Transformational Mentoring

BAKKE GRADUATE UNIVERSITY
FAITH-BASED MENTORING AND TRANSFORMATION OF AT-RISK YOUTH
A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY
IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF MINISTRY
BY
BRYAN MCCABE
SEATTLE, WASHINGTON

To Julie who is the love of my life

All men dream: but not equally.
Those who dream by night in the dusty recesses of their minds
wake in the day to find it was vanity:
but the dreamers of the day are dangerous men,
for they may act their dreams with open eyes,
to make it possible.
-T.E. Lawrence

CONTENTS
TABLES.......................................................................................................................x
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.........................................................................................xi
ABBREVIATIONS...................................................................................................xiv
GLOSSARY...............................................................................................................xv
ABSTRACT.............................................................................................................xvii
CHAPTER 1.
INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM.....................................................................1
Problem..................................................................................................................1
Audience................................................................................................................1
Background of the Project.....................................................................................6
The Outcome of the Project.................................................................................10
The Contribution of the Project to Transformational Leadership.......................12
CHAPTER 2.
OTHER PROPOSED SOLUTIONS..........................................................................17
Overview of the Literature..................................................................................17
Larson and Brendtro: Addressing Spiritual Needs..............................................17
D’Ambrosio: Using Story to Connect with Adolescent Hearts...........................19
Search Institute: Developmental Assets..............................................................21
Geoffrey Canada: Large-scale Replicable Change..............................................23
Rhodes: Long Term Youth Mentoring Relationships.........................................25
Osgood, Foster, Flanagan, and Ruth: The Transition to Adulthood...................27
Furstenberg, Cook, Eccles, Elder, and Sameroff: Parenting...............................29
Dortch and Fine: One-to-One and Group Mentoring..........................................31
v

Rodriguez: Activism and Community Building..................................................34
Payne: Poverty and Classes.................................................................................36
Eldredge: A Crisis of Masculinity.......................................................................37
Olsen: Institutional and Systemic Reform...........................................................39
Ruthruff: Listening and Learning........................................................................41
Miller and Sowers: Fatherlessness......................................................................44
Anderson: Sociology of Youth Violence............................................................46
CHAPTER 3.
THE CONTEXT OF MINISTRY..............................................................................51
Introduction.........................................................................................................51
Historical Background.........................................................................................53
Worldview...........................................................................................................56
Statistics...............................................................................................................57
Major Stakeholders..............................................................................................58
Other Current Issues............................................................................................61
CHAPTER 4.
THE BIBLICAL AND THEOLOGICAL BASIS......................................................67
High-risk Youth and Mentors in God’s Story.....................................................67
A Five Act Play...................................................................................................67
Act One: Creation................................................................................................68
Act Two: Separation............................................................................................70
Act Three: Israel..................................................................................................72
Act Four: Jesus....................................................................................................76
Act Five: The Rest of the Story in the New Testament.......................................80
CHAPTER 5.
METHODS OF RESEARCH.....................................................................................85
vi

Identifying the Research......................................................................................85
Questionnaire.......................................................................................................85
Interviews............................................................................................................86
LAMP Mentor Interviews............................................................................87
LAMP Mentee Interviews............................................................................88
Global Perspective: Interviews in Honduras................................................89
Policymakers and Mentoring Program Coordinators in Honduras..............95
Pastors in Honduras......................................................................................96
Potential Mentors in Honduras.....................................................................96
Potential Mentees in Honduras....................................................................97
Parents of At-risk Youth in Honduras..........................................................99
Personal Journals.................................................................................................99
LAMP Data Analysis........................................................................................100
CHAPTER 6.
FINDINGS AND RESULTS....................................................................................102
Evaluation of the Methodology.........................................................................102
LAMP Mentor Questionnaire.....................................................................104
Interviews...................................................................................................106
Personal Journal.........................................................................................109
LAMP Data Analysis.................................................................................110
Desired Outcomes.............................................................................................111
Calling-based Mentoring...................................................................................111
Incarnational Mentoring....................................................................................113
Reflective Mentoring.........................................................................................115
Servant Mentoring.............................................................................................117
Contextual Mentoring........................................................................................120
vii

Global Mentoring..............................................................................................122
Shalom Mentoring.............................................................................................123
Prophetic Mentoring..........................................................................................127
Transformational Mentoring.............................................................................129
CHAPTER 7.
CONCLUSION.........................................................................................................132
Principles Learned.............................................................................................132
Applications.......................................................................................................137
Recommendations.............................................................................................139
Other Final Conclusions....................................................................................141
Church and School Partnerships................................................................141
Urban and Suburban Partnerships..............................................................142
Cross-Cultural Relationships......................................................................143
Incarnational Leadership and Faith-based Mentoring................................144
Final Thoughts...................................................................................................146
APPENDICES..........................................................................................................132
Appendix A.
Expanded Answers to the LAMP Mentor Questionnaire..................................132
Appendix B.
Expanded Answers to the LAMP Mentor Interviews.......................................137
Appendix C.
Expanded Answers to LAMP Mentee Interviews.............................................139
Appendix D.
Expanded Answers to Honduras Policymaker Interviews................................141
Appendix E.
Expanded Answers to Honduras Pastor Interviews...........................................143
Appendix F.
Expanded Answers to the Honduras Potential Mentors Interviews..................145
viii

Appendix G.
Expanded Answers to the Honduras Potential Mentee Interviews...................147
Appendix H.
Expanded Answers to the Honduras Parent Interviews....................................151
BIBLIOGRAPHY.....................................................................................................153
VITA.........................................................................................................................153
ix

TABLES
Table 1. Significant ways to transform the lives of at-risk youth.............................107
Table 2. Key ways to mobilize faith-based mentors.................................................107
Table 3. Obstacles to faith-based mentoring............................................................108
Table 4. Hopes and dreams of at-risk youth.............................................................108
Table 5. The voice of at-risk youth...........................................................................109
x

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Above all, I would like to thank God. Jesus Christ died for me, and today the
Spirit lives in me so that I can play some small part in advancing the kingdom of God. I
cannot wait to spend eternity with the Savior!
To my wife, Julie, I want to say thank you for being so supportive throughout the
process of earning a doctorate degree. This dissertation would not have been possible
without you. You were present during many of my courses, but you also served me
sacrificially in many ways that people did not see. You proofread every single one of my
projects. You understood when I stayed up late to write or read. Family plans were put on
hold until daddy graduated. You believe in me and you inspire me. Thank you!
Much thanks to my daughters, Kyra and Sierra. Half of the time I think that you
are better at urban ministry than I am. You make me laugh. You are the greatest blessings
that God could possibly ever give a father. My hope is that you will be able to understand
the incredible adventure that God has planned for your lives.
I have been blessed with an amazing family. Mom and Dad, I cannot thank you
enough for everything you have done for me. Shannon, you are a great sister. Early on in
your adult life, you set an example of adventure with God that I wanted to follow.
Cameron, you are also an incredible sister. God is doing great things through your life.
Jim and Sandy, thank you so much for supporting me throughout this journey.
I would like to thank all of my friends at North Way Christian Community in
Pittsburgh. In particular, I would like to thank Dr. Jay Passavant and Pastor Scott Stevens
for supporting me and advocating for LAMP.
xi

Thanks to Dr. Eric Swanson, my dissertation supervisor, who is an example of the
kind of person I want to be some day. People follow you because you are genuine and
intentional about giving yourself away to others. Your encouragement and advice has
been very meaningful.
Much thanks to the people I interviewed and surveyed for this project. I was
warmly invited into the life experiences of many LAMP mentors and people living in
Honduras. Thank you for being transparent about your lives.
To the LAMP mentees and their families in Homewood, I want to say thank you
for sharing your lives with me. I learn a lot from you about courage, resilience, and
persistence in the face of tremendous adversity. You have taught me much about how the
world really operates, and how we can all respond to adversity.
To Dr. Randy White and Dr. Ray Bakke, thank you for mentoring me. I read your
books before I met you, and when I met you I realized that both of you are the real deal.
You live out what you talk about in your books and lectures. Thank you for blazing trails
for those of us who are following you.
Much thanks to my neighbor and friend, Dr. John Stahl-Wert, for serving as my
second reader. Your advice has been very helpful, and I have benefited tremendously
from your prayers and support. Thank you for blazing a trail in Pittsburgh.
Much thanks to my LAMP colleagues, Joanne Galinowski, Lee Solomon, Janet
Blair-Raible, Corrie Passavant, Del Howze, Deb Dilliplaine, Kelly Phillips, Mark
Zabierek, Arleen Braun, and Raquel Branchik. It is a privilege to serve with such
amazing leaders. I also want to thank my personal learning community, Errika Fearbry-
xii

Jones, Tim Parsley, John Vecchi, and Jason Gregg. You all provided much needed
encouragement at many points as I progressed through the program.
Much thanks to my friends, family, and colleagues who have encouraged me
throughout the doctoral journey that I have not mentioned. I appreciate your friendship
and support.
xiii

ABBREVIATIONS
BBBS Big Brothers / Big Sisters
GFSC Gang Free Schools and Communities
HBCM Homewood-Brushton Community Ministerium
LAMP Learning and Mentoring Partnership
NGO Non-governmental Organization
P/PV Public/Private Ventures
PYIP Pittsburgh Youth Intervention Project
SZP Safety Zone Partnership
YMCA Young Men’s Christian Association
xiv

GLOSSARY
Calling-based Mentoring. Calling-based mentors commit to spending time with a
mentee, despite the potential outcomes of the relationship, because mentoring is
something God has called them to see through to the finish.
Contextual Mentoring. Contextual mentors respect a mentee’s life and culture as they
seek to help mentees experience meaning according to God’s purposes, not from
the perspective of a mentor’s own limited worldview.
Faith-based Mentoring. For the purposes of this project, Faith-based Mentoring
describes the intentional placing of a caring adult from a congregation into a
mentoring relationship with a high-risk young person. Faith-based Mentors make
at least a one-year commitment to see their mentee for several hours at a time
each week.
Family-to-one Mentoring. Family-to-one Mentoring provides the same kind of
mentoring as One-to-one Mentoring, except that a mentor’s spouse and family are
often deeply involved in the mentoring activities that take place at the mentor’s
home or out in the community.
Global Mentoring. Global mentors intentionally expand a mentee’s worldview by
teaching about the complexities of the modern world.
Group Mentoring. Group Mentoring encompasses a group of caring adults who spend
intentional and consistent time mentoring a group of at-risk youth.
Incarnational Mentoring. Incarnational mentors intentionally spend a significant
amount of time with a mentee in the mentee’s neighborhood or environment.
One-to-one Mentoring. A One-to-one Mentors spends three or four hours each week
with one at-risk youth. One-to-one Mentors make a minimum one-year
commitment in which they will interact with a mentee out in the community, not
in a school setting.
Prophetic Mentoring. Prophetic mentors provide mentees a voice by advocating for
them consistently over time. Prophetic mentors take-on broken systems in a way
that will help clear the barriers to a mentee’s development.
Reflective Mentoring. Reflective mentors move beyond programs and activities and
focus their mentoring experiences in a way that will allow them and their mentee
to find meaning within the context of their relationship.
xv

School-based Mentoring. School-based mentoring places one adult with one at-risk
youth. The mentor makes a one-year commitment to spend at least two hours once
a week with a mentee inside a school building rather than out in the community.
Servant Mentoring. Servant mentors initially become involved in mentoring because
they want to serve God; however, as a result they come to be of service to a
mentee.
Shalom Mentoring. Shalom mentors are bridge-builders who encourage reconciliation
between a mentee and the world around them.
Transformational Mentoring. Transformational mentoring comprises intentional, long-
term relationships between mentors and mentees that can lead to a process of
transformation over time. Transformational Mentoring relationships are calling-,
servant-, and shalom-based; incarnational; reflective; contextual; global; and
prophetic in nature.
xvi

ABSTRACT
The world is rapidly becoming increasingly urban, and the complexities of
modern cities often lead to increasing numbers of at-risk youth. Most societies struggle
with developing effective interventions for children growing up in the midst of strained
or even broken families, institutions, and systems. This dissertation represents the
culmination of a project examining faith-based mentoring as a potential means of
transforming the lives of at-risk urban youth by building life-changing assets.
Chapter 1 evaluates the problem of at-risk youth living in complex urban
environments; delineates the audience, the background, and the outcomes of the project;
and the potential contributions of the project to transformational leadership. Chapter 2
offers a literature review that examines alternative solutions to faith-based mentoring.
Chapter 3 looks at case studies of faith-based mentoring in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and
in the country of Honduras. Chapter 4 examines the theological foundation for faith-
based mentoring by examining biblical mentoring relationships. Chapter 5 outlines the
research methods utilized for the project, including a questionnaire, interviews, personal
journals, and quantitative data analysis. Chapter 6 presents findings supporting the
concept of transformational mentoring. Chapter 7 concludes the project by presenting the
principles learned, applications, recommendations, and other final thoughts about church
and school partnerships, urban and suburban partnerships, cross-cultural relationships,
and the impact of incarnational leadership on faith-based mentoring programs.
xvii

CHAPTER 1.
INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM
Problem
I began studying faith-based mentoring because I wanted to discover and share
how to transform the lives of at-risk youth in a way that readers might come to
understand how to build life-changing developmental assets. Most faith-based mentoring
initiatives are designed to impact at-risk urban youth. Christians from both urban and
suburban churches mentor children living in poor urban neighborhoods that experience
high levels of crime, violence, gang activity, and school dropout rates.
The mentees in these faith-based mentoring initiatives often demonstrate
increases in academic performance, school attendance, and improved behavior at school.
Beyond that, however, improved school performance, little is known about how faith-
based mentoring relationships might contribute to the holistic transformation of
children’s lives. This project seeks to show how faith-based mentoring makes a whole-
life transformational impact beyond improved academic performance. Also, the project
introduces the concept of transformational mentoring as a framework that could guide
others to do more research. At-risk urban youth have many needs, but they also have
many developmental assets that faith-based mentoring programs can build upon to help
transform lives. The church should have a transformational role in society, and long term
faith-based mentoring relationships can help to transform the lives of at-risk youth.
Audience
Faith-based mentors, youth practitioners, churches, schools, and mentoring
organizations comprise the general audience for this project. The findings will also be
1

relevant to funders: individuals, foundations, churches, corporations, and government
agencies. The practical and transferable research can help people and institutions serving
at-risk youth to design the kinds of programming that leads to transformation.
Faith-based mentors are volunteers, and just like most volunteers they want the
valuable time they give to serving to be effective. Don Simmons notes that people “will
be attracted to service if they can see that it will have results, build community, meet a
real spiritual need, and help them grow in faith.”1
Mentoring is not just some random way
to give away time to young people. Mentoring is a seed-planting ministry that generally
produces results over the course of a number of years, or even a lifetime
There are strategies that can help mentors be more effective and I anticipate the
findings from this project will help both to increase their effectiveness and to greatly
encourage the faith-based mentors in my audience. Indeed, mentoring has not only a
positive impact on the at-risk youth being mentored, it conversely transforms the mentors
when they see the transformation occurring in the lives of the at-risk youth. Practitioners
who work with at-risk youth are also an important sector of the audience because they are
familiar with the strategies that support the transformation of troubled youth. Youth
practitioners are not simply satisfied with isolated programs that do little to impact
children and youth. An expanded community-wide, partnership-based approach to
reaching young people requires youth practitioners to be thoroughly trained and
equipped. Francisco Villarruel and the team with whom he works offer, “Given the
growing acceptance of this community-wide approach, practitioners, public policy
professionals, the public, and researchers are trying desperately to understand what it
takes to create environments that promote the positive and healthy development of all
1
Don Simmons, “Equipping Saints or Pulling Teeth?” Rev! July/August 2006, 60.
2

youth.”2
The youth practitioners reading this dissertation will be able to learn more about
the ways in which faith-based mentoring can aid in the transformation of at-risk youth.
Churches are part of the audience because, generally, they want to make a
difference in their communities; however, they often either do not know how or they
settle for short-term programs that cost little relationally and do little in terms of long-
term transformation. Ronald Sider, Philip Olson, and Heidi Unruh posit:
Living out the gospel in our churches means modeling God’s concern for the total
well-being of people and communities. It means an incarnational lifestyle of
integrity, compassion, and invitation. It means loving neighbors both far and near,
especially those who are most needy and least lovable, with the same joyous
abandon that Jesus displayed.3
Rick Rusaw and Eric Swanson add that the church is a key component of transformation
because
one of the most effective ways to reach people with the message of Jesus Christ
today is through real and relevant acts of service. Honest, compassionate service
can restore credibility to the crucial message we have to share. To tell the truth,
we must show the truth. It’s the model Jesus used. He served. He met needs.
People listened.4
Externally-focused churches offer a key component for effective faith-based mentoring
initiatives.
Schools are another key segment of the audience for this dissertation because they
face the very difficult challenge of reaching and educating today’s American youth.
Student test scores are available online, adding pressure on educators at failing schools,
who are expected to meet the needs of all students regardless of socioeconomic status.
2
Francisco Villarruel et al., Community Youth Development: Programs, Policies, and Practices
(Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2003), x.
3
Ronald Sider, Philip Olson, and Heidi Unruh, Churches that Make a Difference: Reaching Your
Community with Good News and Good Works (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 2002), 60.
4
Rick Rusaw and Eric Swanson, The Externally Focused Church (Loveland, CO: Group
Publishing, Inc., 2004), 11.
3

The ever-increasing emphasis on accountability and standards-based education reform
has dramatically changed public education over the past decade.
Faith-based mentoring can have an important role in the best practices noted in
the findings from The Central Valley Educational Research Consortium, who offers that
the “social, spiritual, and economic costs of incarceration, unemployment,
disenfranchisement, and alienation make the notion of social justice in the application of
best educational practice of extreme importance to the future of all citizens.”5
The search
for best practices has led schools across the United States to open their doors to
partnerships with churches and organization in their efforts to respond to the needs of
struggling students.
The benefits of engaging in such partnerships usually outweigh the downsides if
the partnerships are formed correctly. Nonetheless, faith-based mentoring can go a long
way to help struggling schools better educate their students.
Mentoring programs are yet another vital component of the audience for this
dissertation because effective research can lead to better outcomes for mentoring
matches. Dubois and Karcher have noticed
an imbalance between research and practice in the field of youth mentoring, in
which developments in practice have outstripped the research community’s ability
to keep pace and provide sufficient guidance. This imbalance can be traced to the
explosive growth in youth mentoring programs of all kinds and across diverse
contexts in recent years, contrasted with the much more slowly evolving status of
corresponding scholarly work.”6
The research findings from this project offer one step to bridge the gap between research
and practice, especially with regard to faith-based mentoring. Good research findings, if
5
Central Valley Educational Research Consortium, API What Works: Characteristics of High-
Performing Schools in the Central Valley (Fresno: California State University, Fresno, 2002), 11-12.
6
David DuBois and Michael Karcher, Handbook of Youth Mentoring (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publications, 2005), 10.
4

applied properly to future faith-based mentoring matches, could lead to longer matches
and many more positive outcomes for mentees.
Funders are a crucial part of the audience for this dissertation because they are
most likely to give to projects that are making a real difference. Their desire to give
correlates directly with good data, and good data aligns with good intentions when faith-
based mentoring initiatives strive to be worthy of expanded support.
There are many great causes and charities in the world to which funders can give.
Bill Clinton has pointed out that “China has almost 280,000 NGOs registered with the
government, and perhaps twice that number unregistered. India, a democracy born out of
Gandhi’s citizen activism, has more than 500,000 working NGOs. The United States has
more than one million charitable organizations.”7
Historically, people with access to
financial resources often fail to steward effectively those resources. Fikkert and Corbett
add, “Despite an estimated $2.3 trillion in foreign aid dispensed from Western nations
during the post WW2 era, more than 2.5 billion people, approximately 40 percent of the
world’s population, still live on less than $2 per day.”8
Due to current worldwide
economic struggles, funders have been forced to become much more selective when it
comes to causes that have a transformational impact.
Faith-based mentoring may be just as likely as any other cause to receive funding
from individuals and organizations, but solid evidence of the value of mentoring needs to
be presented if programs are going to be sustainable and grown. The issue of best
7
Bill Clinton, Giving: How Each of Us Can Change the World (New York: Alfred A. Knopf,
2007), 9.
8
Brian Fikkert and Steve Corbett, When Helping Hurts: How To Alleviate Poverty Without
Hurting the Poor… and Ourselves (Chicago: Moody Publishers, 2009), 141.
5

practices in youth work, especially faith-based mentoring programs, is of greater
importance now because the window of time to proactively impact children is limited.
Background of the Project
Over the past twenty years, mentoring has become a popular way to connect with
at-risk youth. As Cavell and others point out, mentoring relationships are quite important:
Young persons who lack a strong relationship with a caring adult while growing
up are much more vulnerable to a host of difficulties, ranging from academic
failure to involvement in serious risk behaviors. Research finds that resilient
youth – those who successfully transition from risk-filled backgrounds to the
adult world of work and good citizenship – are consistently distinguished by the
presence of a caring adult in their lives.9
Many organizations and schools have implemented mentoring programs that help to
provide support for children who struggle developmentally.
At the same time, many churches have been searching for ways to impact people
in their communities. A lot of churches have identified at-risk youth as a group of people
they can impact with their outreach programs. As a result, churches have started to launch
mentoring partnerships with public schools and mentoring organizations. Some
mentoring programs are effective and some are not, depending on how they structure
those programs.
In 2003 Pittsburgh Public Schools administrator Errika Fearby Jones launched the
Pittsburgh Youth Intervention Project. The Pennsylvania Commission on Crime and
Delinquency recognized the work of PYIP as “one of four such projects originally funded
by the United States Department of Justice Project and is a combination of Board of
Education-led strategies designed to bring all available resources together in the
9
Timothy Cavell et al., “Policy Brief: Strengthening Mentoring Opportunities for At-Risk Youth,”
http://www.mentoring.org/downloads/mentoring_1233.pdf” (accessed August 29, 2011), 1.
6

community in a common effort to positively impact young lives.”10
PYIP includes four
initiatives: Gang Free Schools and Communities (GFSC); the Safety Zone Partnership
(SZP); an after school program called Project Promise; and the Learning and Mentoring
Partnership (LAMP).
GFSC involves outreach workers managing cases of young people between the
ages of twelve and twenty-five in gang-prone neighborhoods in the city of Pittsburgh as
part of a collaborative effort with police, school, and community officials to reduce gang
activity. The aforementioned Pennsylvania Commission on Crime and Delinquency
recognizes SZP as “a community-mobilization effort that develops individualized safety
plans covering a 1,000 foot radius around schools in areas with high crime rates.”11
Project Promise employs academic intervention and creative programming to impact
children living in the Homewood and East Hills neighborhoods of Pittsburgh during
crucial after-school. LAMP matches churches with public schools to provide mentors for
at-risk youth between the ages of eight and fifteen.
The vision of LAMP is to impact the city of Pittsburgh one student at a time. The
Pittsburgh Public Schools, a large urban school district with over twenty-five thousand
students, first partnered with a mentoring organization called Family Guidance, Inc. in
2005. The goal of this partnership was to recruit mentors from Pittsburgh area churches
and match them with at-risk students from schools with underperforming student
populations. The original vision for LAMP involved matching only urban churches with
10
Pennsylvania Commission on Crime and Delinquency, “The Commission,”
http://www.portal.state.pa.us/portal/server.pt/community/the_commission/5384/hide_-
_errika_fearby_jones/516737 (accessed August 31, 2011).
11
Ibid.
7

urban schools, but in May of 2006 several suburban churches also began providing
mentors through LAMP.
The church I serve as a pastor, North Way Christian Community, was one of the
first suburban churches to participate. North Way is now a multisite church with over
three thousand adult members spread out over four locations, including two urban
campuses. When North Way first joined LAMP the model of matching suburban
churches with urban schools was somewhat innovative because heretofore cultural and
geographical barriers had prevented many church and school partnerships involving
blighted inner city neighborhoods. At that time, efforts tended to focus on matching only
local urban churches with the urban children in the schools from participating. When
suburban churches were involved, it was only in a financial-support role but rarely in a
direct relational role with the children. Several additional urban churches from the
Homewood-Brushton Community Ministerium (HBCM) began participating in LAMP in
2010.
Today, LAMP regularly matches mentors from both urban and suburban churches
with high-risk youth who mostly reside in the Homewood neighborhood of Pittsburgh.
Over 250 individual mentoring matches have been made since LAMP began in 2005, and
the number of matches continues to grow each year as more churches enter into LAMP
partnerships. School-based mentors visit their mentees at the Pittsburgh Faison K-5
school or Pittsburgh Westinghouse 6-12 school once a week for one or two hours at a
time during the regular school year. One-to-one mentors visit their mentees outside of
school once a week for three or four hours at a time.
8

LAMP students have demonstrated marked improvement in academic
performance, school attendance, and school behavior: all indicators of positive outcomes
that are very important to the mission of the Pittsburgh Public Schools. LAMP has the
potential to eventually impact every public school in the district. While academic
improvement is important for all children, much remains to be known about how faith-
based mentoring partnerships like LAMP can build other assets in high-risk youth.
During the first three years I was involved in leading North Way’s LAMP efforts
in Homewood, I lived in a suburban area about thirty-five minutes driving distance from
Homewood. I recruited mentors from the church, and I intentionally built relationships
with kids in Homewood who might be potential mentees by going into the public schools
during the school day. I enrolled in the Doctor of Ministry program at Bakke Graduate
University after my second year of LAMP involvement in order to learn more about how
to be effective at urban ministry, and when I was introduced to the perspectives on
incarnational leadership I decided to move my family to Homewood. By moving into the
neighborhood and becoming a neighbor with LAMP mentees and their families, I have
been able to be much more effective at building relationships and supporting the
development of the faith-based mentoring efforts. For the purposes of this dissertation,
my incarnational leadership experience provides more details about the urban context of
the research.
The LAMP mentoring model from Pittsburgh has caught the attention of
organizations serving high-risk youth in Honduras and El Salvador. The Orphan Helpers
organization works in Honduras and plans to implement faith-based mentoring by
matching the children they serve in orphanages and youth homes with adult mentors from
9

four churches in the city of San Pedro Sula. Orphan Helpers has already translated the
Family Guidance, Inc. mentoring training materials into Spanish, and program
coordinators are in place. Mentoring should begin in that context shortly.
I traveled to Honduras in June of 2011 to collect data for this dissertation about
faith-based mentoring programs in a second cultural and socioeconomic setting that are in
the development stage. If the faith-based mentoring model works well in Honduras,
Orphan Helpers plans to promote and implement the model throughout the countries that
partner with in Latin America. John and Danielle Snyder serve high-risk youth in San
Salvador through Youth With A Mission. When they noticed a gap in relational work
with the poor, John and Danielle began taking the initial steps toward starting a faith-
based mentoring program between local churches and children living in the orphanages
and youth detention centers in San Salvador.
The Outcome of the Project
The intended outcome of this project, which encompassed studying faith-based
mentoring, is to build developmental assets for faith-based mentoring that transforms the
lives of at-risk youth. The Search Institute recognizes that assets “don’t just happen as
part of growing up. They are built for and with children through all of the caring
relationships they have at home and in their communities.”12
When churches build long-
term mentoring relationships with at-risk youth, great things can happen.
Another intended outcome of this project is that faith-based mentors and
mentoring program stakeholders will learn more about how to intentionally build assets
in young people through the context of long-term relationships. The U.S. Department of
12
Search Institute, Mentoring for Meaningful Results: Asset-Building Tips, Tools, and Activities
for Youth and Adults (Minneapolis: Search Institute, 2006), 18.
10

Education Mentoring Resources notes that mentoring “is founded on a strength-based
rather than deficit-based approach to helping young people realize their potential,
focusing on assets rather than problems.”13
As a result, mentees build up resilience in life.
At-risk youth often look for love, and through faith-based mentoring they can find that
love in God because “the story of scripture is not a story of power, but a story of love –
genuine love, overflowing love for the world God made.”14
Another intended outcome of this project is the transformation of Christ-centered
mentors. Many mentors experience transformation much earlier than their mentees do,
and that shift is often what keeps matches going. Mentors want to experience increasing
life change and mentees are more than willing to receive the consistent, ongoing attention
mentors provide. The Bible promises that if a mentor cares for the poor, their light will
break forth like the dawn, their healing will quickly appear, their righteousness will go
before them, and the glory of the LORD will be their rear guard (Isaiah 58:8).15
Mentoring is difficult, and one of the most significant outcomes of this project can be that
more Christians in Pittsburgh and around the world will be encouraged and equipped by
this research and get to experience the joys of mentoring that come with being stretched
by God.
The best outcome of this project is that the research will strengthen the existing
mentoring matches in the Homewood neighborhood of Pittsburgh. Mentees will benefit
more from transformational mentoring, and the mentoring experience will be much more
13
U.S. Department of Education Mentoring Resource Center, “Mentoring Fact Sheet: Putting
Youth Development Principles To Work in Mentoring Programs,” (February 2007), 1.
14
N.T. Wright, “The Bible for the Post Modern World,” Latimer Fellowship (1999): 13.
15
All Scripture references, unless otherwise noted, are taken from the Holy Bible, New
International Version®, NIV® (Biblica, Inc.: 1973, 1978, 1984, 2011). Used by permission of Zondervan,
all rights reserved worldwide, (www.zondervan.com).
11

meaningful for the LAMP mentors. Based on the finding of this project, LAMP
mentoring program coordinators could adjust future training sessions and ongoing match
supervision. In the general Pittsburgh region, my hope would is that more churches and
more schools will want to get involved in faith-based mentoring through LAMP so that
the lives of hundreds or even thousands more at-risk youth can be impacted.
Another intended outcome of this project is to provide helpful research that
advances the efforts of the several national faith-based mentoring initiatives underway in
the United States. Starting new mentoring programs can be very intimidating for
organizations such as churches and schools that are not ordinarily in the business of
formally mentoring children. This project could help to encourage new organizations
across the United States and even beyond to get involved in mentoring. As LAMP is
implemented in places like Honduras, El Salvador, and potentially throughout Latin
America, this dissertation has the potential to advance the cause of faith-based mentoring
globally as a means of transforming the lives of at-risk youth through intentional
relationship-building.
The Contribution of the Project to Transformational Leadership
Sometimes programs, including faith-based mentoring programs, seek to keep
themselves in business instead of fulfilling their mission of transformation in people and
places. Many mentoring programs fall into the trap of doing mentoring without utilizing
best practices such as high standards, training, and support for matches. An organization
called Public/Private Ventures did a major longitudinal study of Big Brothers/Big Sisters
in the 1980s and 1990s, republishing a report in 2000 that emphasized how powerful the
BBBS mentoring model is for impacting young people:
12

The report by Public/Private Ventures (P/PV) became what might be the most
influential, most cited and most misused study in youth work… But mentoring
researchers lament that the study has been used in ways that actually harm youth
work, fueling a rush to expand mentoring that produced a flood of cheap copycats
whose impact is unclear. In the popular culture of the youth work field, the study
has morphed into a generic cornerstone to support anything called ‘mentoring,’
with countless organizations citing it as proof that mentoring works.16
Rushed or watered down mentoring programs are ineffective because they lose focus on
the hard work that leads to transformation.
Effective faith-based mentoring should lead to transformation in people, the
mentees and mentors, as well as in complex urban environments. Most of the world now
lives in cities, and with millions of people moving closer together all over the world
problems are bound to result from the brokenness that people carry with them. Intentional
building authentic, long term relationships through mentoring can be an amazingly
effective way to bring about the transformation of urban places. Randy White says that
the
city needs a growing cadre of young leaders – both college and graduate students
as well as those already in the marketplace – who will link their skills, their
privileges and their sense of well-being to the well-being of the city. In today’s
globalized world, to shape the city is to shape the way people experience life
itself.17
Transformational leadership principles are crucial whenever a Christian chooses to
mentor a child. Mentors can apply the eight perspectives on transformational leadership
at Bakke Graduate University to the concept of “transformational mentoring.”
Transformational, faith-based mentoring can be even more fruitful when it is calling-
16
Patrick Boyle, “The Study that Ignited (or Diluted) Mentoring,” Youth Today,
December/January 2007, 1.
17
Randy White, Encounter God in the City: Onramps to Personal and Community
Transformation (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2006), 17.
13

based, incarnational, reflective, servants-intensive, contextual, global, focused on shalom,
and prophetic.
Transformational mentors who engage in the lives of high-risk youth can be more
effective by integrating transformational leadership principles into their mentoring. A
good faith-based mentor will have a strong sense of calling; otherwise, the mentor is
more likely to give up when the match becomes difficult. Mentors often enter into broken
environments that are different from anything they may have ever experienced culturally,
so incarnational and contextual activities are important. Mentors who are servants spend
a great deal of time investing in kids who are not often as appreciative as mentors might
prefer. Good mentors reflect on their mentoring relationships, and they have a solid
understanding of the appropriate role they play in a young person’s life. Faith-based
mentors can help their mentees have a more global worldview when the mentees
experience the isolation that comes with poverty. Mentors may also be able to help their
mentees work toward the shalom of their communities, and mentors can definitely speak
prophetically into the lives of their mentees. Faith-based mentors are ordinary followers
of Jesus that take a risk by engaging in the life of a young person in need. Most would not
think of themselves as heroes. Sometimes the mentoring makes a huge difference in the
lives of the mentees, and sometimes it does not seem to make much of a difference.
Regardless of the outcomes, mentoring is a heroic endeavor that is more about the
journey than it is about the destination. In the words of Ken Fong, speaking to an
Overture I class, “When ordinary people go on a [sic] heroic journey, they are
transformed by the process along the way whether or not they beat the foe.”18
18
Ken Fong, Class Lecture, “Organizational Transformation,” [lecture, Bakke Graduate
University, Overture I, Seattle, WA, January 21, 2009].
14

Mentors exhibit many of the characteristics found in transformational leaders,
including what the Family Guidance, Inc. Volunteer Training Manual presents as the
ability to readily see potential in a person, the capacity to tolerate mistakes,
flexibility in responding to people and circumstances, the ability to be patient –
knowing that time and experience are needed for development, the ability to see
down the road and suggest the next step, and the capacity to encourage and build
up others.19
Mentors are bridge builders and reconcilers. They are stewards of resources for the sake
of vulnerable people. I cannot think of anything more than faith-based mentoring that can
contribute to the literature about, and the practice of, transformational leadership.
19
Family Guidance, Inc., Learning and Mentoring Partnership: Volunteer Training Manual
(Sewickley, PA: Family Guidance, Inc., 2011), 10.
15

CHAPTER 2.
OTHER PROPOSED SOLUTIONS
Overview of the Literature
There are many different approaches to transforming the lives of at-risk youth.
Some models focus on changing the behaviors of young people, while others focus on
changing societal systems and institutions that may generate the problems that cause
adolescents to struggle. After reviewing a wide variety of literature for this dissertation,
the following fifteen reviews represent the diverse cross-section of perspective on the
subject of at-risk youth. The perspectives are theological, biblical, comprehensive,
relational, psychological, and sociological. Some authors focus on relationships while
others focus on programs. Some focus on individuals while others focus on systems.
Some focus on spiritual dynamics while others focus on policy reform. Each review
focuses on the author’s approach to the problems, strengths, and weaknesses of the
approach and how the particular approach compares to faith-based mentoring as a method
of transforming the lives of high-risk youth.
Larson and Brendtro: Addressing Spiritual Needs
In their book Reclaiming Our Prodigal Sons and Daughters, authors Scott Larson
and Larry Brendtro suggest that most traditional approaches to serving at-risk youth are
ineffective because they do not address the spiritual needs of children. Larson and
Brendtro believe that high-risk young people must be reclaimed, and they provide
strategies for churches in particular to be able to transform the lives of at-risk youth by
meeting their spiritual needs. The authors clearly outline the concepts of reclaiming
17

troubled adolescents through reparenting, redirecting, reconciling, and redeeming. The
reparenting concept is defined as “providing a youth who is not closely attached to adults
with bonds to a positive adult.”1
That definition describes what is at the heart of faith-
based mentoring.
Spiritual development is important, but one weakness of the authors’ argument is
that they deemphasize the need for institutional support of children through such places
as schools and social service agencies. It is true that at times many institutions that serve
children are ineffective, but traditional institutions still can play a role in serving the
needs of troubled youth. When Christians withdraw their attention from traditional
institutions and only focus on what can be done by Christians within their own church
buildings, they fail to help at-risk children at the systemic level. The authors’ argument
strongly highlights the need to develop courage in young people so they can strive in
society. The authors rightly point out that “disadvantaged youths may actually have an
advantage when it comes to developing the attribute of courage – as long as they have
access to someone who can instill in them some of the essential building blocks for
healthy development.”2
I agree with the authors about working with youth at the level of faith, because, in
their words,
interventions at this level help youth understand how their theology – their view
of God – informs every other area of their lives and gives meaning to their
existence. This has been the missing element in youth work in recent years. Yet
there is no deeper belief that any of us can hold than our personal understanding
of God.3
1
Scott Larson and Larry Brendtro, Reclaiming Our Prodigal Sons and Daughters: A Practical
Approach for Connecting with Youth in Conflict (Bloomington, IN: National Education Service, 2000), 99.
2
Ibid., 72.
3
Ibid., 178.
18

My solution to transforming the lives of at-risk youth differs from the authors in
that they seem to write off schools as incapable of supporting the spiritual needs of
troubled youth. They write, “Modern youth are suffering from a deep spiritual hunger.
Yet most schools are so narrowly preoccupied with academic achievement and
superficial behavior that they fail to meet the most basic emotional and spiritual needs of
their children.”4
While it is true that standards-based education reform has focused on the
development of reading, math, and testing skills, many schools do still attempt to meet
the emotional and spiritual needs of their students. My solution differs from these authors
in that I will attempt to show that mentoring, not necessarily reclaiming, leads to
transformation.
D’Ambrosio: Using Story to Connect with Adolescent Hearts
Jay D’Ambrosio suggests that the key to transforming the lives of at-risk youth
lies in utilizing story and myth to connect with their hearts. “Schools today put forth a
heroic effort in developing and teaching a student’s mind. Likewise, opportunities for the
body to be conditioned and trained abound in the form of physical education and
athletics. However, more energy needs to be channeled toward the hearts of the young.”5
D’Ambrosio further suggests that myths and stories “can help people place their own
personal narrative and those of others into the proper context.”6
Young people must learn to take risks and take on challenges in life. In the words
of D’Ambrosio, young people
4
Ibid., 173.
5
Jay D’Ambrosio, Rethinking Adolescence: Using Story to Navigate Life’s Uncharted Years
(Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Education, 2006), xii.
6
Ibid.
19

must wrestle with forces that would strive to define and form them. That is the
only way to become what they were born to be. They are shaped by the trials that
come their way. By making a stand for what is good and right in the midst of
great evil, they become noble, they become greater, and they become the heroes
and heroines of this life.7
D’Ambrosio observes that almost all adults can connect with youth by intentionally using
stories; this is one of the strongest points of his approach to reaching at-risk youth. He
writes, “The adolescents in our lives need us to fill the role of mentor, counselor,
confidant, and friend. They need someone to believe in them, to see them mythically.
They need someone to know that they have what it takes to be heroic in the tale that is
being laid out before them.”8
Adults can help orient young people in God’s Story as they
experience the ups and downs of the life journey.
A weakness of this approach is that many adults who work with young people in a
professional capacity are unwilling or unable to get to know children at the heart level.
D’Ambrosio points out that we “will never be able to engage adolescents on more than a
surface level if [we] don’t spend the time getting to know them.”9
Many teachers,
however, are unable to focus on the heart of a child because academic standards focus
pressure on job performance. An educator may have to separate head knowledge from
heart connection for the sake of efficiency, or it may be that getting to know youth at the
heart level requires too much relational capacity. Leaders who supervise professional
educators and youth workers often require them to reach hundreds of children on a daily
or weekly basis, so logistically the capacity to build relationships is simply not there.
7
Ibid., xiii.
8
Ibid., xviii.
9
Ibid., 11.
20

Faith-based mentoring is similar to the solution offered by D’Ambrosio in that
faith-based mentoring relationships aim to connect with kids at the heart level in a world
where many adults are unwilling or otherwise unable to do that. Some mentors, however,
may not be able to connect with at-risk youth through the use of story or myth. Many kids
do not open up to their mentors. It can be difficult to have meaningful conversations with
kids who have experienced abuse or neglect. Intentionally using stories to reach kids may
turn into a prescriptive relationship. Mentors should instead focus on building a
developmental friendship with their mentees, which may or may not involve the use of
story. Story could be integrated into the relationship, but not with the goal of trying to fix
the problems of the youth. Mentors connect with kids in many different ways, and they
can do so without the use of stories or myths.
Search Institute: Developmental Assets
The authors of A Fragile Foundation understand that modern youth have many
needs, but they suggest that youth workers should focus on building on assets to
transform the lives of at-risk youth. The Search Institute surveyed a large group of
adolescents and determined forty developmental assets that are important to the growth of
all young people. The authors take these developmental assets and suggest a
comprehensive approach to impacting children:
One wouldn’t necessarily reach the conclusion that virtually all young people are
building their lives on a fragile foundation by looking just at isolated areas of their
lives. Nor would you notice the power of many assets if you focused on just a few
of them. The power and impact become evident as you put all the pieces together
in a mosaic of young people’s lives, and then step back and look at the big
picture.10
10
Peter Benson et al., A Fragile Foundation: The State of Developmental Assets Among American
Youth (Minneapolis: Search Institute, 1999), vi.
21

The book suggests that adults should focus on assets instead of needs, with an emphasis
on keeping an eye on the big picture of youth development instead of on the isolated
problems kids face.
The focus on assets is a strong point of the authors’ argument. They would argue
that mentors should be able to focus on assets instead of needs. If enough adults are on
board with the building of assets, transformation can occur in the lives of at-risk youth
“By focusing attention on ensuring that all young people experience the developmental
assets, individuals, families, organizations, and communities can begin to transform a
fragile foundation into a solid foundation for life.”11
A weakness of this approach is that it may be too comprehensive as it
underestimates the role that many institutions could offer in the process of transforming
the lives of at-risk youth. As an example, the authors state that the “fact that most youth
in all communities lack many of the assets represents a disturbing critique of American
society. The lack is so widespread and common that it is fruitless to expect families or
schools to repair the developmental web on their own.”12
Schools that seek to educate
students who are severely at-risk can still educate children in spite of the children’s
environment or life circumstances. Too often schools use the excuse that they cannot
effectively educate at-risk kids because of the breakdown of American society, family
dysfunctions, or illegal activity and blight in the local neighborhood, yet many other
schools are able to effectively educate at-risk youth in spite of environmental issues.
Mentors may be able to build assets in at-risk youth over time, but the mentors
can also create other problems for the relationships with their mentees if too much focus
11
Ibid., vi.
12
Ibid., xii.
22

is given to fixing gaps in development. Faith-based mentoring differs from the Search
Institute’s approach to transforming the lives of at-risk youth in that faith-based
mentoring relationships do not focus on simply building developmental assets in youth.
Assets may be built as a byproduct of spending time together consistently over a number
of years, but asset-building is not necessarily the goal of the mentoring relationship.
Even though the approaches are different, the forty developmental assets can
provide a good framework for mentors to be able to understand how their mentees are
growing and changing over time. Again turning to A Fragile Framework:
The asset framework attempts to more broadly define what is possible and to
motivate people to take steps toward making the possible real. It is easier to
visualize doing something positive than preventing something negative. So, by
describing the positive things youth need, the framework gives typical residents
more tangible and concrete ideas about what they personally can do.13
More effective possibilities and motivations take more than developing assets.
Geoffrey Canada: Large-scale Replicable Change
In the book Whatever It Takes, author Paul Tough describes Geoffrey Canada’s
approach to helping poor children in America. Canada has become relatively famous in
America for developing a model for transforming the lives of at-risk youth through
comprehensive, holistic initiatives that impact children from before they are born all the
way through when they graduate from college and move into the adult world. The model
seeks to empower the parents of poor children in addition to a wide variety of programs
that impact kids. First implemented in late 1990s through a broad initiative called the
13
Ibid., 8.
23

Harlem Children’s Village, “Canada’s objective was to create a safety net woven so
tightly that children in the neighborhood couldn’t slip through.”14
The approach works to establish strategic partnerships aimed at impacting
children through education, parenting classes, counseling, early childhood intervention,
tutoring, after school programs, and much more. Canada’s model asks the question,
“What would it take to change the lives of poor children not one by one, through heroic
interventions and occasional miracles, but in a programmatic, standardized way that
could be applied broadly and replicated nationwide?”15
The strength of this approach to transforming the lives of at-risk youth lies in its
large-scale, replicable focus on impacting the lives of thousands of children in
meaningful ways. A weakness of Canada’s approach is the relative lack of emphasis on
the spiritual transformation of children. This approach is definitely not a Christ-centered
approach to building assets in poor children. Although Christians may be highly involved
in efforts to impact high-risk youth and the model can inform those efforts, the model
could seemingly be implemented in any city with little regard for whether or not churches
or Christians are involved.
The faith-based mentoring model is comparable to Canada’s approach in that both
models seek to move beyond individual programs toward relationships that transform the
lives of many children. Admittedly, faith-based mentoring has a narrower focus on
transforming one child at a time, although that might be converted to a broader scale as
the mentoring movement continues to grow. While faith-based mentoring usually
involves partnerships between institutions such as churches and schools or churches and
14
Paul Tough, Whatever It Takes: Geoffrey Canada’s Quest to Change Harlem and America
(New York: Mariner Books, 2008), 5.
15
Ibid., 19.
24

mentoring organizations, the faith-based mentoring approach does not incorporate as
many institutions or programs as the Harlem Children’s Zone model does. Canada’s
model also focuses much more attention on meeting the educational needs of children
than on mentoring. This dynamic may have positive academic outcomes that are not the
sole focus of the approach.
In the end, both approaches seek to
intervene early in the child’s life; continue to intervene throughout adolescence;
give him extra time in school and extra support outside of school; involve his
parents if possible but be prepared to compensate for their absence; focus on
improving his cognitive skills but also nurture his noncognitive, social, and
emotional skills.16
These common goals seem to lead to transformation.
Rhodes: Long Term Youth Mentoring Relationships
Mentoring programs for at-risk youth come in many different forms and sizes.
Some programs focus on one-to-one mentoring, while others focus on school-based,
group, vocational, and even e-mentoring. Regardless of the type of mentoring being done,
Jean Rhodes, a prominent researcher in the field of mentoring, strongly contends that
“vulnerable children would be better left alone than paired with mentors who do not
recognize and honor the enormous responsibility they have been given.”17
Rhodes
advocates for mentoring programs to ensure high standards for mentoring recruitment,
training, support, and supervision by placing the quality of matches over the quantity of
matches. With so much money available to mentoring programs, the temptation is for
program directors to put quantity over quality. Mentoring matches that end prematurely
16
Ibid., 282.
17
Jean Rhodes, Stand By Me: The Risks and Rewards of Mentoring Today’s Youth (Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University Press, 2002), 3.
25

can really harm young people while long-term, consistent mentoring matches “can serve
as a pathway out of the poverty that often extends across generations.”18
The emphasis on research and quality are definite strengths to Rhodes’ approach
to impacting at-risk youth through mentoring. Mentoring is a field filled with anecdotal
evidence, but little research-based evidence. In other words, policymakers can often tell if
a child is being helped or hurt from mentoring relationships based on stories, yet, with
good research now available on mentoring programs, there is no longer any good excuse
for any child to be matched in a harmful mentoring relationship.
A weakness of this approach is that Rhodes tends to downplay the significance of
both faith-based and school-based mentoring as effective approaches to transforming the
lives of at-risk youth. Good data is helpful to assure high quality relationships, but much
of the magic of mentoring remains difficult to quantify. Even Rhodes admits, “There will
always be some degree of mystery in determining what makes two people click.”19
Transformation in the lives of mentors and mentees often happens at the heart, or
spiritual level.
Many of the high expectations of faith-based mentoring matches are based upon
Rhodes’ work on increasing excellence in the field of mentoring, so the faith-based
mentoring approach to transforming the lives of at-risk youth compares greatly with hers.
The approaches differ, however, in that Rhodes emphasizes community-based mentoring
while the other fuses community-based, school-based, and faith-based approaches
together in a comprehensive mentoring effort.
18
Ibid., 127.
19
Ibid., 104.
26

In Stand By Me, Rhodes leaves the door open for the future fusion of the various
mentoring models as long as the standards for the programs are high. She points out that
although there are constraints to school-based and career-focused mentoring,
These constraints, although considerable, should not discourage what could be a
promising response to the infrastructure problems facing community-based
programs. A challenge will be to determine how to meld the flexibility, intensity,
and enduring nature of successful community-based approaches with the structure
and support of school-based approaches.”20
Osgood, Foster, Flanagan, and Ruth: The Transition to Adulthood
American society places a great deal of emphasis on meeting the needs of high
performing young people who attend college and generally make successful transitions to
economic opportunities. Society, however, often overlooks and under resources the
population of young people who struggle to successfully make the transition to
adulthood. The authors of On Your Own without a Net suggest that American society
needs to be more proactive when it comes to supporting the large percentage of young
people that struggle to make the transition to adulthood. They note,
The critical step is creating public will. Thus, the starting point for any reform is
changing the public’s awareness and image of the population. The public and
policy makers at the local, state, and federal levels must conclude that society has
an interest in helping, and an obligation to help, these youth through the transition
to successful adulthood.21
This approach seeks to develop a comprehensive system for intervening in the lives of at-
risk youth, similar to the safety nets that have been developed over the past couple of
decades for children between birth and five years old.
20
Ibid., 113.
21
D. Wayne Osgood, On Your Own Without a Net: The Transition to Adulthood for Vulnerable
Populations (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2005), x.
27

Many people and agencies have developed many policies for adolescents and
young adults in society, yet as Osgood finds, “Unfortunately, all of the authors find that
current policies often impede, rather than facilitate, the transition processes for these
youth.”22
This concept comes down to the idea of the process of transformation versus the
transaction of services in reaching struggling youth. Just because programs are in place to
reach at-risk youth does not mean that the services lead to a process of transformation.
One of the strengths of the authors’ recommendations is the advocacy for
including young people in the decision-making process when it comes to designing
policies. “With more thoughtful policy we have the potential of gaining not only the
economic contributions of these youth as productive workers, but also their contributions
to families, friends, and communities as supportive and engaged citizens.”23
Indeed,
systemically changing the nature of public policies could be helpful in transforming the
lives of at-risk youth; however, a weakness in their approach is the lack of relational and
incarnational presence in the lives of troubled youth. Increased awareness on a wide scale
is wonderful, so long as that awareness leads to real change and relational involvement as
opposed to much debate based upon relatively little interaction with young people.
This approach differs from faith-based mentoring in that it is much more focused
on policy than on interpersonal relationships as a means of transforming the lives of at-
risk youth. Mentoring programs, however, should be based upon sound policies and
research in order for the long-term relationships to be more transformational for the
mentee and the mentor.
22
Ibid., viii.
23
Ibid., 388.
28

The safety net model for policy-making does not involve much of a focus on the
spiritual development of high-risk youth. Faith-based mentoring is Christ-centered and
focuses on mobilizing churches to make a difference in the lives of young people.
Mentoring can be a bridge that links adolescence to young adulthood. The author pays
particular attention to the need to impact young adults between the ages of eighteen and
twenty-five, yet effective faith-based mentors generally maintain their relationships with
their mentees far beyond the time the formal mentor-mentee relationship is designed to
end (when the mentee turns eighteen).
Furstenberg, Cook, Eccles, Elder, and Sameroff: Parenting
Family structures play a crucial role in youth development, and the authors of
Managing to Make It have researched the impact parents have on transforming the lives
of at-risk youth experiencing urban poverty. The researchers have also examined the
impact that neighborhood environments play in adolescent development. Based on a
study of five hundred families in the inner city of Philadelphia, the authors point out that
the “objective of our project is to identify a strategic site – the interface between the
family and community – that influences the course of adolescent development for
disadvantaged youth.”24
The researchers have determined that “Family management
practices can be cultivated to children’s advantage. Parents can become more
knowledgeable about the social world in which their children are situated.”25
Still, many high-risk youth struggle because their parents often do not know how
to help their children gain access to resources, and “institutions – typically outside
24
Frank Furstenberg et al., Managing to Make It: Urban Families and Adolescent Success
(Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1999), 7.
25
Ibid., 227.
29

impoverished communities – do a generally poor job of connecting to parents.”26
The
lives of at-risk youth can potentially be transformed if institutions are able to more
effectively connect their resources to the children and their families.
Many organizations serving high-risk youth tend to ignore the parents and family
structures that play such an integral part in youth development. A strength of this
research project is its intentional focus on empowering young people and their parents to
gain access to resources so they can build assets and resiliency. The faith-based
mentoring research counters the stereotypical idea of lazy parents in the inner city
mooching off the government and instead brings to light the great potential that lies in the
power of effective family management.
The parenting approach tends to be based on strengths instead of deficits;
however, a weakness is that although the authors present a lot of valuable data, they
could have gone much further in explaining recommendations for how parents and
institutions could more effectively bridge the resource divide. Their discussion seems
relatively transactional in nature, as if they could simply address the problems of high-
risk youth by ensuring that a transaction of resources occurs between families and
resources. For example, the authors write, “If the places at the front of the line are always
purchased in advance by those with means, then parents with limited economic resources
will not have much success in gaining a favorable position for their children, regardless
of how hard they try.”27
Transformational leadership is absolutely essential to the process of bridging the
gap of resources. Leaders from institutions with access to resources must be willing to be
26
Ibid.
27
Ibid., 231.
30

incarnational and enter into the context of people in need. Most parents and families
experiencing poverty must deal with isolation as their biggest issue, and transactions do
not do much to ease the isolation on a sustainable basis.
The parenting approach differs from the faith-based mentoring approach in that
parenting deals less with families than with building relationships with at-risk youth.
Parents are still an integral part of the faith-based mentoring process because without the
support of the parents the quality of the matches goes down. Parents must be supportive
of the mentoring, ensuring that the mentees are where they are supposed to be when the
mentoring time is scheduled and also encouraging mentees to stay the course with the
relationships when matches experience difficulties.
An important part of effective mentoring programs rests in the power of
mentoring organizations to provide support to parents (such as links to resources) without
that responsibility falling on the mentors themselves. When mentors become too caught
up in helping parents get out of poverty, they tend to lose focus on the main goals of the
match that focuses simply on building a long term relationship with a child. While
supportive parents help the process of transforming the lives of at-risk youth, mentoring
is not necessarily a field that focuses on parental intervention.
Dortch and Fine: One-to-One and Group Mentoring
One can see there is a wide variety of mentoring approaches that can impact the
lives of children. The Miracles of Mentoring uses The 100 Black Men of America, Inc. to
demonstrate how an organization can use the one-to-one and group mentoring approaches
to reach hundreds of thousands of high-risk youth.
31

The book provides an extensive overview of the organization’s work, and it
covers such replicable topics
as understanding the do’s and don’ts of successful mentoring; building the
mentoring relationship; choosing a mentoring program that is right for you;
developing programs for young people in schools, neighborhoods, and
workplaces; and partnering with businesses, corporations, educational institutions,
and nonprofit organizations to expand the mentoring experience.28
For a long time the only focus of The 100 Black Men was one-to-one community-based
mentoring, but they expanded to offer group mentoring in an effort to reach more
children. The author’s presentation of this effort is as inspirational as it is important for
mentoring practitioners to understand.
A strength of this mentoring approach rests its practicality. Businessmen and
community leaders across many segments of society should be able to step easily into this
type of mentoring to begin the process of impacting the lives of at-risk youth. Even
though these mentoring principles are transferable, the author is quick to point out that
mentoring is not simple. “Mentoring is an art. The relationship grows and matures, and
you and your mentee grow with it. As you journey forward, you’ll need to call on
different abilities, and hone your understanding and your skills.”29
A weakness is that organizations can at times dilute mentoring standards in order
to utilize mentoring to reach a larger number of high-risk youth. It is great that the author
has big goals to reach many children, but sometimes activities such as group mentoring
or career-focused mentoring are not as transformational for mentees as long term, one-to-
one relationships.
28
Thomas Dortch, Jr., The Miracles of Mentoring: How to Encourage and Lead Future
Generations (New York: Broadway Books, 2000), 14.
29
Ibid., 177.
32

Also, the author suggests that mentoring “is open to everyone, and people from all
walks of life participate in hundreds of diverse and interesting mentoring programs
throughout the country.”30
Effective mentors are called to be mentors, but neither is
everyone called nor can very person serve as a mentor. There are many adults who should
not be mentoring children because they will either quit the match early or destroy
matches by being overly prescriptive while interacting with their mentees. It is important
for mentoring programs to have high standards and not just let anybody become a
mentor.
This approach differs from faith-based mentoring in that Dortch and Fine do not
explicitly focus on faith-based mentoring. Another difference is that it includes group
mentoring. While group mentoring can be effective when the matches are organized in a
one-to-one fashion, there are several examples in Pittsburgh where group mentoring has
proven to be ineffective. Dortch and Fine also focus on making matches within the same
race, specifically matching African American mentors with African American mentees.
While both mentors and mentees have much to offer one another when children are
matched with mentors of the same race, there can be an advantage to cross-cultural and
cross-racial mentoring, not the least of which is such matches can be very effective.
The Dortch and Fine mentoring approach and the faith-based mentoring approach
are similar in that they focus on impacting and casting new vision for the next generation
of young people. Dortch offers that mentoring “is about the future. It is about changing
the world by opening it up for young people. Help a child to dream and to believe in his
or her dream, and you help create hope in place of fear, self-esteem in place of doubt,
30
Ibid., 5.
33

ambition in place of powerlessness.”31
Indeed, both models have much to offer in
informing the other.
Rodriguez: Activism and Community Building
Luis Rodriguez argues passionately that when it comes to transforming the lives
of at-risk youth, culture must move past solutions that do not work to focus on dialoguing
around innovate solutions to youth violence and gang-related activity. “To consider truly
innovative responses in meeting the needs of young people, we must start with real
assessments of what their situations consist of – away from the political spin doctors,
sensationalist headlines, and generational fear mongering going on today about children
and youth.”32
Rodriguez’s approach focuses on empowering young people and encouraging
them to work together to improve the lives of the young people who are struggling. His
approach is multigenerational and comprehensive because “we must reorient our thinking
on how young and old are joined in the political and social matrix of the land – where the
people are fully activated and their dreams, aspirations, and strivings are central to what
makes up community.”33
Rodriguez suggests that people should do much more than meet
needs of high-risk youth, but that leaders need to engage the entire community in the
process of changing violent youth culture.
Rodriguez has earned his credibility from many years of working at the street
level with troubled young people in Los Angeles and Chicago. One of the strengths of his
31
Ibid., 7-8.
32
Luis Rodriguez, Hearts and Hands: Creating Community in Violent Times (New York: Seven
Stories Press, 2001), 17.
33
Ibid., 18.
34

work resides is its visionary, comprehensive, advocacy-based design; as well, the
multigenerational approach is crucial to the development of young people. Children are
able to band together to make the world a better place, but they need adults to come
alongside them to implement the change across a broader span of the culture. Rodriguez
also moves the discussion past the inner city and into mainstream society.
A weakness of his approach is that it deemphasizes the traditional approaches to
transforming the lives of at-risk youth that have proven to be successful over time. While
far too many young people have been incarcerated in ineffective youth detention systems
or completed ineffective community service programs, institutions such as schools
serving high-risk youth still play a critical role in their development. Reform is definitely
necessary in institutions, but the institutions should not be abandoned.
Rodriguez’s approach differs from the faith-based mentoring model in that
activism and community building focus is much more comprehensive, where faith-based
mentoring relationships focus on impacting one child at a time. As well, Rodriguez seems
to be a very spiritual man (he points out the need to connect with young people at a
spiritual level) and although he mentions Jesus’ teachings as helpful tools for reaching
kids, he also mentions a wide variety of other spiritual paths. Most of the transformation
in the lives of high-risk youth is not merely spiritual, it is Christ-centered.
The approaches do share a passion to reach every single struggling child.
Rodriguez says it this way: “The social erosion stops at our door. To build from there,
we’re going to need a different ethos in this country. Not ‘kill or be killed,’ which some
youth take literally, but one that values and nurtures every child. One that teaches us to
work for the decent survival of all, for therein lies our best chance for survival.”34
34
Ibid., 322.
35

Payne: Poverty and Classes
Dr. Ruby Payne consults in the education field to help educators understand how
to reach children living in poverty. Her approach involves training adults who directly
impact children to understand the general traits associated with poverty. Her practices
suggest that once adults have a proper understanding of the root causes of behaviors
associated with poverty they can plan ways to appropriately respond to the unique needs
for which they previously may not have had a proper framework.
Essentially, Payne seeks to transform the lives of at-risk youth by helping youth
work practitioners, most of whom come from a middle-class background, to be able to
understand poverty. She asserts that at-risk youth are capable of making choices that can
lead to success in life, but “it is the responsibility of educators and others who work with
the poor to teach the differences and skills/rules that will allow the individual to make the
choice. As it stands now for many of the poor, the choice never exists.”35
Since many adults working with high-risk youth come from a middle class
background, a strength of this approach is that it equips practitioners practically to
interact effectively with children across all socio-economic classes. Her framework is
very user-friendly, so it has a broad appeal that may lead to quick results.
One of the weaknesses of Ruby Payne’s approach is its focus on deficits, namely
poverty, instead of assets. One of Payne’s biggest critics, education consultant Dr.
Jawanza Kunjufu, points out that instead of poverty or the educational level of the mother
being the key indicators of why schools are failing children living in poverty, the “usual
culprits are as follows: poor school leadership, low teacher expectations, low student time
35
Ruby Payne, A Framework for Understanding Poverty, (Highlands, TX: aha! Process, Inc.,
2003), 148.
36

on task, irrelevant curriculums, an abundance of left-brain lesson plans, an individualistic
vs. communal student approach, and coed classrooms.”36
Payne’s theory appears to be
based more on her own experiences as a middle-class educator than on research that has
been done on best practices that lead to transformation in the lives of at-risk children. A
deficit-based approach to poverty can only yield limited long-term results.
Payne’s approach is similar to the faith-based model in that faith-based mentoring
mobilizes many adults to interact cross-culturally with high-risk youth who often come
from different socioeconomic backgrounds. The techniques for impacting children across
classes can be very helpful in equipping mentors. Cultural proficiency training is a crucial
component of mentor training; however, the approaches differ in that mentors are
encouraged to focus more on building assets in Payne’s model than on understanding
deficits, as it is in the faith-based model. When mentors focus too much on needs and
deficits, which can be plentiful with at-risk youth, the desire for mentors to
overcompensate or focus too much on fixing the circumstances of the mentees tend to
sabotage mentor-mentee matches. Solutions that transform the lives of high-risk youth
should take needs into consideration but should also be built upon developing assets in
young people.
Eldredge: A Crisis of Masculinity
Christian counselor, author, and speaker John Eldredge suggests that a crisis of
masculinity in modern culture has led to a wide variety of problems in society. He
suggests that most outward signs of trouble can be traced back to heart issues, so
solutions to life’s problems involve allowing God to heal broken hearts that have been
36
Jawanza Kunjufu, An African Centered Response to Ruby Payne’s Poverty Theory (Chicago:
African American Images, 2006), ix.
37

wounded over time. In The Way of the Wild Heart, Eldredge provides an initiation-
focused framework that can impact the lives of at-risk youth when parents, youth
workers, and mentors intentionally move young men through the stages of a masculine
journey. Initiations help people to reframe their lives. According to Eldredge, the
“reframing begins when we see that a man’s life is a process of initiation into true
masculinity. It is a series of stages we soak in and progress through. And as for God, I
believe that what he is primarily up to at any point in a boy’s or a man’s life is initiating
him.”37
In this approach, men experience initiation through several stages of masculinity:
“Boyhood to Cowboy to Warrior to Lover to King to Sage.”38
Caring adults carefully
guide at-risk youth through the Boyhood, Cowboy, and Warrior stages by serving as
bridge-builders to the adult stages of Lover, King, and Sage.
A strength of Eldredge’s approach lies in its focus on intentionally healing deep
wounds by guiding young people through the life stages. Many approaches for
transforming the lives of at-risk youth focus on treating symptoms associated with
destructive behavior as opposed to treating the root causes of outward behavior. Entire
institutions and systems have been built in the United States to address problems with
young people once crimes or destructive behaviors have been committed, but few
institutions have been set up to intervene in the lives of troubled youth proactively.
One weakness to Eldredge’s approach is that at times he has a rural bias. He is
quick to point out that God is found in nature and that much of the initiation involving
young men should happen in the context of nature. While it can be very helpful to
connect with God in nature, it is also very possible to be initiated into the masculine
37
John Eldredge, The Way of the Wild Heart (Nashville: Nelson Books, 2006), 10.
38
Ibid., 11.
38

journey in the midst of complex urban environments. Healthy people can generally learn
how to successfully navigate through life, whether that navigation occurs in either an
urban or a rural environment.
Eldredge’s approach to transforming the lives of at-risk youth is comparable to
the faith-based approach in that both approaches emphasize spiritual development as a
crucial component to human development. Eldredge points out, “All masculine initiation
is ultimately spiritual. The tests and challenges, the joys and adventures are all designed
to awaken a man’s soul, draw him into contact with the masculine in himself, in other
men, in the world, and in God, as Father.”39
In this regard, faith-based mentors are very
well suited to help high-risk youth navigate through the various stages of the masculine
journey.
The faith-based mentoring matches that lead to transformation are much more
structured and supervised than the informal mentoring relationships Eldredge
emphasizes. When it comes to intentional initiation, some components may be
transferable to formal mentoring relationships while other components might lead to the
relationship becoming prescriptive and therefore harmful to the relationship.
Olsen: Institutional and Systemic Reform
Successful development can be extremely difficult for young people. In Youth at
Risk, author Peter Christian Olsen points out that all adolescents are at risk regardless of
their behavior or life circumstances:
Being at risk is a condition common to all adolescents. They are born that way.
Each one of them is dependent on the society in which they grow up to provide
for their needs; when that society, that culture, those parents, those schools, those
39
Ibid., 287.
39

communities upon which they depend fail them, they face the consequence of
becoming at risk.40
Olsen’s approach to transforming the lives of at-risk youth focuses more on changing the
institutions that impact young people in society than focusing on fixing the young people
themselves through counseling and additional personal interventions.
One of the main institutions Olsen challenges is the Church: “No more significant
task confronts serious Christians and the communities to which they belong than that of
ministry with teenagers. They must be willing to take responsibility.”41
It is true that ineffective institutions play a huge role in the path to destructive
behavior for teenagers, so this part of this model’s strength comes from its focus on
systemic change for transforming the lives of high-risk youth. If society can reform
broken institutions, the efforts will go a long way to increase the levels of shalom in cities
and in the lives of adolescents. If leaders always focus on meeting the needs of struggling
kids, people may miss out on ways to relieve the pain of hundreds or thousands of
children. Another strength of this approach resides in its focus on God’s unwavering and
relentless pursuit of all of his people:
Our God is a God of lost causes. God seems to thrive and show the most
compassion when resolving our blunders, undoing our mistakes, or fixing the
messed-up situations into which we get ourselves. Jesus relates countless stories
and parables in which God is constantly bailing us out, rescuing us, or retrieving
us when we are lost. To God, every individual is worthy, each person is
important.42
An argument can be made that all youth are at risk; however, a weakness of this approach
is that it does not focus enough on contextualization and building unique assets in
40
Peter Olsen, Youth at Risk: Ministry to the Least, the Lost, and the Last (Eugene, OR: Wipf and
Stock Publishers, 2003), ix.
41
Ibid.
42
Ibid., 2.
40

specific subgroups of troubled young people. There are people who have used the excuse
that all teenagers are at risk to abdicate their responsibility to care for the poor and to act
justly for the transformation of children who are really struggling in life due to their
circumstances. Indeed, there is a danger in making a blanket statement about all young
people.
The faith-based mentoring approach to transforming the lives of at-risk youth
involves Christians who intentionally build relationships with young people regardless of
the outcomes or changes in adolescent behavior. The faith-based approach is favorably
comparable to Olsen’s in that both agree the church should be building community with
high-risk youth who may exhibit inappropriate behavior. Again turning to Olsen,
“Exclusion from community cannot be a consequence of failure. The message we need to
send to teenagers is that if we are going to encourage them to try new things, take on
responsibilities, attempt new experiences, stretch their potential, they must be assured
that they can fail in these ventures without rejection.”43
God is always on mission to
redeem the world. If Christians are to live into that mission, it will be important for
followers of Jesus to be able to build effective relationships with high-risk youth. If
people intentionally reject troubled teenagers, then the followers of Jesus will be far from
living out that mission.
Ruthruff: Listening and Learning
If adults want to be able to have a greater impact on at-risk youth, it is important
for those adults to be able to listen and learn from vulnerable kids when engaging the
process of intervening in the lives of at-risk youth. In The Least of These, Ron Ruthruff
43
Ibid., 21.
41

challenges the prescriptive methods that the church often utilizes when attempting to
reach troubled kids. He offers, “Imagine a community of faith that listens and learns from
each other. Imagine a missiology that revolves around listening and learning as much as
teaching and speaking. What would it mean if we listened and learned as we served the
widow, orphan, and stranger?”44
Ruthruff answers that question by pointing out that all
vulnerable children have a recoverable treasure within them regardless of the painful
situations they may experience on the streets or in dysfunctional homes.
According to Ruthruff, youth practitioners participate in “an effort to find that
treasure. Not only treasure that is buried with the kids whose lives have been hidden
behind the rough exterior necessary for street survival. I hold strongly to the belief that
kids on the street see God in amazing ways simply because God is close to those who
suffer.”45
Relationships with at-risk youth are absolutely critical to their process of
transformation. With many years of experience in serving street-involved youth, Ruthruff
notes, “The kids have taught me that any strategy to deliver services to them must be
highly relational. Programs don’t save kids; relationships, connection, and community
do.”46
A main strength of Ruthruff’s approach for transforming the lives of at-risk youth
lies in its bottom-up, incarnational, and relational emphasis as opposed to the top-down,
prescriptive approach that many programs take in their attempts to reach troubled youth.
Any youth development model that emphasizes relationships first has figured out the key
that most often leads to transformation. The bottom-up method is very effective:
44
Ron Ruthruff, The Least of These: Lessons Learned from Kids on the Street (Birmingham, AL:
New Hope Publishers, 2010), 19.
45
Ibid., 20.
46
Ibid., 46.
42

Jesus said, when we have acted toward THE LEAST OF THESE, we have done
whatever we have done unto Him. Yet, not because the least are a problem to be
solved, but because they reveal the brokenness and the faith found in all of us.
They reveal US to ourselves and, in some strange way, they reveal the flesh and
blood of Jesus among us – who loves us, heals us, and asks us to bear witness to a
good God who wants to tell the world it’s loved.47
It is difficult to find weaknesses in Ruthruff’s approach to at-risk youth because he
incorporates a relational approach that is mixed with solid, evidence-based programs that
are contextualized to the unique environments that high-risk youth experience. As for the
relevance of Ruthruff’s approach to that of the faith-based model, Ruthruff may be the
most relevant of the literature review.
One weakness of Ruthruff’s approach is that it focuses a great deal on his
experiences of interacting with youth who have experienced severe trauma in their homes
and while living on the streets. Many educators and youth ministry practitioners working
with children may not be experiencing as high level of risk as the children with whom
they work. As such, they may not be able to resonate with this model.
This approach reflects the faith-based approach in that it is highly relational,
developmental, and incarnational. Too many programs in America aimed at impacting
high-risk youth focus on fixing kids through cold systems or institutions instead of really
getting to know the kids relationally and then designing programming around those
relationships. Faith-based mentoring is a great way to impact kids through meaningful,
long term relationships that focus on listening and learning.
The two approaches differ in that Ruthruff’s model also includes more
prescriptive methods built on years of experience in working at a drop-in center for
street-involved youth. His approach moves beyond the intentional mentoring
47
Ibid., 196.
43

relationships to lead children to appropriate case management and counseling strategies
that provide a safety net for kids.
Miller and Sowers: Fatherlessness
Several initiatives are underway in America to address the issue of fatherlessness.
The leaders of these initiatives point out that dysfunctional family situations generate
many of the problems facing at-risk youth, and they add that the lives of troubled youth
can be transformed by addressing the specific issues related to fathers who abdicate their
role in society by being either physically detached or emotionally disengaged.
In his book To Own a Dragon author Donald Miller takes up the cause of
demonstrating how Christians can make a difference in the issue of fatherlessness. Miller
is a strong advocate for Christian men stepping up to become mentors to the next
generation of young people who are experiencing an explosion of fatherlessness that
transcends class, race, or any other cultural identifiers. With regard to the need for
mentoring, Miller notes, “People assume when you’re swimming in a river you are
supposed to know which way you are going, and I guess some of the time that is true, but
there are certain currents that are very strong, and it’s when we are in those currents we
need somebody to come along, pull us out, and guide us in a safer direction.”48
Miller also emphasizes the importance of God intervening in the lives of
fatherless young people if they themselves are to become spiritual fathers. “Even though
some of us grow up without biological fathers, none of us grows up without our actual
Father. That is, if we have skin, if we have a heart that is beating, and if we can touch and
48
Donald Miller and John MacMurray, To Own a Dragon: Reflections on Growing Up Without a
Father (Colorado Springs: NavPress, 2006), 27.
44

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