The Other Psychiatrist from Vienna (Eric R. Kandel)
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Biographic presentation of Dr. Eric R. Kandel
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The Other Psychiatrist from Vienna (Eric R. Kandel)
- 1. The Other Psychiatrist From Vienna Eric R. Kandel’s Search of Memory Brandon L. Cahall Pennsylvania State University, Beaver Campus
- 2. Eric Richard Kandel Early Years Born: November 7, 1929 Vienna, Austria Mother: Charlotte Zimels Ashkenazi Jew – Poland Father: Hermann Kandel Toy Shop Owner – Austria Brother: Ludwig Kandel 5 Years Older
- 3. Eric Richard Kandel Early Years • Germany annexes Austria • March, 1938 (Eric – 8 yrs. old) • Property of Jews is Confiscated • Kandels are Forced Out of Flat • Vivid Memories (Toy Car) • Wealthy Friend – Patron
- 4. Eric Richard Kandel Early Years Eric & Ludwig Sail to NYC • Tenement in Brooklyn (Uncle) • Parents Escape – Reunited in a Year • Accepted at Yeshiva of Flatbush • Erasmus Hall High School • Harvard University (History/Literature) • Influence of B. F. Skinner
- 5. Eric Richard Kandel University Life • Eric Meets Anna Kris • Student at Radcliff College • Also from Vienna, Austria • Parents both psychoanalysts (Ersnt & Marianne Kris) • Freud’s best friend / “Anna” • Decides on Psychoanalysis
- 6. Eric Richard Kandel Medical School / Residency • NYU Medical School • Columbia University (Neurophysiology) • Grundfest - locate Ego and Id • Reductionist – once cell at a time • Studied Feud’s early research • Nerve cells of Crayfish • Residency in Psychiatry at Harvard
- 7. Early Brain and Memory Mapping & mis-Understanding • Conscious Epileptic Patients • Probing their bare brains in certain areas would elicit specific sensations • Identified those brain areas responsible • Assisted by Dr. Brenda Milner • Karl Lashley’s Live Rat Brain Experiment (1948) • Memory is Diffuse
- 8. Dr. Brenda Milner & Patient H. M. Early Brain Research • Dr. William Scoville surgically removed entire hippocampus • Cured seizures • No new memories after surgery • Dr. Brenda Milner devoted career to studying Patient H. M. • Two types of memory: procedural / explicit
- 9. Dr. William Scoville Who really was he? • Arrogant, egotistical, reckless • Raced red Jaguars on CT highways, often pursued by police • Impressed with money • Leapt out onto running board of moving Chevrolet • Sucked brain matter out a straw through holes he drilled in their heads
- 10. Aplysia Research • Human Brain: 1,000,000+ neurons - micro • Sea Slug: only 20,000 neurons - visible • Using electrical probe Kandel conditioned slugs to retract gill whenever touched. • Watched synapses grow as they learned • Single sensory neuron / single motor neuron • Identified CREB +/-
- 11. Smart Sea Slugs vs. Fantastic Fruit Flies CREB Identification Made Public • Dr. Kandel genetically modifies Aplysia with extra CREB switched on • Dr. Tim Tully genetically modifies Drosophila with extra CREB switched on • Flies learn in 1 trial what took normal flies 10+ trials
- 12. Memory Pharmaceuticals and the “Little Red Pill” • Potential benefits for humans • “Little Red Pill” / Phosphodiesterase-4 • Sold to Roche for $50 Million in 2008 • Ready for Humans in by 2018? • Science of Mind • Neural basis for psychoanalytical principles • Psychology & Neurobiology
- 13. Eric Richard Kandel Major Awards Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research (1983) National Medal of Science (1988) Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (2000) Viktor Frankl Award of the City of Vienna (2008) Honorary citizen of the city of Vienna (2009) Foreign Member of the Royal Society (2013) 20+ Other Prestigious Awards Numerous Honorary Degrees
- 14. Eric R. Kandel Prolific Writer of Textbooks & Popular Press
- 15. References Benjamin, L. T. (2014). A Brief History of Modern Psychology. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Dash, P. K., Hochner, B., & Kandel, E. R. (1990). Injection of the cAMP-Responsive Element into the Nucleus of Aplysia Sensory Neurons Blocks Long-Term Facilitation. Nature, 718-721. DeZazzo, J., & Tully, T. (1995). Dissection of Memory Formation: From Behavioral Pharmacology to Molecular Genetics. Trends in Neuroscience, 212-218. Dreifus, C. (2012, March 6). A Quest to Understand How Memory Works. The New York Times, p. D2. Glanzman, D. L., Kandel, E. R., & Schacher, S. (1990). Target-Dependent Structural Changes Accompanying Long-Term Synaptic Facilitation in Aplysia Neurons. Science, 799-802. Hilts, P. J. (1995). Memory's Ghost: The Nature of Memory and the Strange Tale of Mr. M. New York: Simon & Schuster. Kandel, E. R. (1999). Biology and the Future of Psychoanalysis: A New Intellectual Framework for Psychiatry Revisited. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 505-524. Kandel, E. R. (2001). The Molecular Biology of Memory Storage: A Dialogue Between Genes and Synapses. Science, 1030-1038. Kandel, E. R. (2006). In Search of Memory: The Emergence of a New Science of Mind. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. Kandel, E. R. (2009). The Biology of Memory: A Forty-Year Perspective. The Journal of Neuroscience, 12748-12756. Kandel, E. R. (2013, September 8). The New Science of Mind. The New York Times, pp. SR-12. Lashley, K. S. (1948). Brain Mechanisms and Intelligence, 1929. In Readings in the History of Psychology (pp. 557-570). East Norwalk: Appleton-Century-Crofts. Pollak, D. D., Monje, F. J., Zuckerman, L., Denny, C. A., Drew, M. R., & Kandel, E. R. (2008). An Animal Model of a Behavioral Intervention for Depression. Neuron, 149-161. Scoville, W. B., & Milner, B. (1957). Loss of Recent Memory After Bilateral Hippocampal Lesions. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 11-21. Seeger, P. (Director). (2009). In Search of Memory [Motion Picture]. Strickland, B. (2001). Penfield, Wilder Graves. The Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology, 485-487. Xia, C. (2006). Understanding the Human Brain: A Lifetime of Dedicated Pursuit (Interview with Dr. Brenda Milner). McGill Journal of Medicine, 165-172.
Editor's Notes
- Kandel’s are well educated, enjoy a middle-class lifestyle in Vienna during 1920s-30s
- Nazi Germany annexes Austria in March, 1938 Eric is only 8 Soon after all Jewish property is confiscated Nazi SS Soldiers arrive at door in the afternoon, tell Kandels to pack one bag and leave apartment (Hermann is at work). Vivid memory of a small remote control (on a wire) shiny blue car received a few days earlier for his Birthday from his father’s store. Remembers searching for it when they return to flat briefly. Luckily they know a wealthy family who takes them in temporarily.
- Kandel’s manage to arrange passage for Eric and Ludwig on a ship called Gerolstein by sneaking through Antwerp, Belgium Arrive in Brooklyn, NY and are taken in by an Uncle who’d immigrated a few years before Takes nearly a year, and only by luck Kandel’s are reunited All live together in a very poor tenement (not how they lived in Vienna) Eric is tutored by his Uncle and gets accepted at the Yeshiva of Flatbush Excels at NY public school Erasmus Hall High School One of only two from his public school accepted into Harvard – where he studies history and literature At the time Harvard is very much under the influence of B. F. Skinner Skinner is determined to carve out Psychology as its own domain – separate from biology and medicine – important because Psych needed to be recognized Important for Eric Kandel because it later becomes his own ambition to unite Psychology and Neurology
- Being Eric Kandel’s age and a young boy from Vienna, Eric was already well aware and very much interested in Sigmund Freud But Eric Kandel may have continued to pursue a career in History or German Literature until he met Anna Kris: Who was attending nearby Radcliff College She was also from Vienna, Austria Both her mother (Marianne Kris) and her father (Ernst Kris) were practicing psychoanalysts Anna’s grandfather was Sigmund Feud’s best friend – Anna Kris was named after Freud’s daughter Anna Eric decides to pursue a career in psychoanalysis… the most direct path to practice at that time was to pursue a medical degree Eric gets accepted at New York University Medical School
- While at NYU Medical School, Kandel decided to take a course in Neurophysiology, which at the time wasn’t offered at NYU, so he enrolled at Columbia University Where he studied under Dr. Harry Grundfest He remembers telling Prof. Grundfest that he was interested in locating the Ego and Id inside the brain Grundfest replied that it was beyond the grasp of contemporary brain science, but wisely told Kandel that in order to understand the mind it would be necessary to study the brain one single cell at a time. Kandel points to this conversation as a major reason he cultivated his reductionist view of brain science – which would be very important to his future experimentation Kandel was also aware of Freud’s early research on Crayfish and his attempt to map the nerve cells After graduating Medical School he returned to Harvard for his residency in psychiatry Where in his first year he managed to have his own laboratory approved and funded
- At that time, the understanding of the brain was crude Dr. Wilder Penfield was on of a few scientists trying to Map the Brain He was experimenting with his own conscious epileptic patients by exposing their brains and probing areas with electricity and observing which sense was stimulated thereby identifying that brain region as in command of that particular sense. At the time he was working closely with his assistant Dr. Brenda Milner It was also commonly believed at that time, that while certain areas of the brain might be responsible various sensations, memory was in fact diffuse – spread out over the entire brain cortex Most agreed with Dr. Karl Lashley thought he’d proven with his rat experiments: excising different areas of live brains he showed that no particular area had any more or less effect on memory than any other excised area.
- Also around that time a young Henry Molaison, who was suffering from debilitating seizures, was meeting with Dr. Scoville to find a surgical treatment We are all familiar with Henry Molaison aka Patient H. M., who had his entire hippocampus surgically removed by Dr. Scoville (using a silver straw to suck out the brain tissue through two holes drilled just above his eyes). His seizures were drastically reduced, so it was an effective intervention in that respect; however, after the procedure he was no longer able to form new memories. Dr. Brenda Milner was fascinated by this – she considered it the purest form of amnesia known to man at the time, and left Penfield’s lab to dedicate her career to studying H. M. She was intrigued by the idea that HM could remember things like how to walk and how to brush his teeth, yet was unable to remember a conversation held three minutes prior Milner ended up proving Lashley and others wrong – that memory was not diffuse, that specific areas of the brain were vital to memory, but also that there were several types of memory: procedural, which was unaffected in HM and probably not dependent on the hippocampal damage he’d sustained And explicit, which was responsible for autobiographical detail This led others to determine several more types of memory: semantic (facts retained), declarative (who we are), even categorical (classifications)
- Dr. William Beecher Scoville Colleagues and Patients thought he was arrogant / egotistical / sometimes reckless Scoville liked to race red Jaguars on CT’s open highways, often pursued by police He enjoyed spending large amounts of money to try to impress people Once to woo his wife he leapt out onto the running board of a moving Chevrolet Who better to cut open your head and remove portions of your brain?
- Just as Milner began publishing her research on Patient H. M., Eric Kandel was beginning his own memory experiments: He knew that the removal of the hippocampus affected ability to form new memories, but was interested in the mechanics of how it happened Studying the hippocampus, which had millions of tiny neurons, thousands of which could fit on an eraser head, he knew it was too complex He needed a reductionist model to study, and decided on the sea slug (Aplysia califonica) They had just about 20,000 neurons in their whole nervous system, many visible to the naked eye They were capable of learning, like any animal with a nervous system Using electrical probes he conditioned the slug to withdraw its gill each time it was touched Watched under a microscope the actual synapses between the sensory neuron and motor neuron grow stronger as learning occurred Wanting to know what actually caused this growth he further reduced his model by taking a sliver of the Aplysia and under a microscope using a pipette he removed a single sensory neuron and single motor neuron, placed them in a solution, gave them a few days to begin to form a synapse and began recording the process. He likened this to the most fundamental forms of memory which he mapped first Discovered that by blocking a tiny molecule in one of the neurons, which he identified as cyclic-AMP response element binding protein (CREB) he could disrupt this synaptic growth. Realized CREB functioned as the switch for specific genes that produced specific proteins that made the synaptic connections being formed permanent, essentially turning short term memories into long term memories
- After CREB was made public scientists were fascinated… While Kandel genetically modified a sea slug with extra CREB switched on Dr. Tim Tully did the same to the fruit fly Which he was able to test better than a slug He found that CREB + fruit flies were able to learn in one trial what other normal flies needed 10+ trials to learn.
- Kandel saw the potential benefits to creating a similar experience for humans… He and a few other scientists setup Memory Pharmaceuticals, in search for what Kandel referred to as “The Little Red Pill” In 2007 they began drug trials of a molecule called Phosphodiesterase-4, which was shown to be extremely effective in mice In 2008 Roche bought the company for $50 million and are continuing to work on development In an interview at that time , Kandel speculated on an effective human drug being realized within ten years Consider it… ethics also? Kandel also had a lot of interesting ideas about psychoanalysis and psychotherapy, which he called a new Science of Mind He had set out to understand the neural basis for psychoanalytical principles; or even those of psychotherapy Memories make us who we are; psychoanalysis mines those memories for meaning By providing clients with new insights, new ways of thinking, actual brain changes are happening Simply by talking, new connections are being formed and strengthened; thereby in a sense healing occurs physically and psychologically Neurobiology and psychology must work together to help understand the human mind
- First psychiatrist to win the Nobel Prize in 2000 Story of Nobel Prize and Austrian Government An Austrian Nobel / A Jewish American Nobel Resolved: street name changed, scholarships for Jewish intellectuals, dialogue about Vienna’s role in Nazi Germany
- In addition to all the awards, Kandel has written: Popular Press books Autobiography Textbooks Dozens of journal articles