts:
(a) Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research and an
explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. The scope of the study
along with various limitations should as well be stated in this part.
(b) Summary of findings: After introduction there would appear a statement of findings and
recommendations in non-technical language. If the findings are extensive, they should be
summarised.
(c) Main report: The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence and
broken-down into readily identifiable sections.
(d) Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, researcher should again put down the results
of his research clearly and precisely. In fact, it is the final summing up.
At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data.
1. Bibliography, i.e., list of books, journals, reports, etc., consulted, should also be given in the
end. Index should also be given specially in a published research report.
2. Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language avoiding vague
expressions such as „it seems,‟ „there may be‟, and the like.
3. Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if they present the information
more clearly and forcibly.
4. Calculated „confidence limits‟ must be mentioned and the various constraints experienced in
conducting research operations may as well be stated.
Criteria of Good Research
Whatever may be the types of research works and studies, one thing that is important is that they
all meet on the common ground of scientific method employed by them. One expects scientific
research to satisfy the following criteria:
1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.
2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another
researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has
already been attained.
3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are as
objective as possible.
4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and estimate
their effects upon the findings.
5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the methods
of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data should be checked
carefully.
6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to
those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good
reputation in research and is a person of integrity.

16. In other words, we can state the qualities of a good research as under:
1. Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with specified steps to be
taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well defined set of rules. Systematic
characteristic of the research does not rule out creative thinking but it certainly does reject the
use of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.
2. Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning
and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying out research.
Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole whereas deduction is the process
of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion which follows from that very premise. In fact,
logical reasoning makes research more meaning meaningful in the context of decision making.
3. Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or more aspects
of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external validity to
research results.
4. Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified by
replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.
Problems Encountered by Researchers in India
Researchers in India, particularly those engaged in empirical research, are facing several
problems.
Some of the important problems are as follows:
1. The lack of a scientific training in the methodology of research is a great impediment for
researchers in our country. There is paucity of competent researchers. Many researchers take a
leap in the dark without knowing research methods. Most of the work, which goes in the name of
research is not methodologically sound. Research to many researchers and even to their guides,
is mostly a scissor and paste job without any insight shed on the collated materials. The
consequence is obvious, viz., the research results, quite often, do not reflect the reality or
realities. Thus, a systematic study of research methodology is an urgent necessity. Before
undertaking research projects, researchers should be well equipped with all the methodological
aspects. As such, efforts should be made to provide short duration intensive courses for meeting
this requirement.
2. There is insufficient interaction between the university research departments on one side and
business establishments, government departments and research institutions on the other side.
A great deal of primary data of non-confidential nature remain untouched/untreated by the
researchers for want of proper contacts. Efforts should be made to develop satisfactory liaison
among all concerned for better and realistic researches. There is need for developing some
mechanisms of a university—industry interaction programme so that academics can get ideas
from practitioners on what needs to be researched and practitioners can apply the research done
by the academics.
3. Most of the business units in our country do not have the confidence that the material supplied
by them to researchers will not be misused and as such they are often reluctant in supplying the
needed information to researchers. The concept of secrecy seems to be sacrosanct to business
organisations in the country so much so that it proves an impermeable barrier to researchers.
Thus, there is the need for generating the confidence that the information/data obtained from a
business unit will not be misused.

17. 4. Research studies overlapping one another are undertaken quite often for want of adequate
information. This results in duplication and fritters away resources. This problem can be solved
by proper compilation and revision, at regular intervals, of a list of subjects on which and the
places where the research is going on. Due attention should be given toward identification of
research problems in various disciplines of applied science which are of immediate concern to
the industries.
5. There does not exist a code of conduct for researchers and inter-university and
interdepartmental rivalries are also quite common. Hence, there is need for developing a code of
conduct for researchers which, if adhered sincerely, can win over this problem.
6. Many researchers in our country also face the difficulty of adequate and timely secretarial
assistance, including computerial assistance. This causes unnecessary delays in the completion
of research studies. All possible efforts be made in this direction so that efficient secretarial
assistance is made available to researchers and that too well in time. University
Grants Commission must play a dynamic role in solving this difficulty.
7. Library management and functioning is not satisfactory at many places and much of the
time and energy of researchers are spent in tracing out the books, journals, reports, etc., rather
than in tracing out relevant material from them.
8. There is also the problem that many of our libraries are not able to get copies of old and
new Acts/Rules, reports and other government publications in time. This problem is felt more
in libraries which are away in places from Delhi and/or the state capitals. Thus, efforts should be
made for the regular and speedy supply of all governmental publications to reach our libraries.
9. There is also the difficulty of timely availability of published data from various government
and other agencies doing this job in our country. Researcher also faces the problem on account of
the fact that the published data vary quite significantly because of differences in coverage by the
concerning agencies.
10. There may, at times, take place the problem of conceptualization and also problems relating
to the process of data collection and related things.