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Writing in discipline
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(Writing In Discipline)
Submitted to:
Ms. Sharmane B. Delgado
ENGL2 Instructor
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I. Structural Analysis…………………………………………3
II. Homonyms, Homograph & Heteronyms………………..8
III. Word Association…………………………………………..10
IV. Idioms……………………………………………………….12
V. Synonyms and Antonyms………………………………...13
VI. Figures of Speech………………………………………….14
VII. Tenses of the Verb…………………………………………17
VIII. Run-ons…………………………………………………….37
IX. Fragments…………………………………………………..40
X. Dangling and Misplaced Modifiers………………………43
XI. Capitalization………………………………………………46
XII. Punctuations……………………………………………….58
XIII. Qualities of a Paragraph………………………………….77
XIV. Friendly Letters…………………………………………….78
XV. Business Letters…………………………………………..83
XVI. Application Letter…………………………………………89
XVII. Rules in Subject-Verb Agreement…………………….95
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STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Common Prefixes, Suffixes and Root Words
The English languages has its roots in several languages, including
Greek, Latin, and older forms of English, German and French.
Learning to recognize common roots and affixes (prefixes and
suffixes)will help you build your vocabulary and improve your ability to
make educated guesses about unknown words you encounter in
reading and test-taking situation. Good dictionaries will give you
information about the origins of words. Whenever you look up a new
word, make a point of reading this information. Some of the roots and
affixes appear in a large number of words. Learning these will enhance
your ability to comprehend course reading and to learn new
terminology.
Positional categories of affixes
Affixes are divided into several categories, depending on their position
with reference to the stem. Prefix and suffix are extremely common
term. Infix and circumfix are less so, as they are not important in
European languages. The other terms are uncommon.
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Categories of Affixes
Prefix - appears at the front of a stem.
Suffix - appears at the back of a stem.
Infix - appears within a stem.
Circumfix - one portion appear at the front of a stem, and the other at
the rear.
Interfix - link two stem together in a compound incorporates a
reduplicated portion of a stem.
Duplifix - may occur in front, at the rear or within the stem.
Transfix - a discontinuous affix that interleaves within a discontinuous
stem.
Simulfix - changes a segment of a stem.
Suprafix - changes a suprasegmental phoneme of a stem.
Disfix - the elision of a portion of a stem.
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Roots
Root Meaning Example
Acu sharp acute, acupuncture
Belli war rebellion, belligerent
Carn flesh carnivorous, incarnate
Deca ten decade, decalogue
Equi equal equinox ,equilibrium
fac, fact, fic, fect do, make factory, fact, manufacture
geo earth geometry, geography
homo same homogenous, homonyms
ject throw deject, inject, project
liter letters literary, literature, literal
mega great megaphone, megalopolis
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Prefixes
Prefix Meaning Example
a without, not asexual, anarchy
Anti against antipathy
Bi two bisexual, binary
Circum around circumference
Di two, double diatomic
ego I, self egocentric
geo earth geology, geography
homo same, like homozygous
inter between interpret
locus place locality
macro large macroeconomic
post after post-mortem
pre before preview
scope examine microscope
trans across transport
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Suffixes
Suffixes Meaning Example
able,ible able, capable applicable, visible
ance action, process, state allowance
cy action, function normalcy
en made of, to make frozen
er,or one who, that which baker, professor
ess female goddess
ul full of careful
ic nature of, like metallic
ism system, manner alcoholism
ist one who, that which dentist
logy study, science, theory anthropology
ly like,manner of carelessly
nomy law autonomy
ship state of ,office, quality assistantship
y inclined to, tend to cheery
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Homonyms
Homonyms (also called homophones) are words that sound like one
another but have different meanings. Some homonyms are spelled the
same, like bark (the sound a dog makes) and bark (the outer layer of a
tree trunk). Some homonyms are spelled differently, like one (the
number) and won (having been victorious).
Examples:
Aunt-ant
Allowed-aloud
Be-bee
Fair-fare
Feat-feet
Homographs
Homographs are different words that are spelled the same. They have
different meanings and origins. Homographs may or may not have the
same pronunciations.
Examples:
bear (verb) – to support or carry
bear (noun) – the animal
sow (verb) – to plant seed
sow (noun) – female pig
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Heteronyms
Heteronyms (also known as heterophones) are words that are
written identically but have different pronunciations and meanings. In
other words, they are homographs that are not homophones.
Examples:
abuse – improper treatment
abuse – to use properly
attribute – a characteristic
attribute – to associate ownership
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Word Association
Stimulation of an associative pattern by a word.
The connection and production of other words in response to a
given word, done spontaneously
1. Similarity
e.g.
• Beautiful-Pretty
• Funny- Humorous
• Old- Antiquated
2. Contrast
e.g.
• Near - Far
• War- Peace
• Rude- Polite
3. Assonance
e.g.
• Ate- Eight
• Weight- Wait
• Through- Threw
4. Subordination
e.g.
• Sports- Basketball, Volleyball, Golf
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• Insects- Spider, Ant, Bug
• Job- Teacher, Doctor, Engineer
5. Coordination
e.g.
• Basketball- Volleyball- Softball
• Blue- Red- Yellow
• Cavite- Manila- Quezon
6. Super Ordination
e.g.
• Nurse-Job
• Eight-Number
• Banana-Fruits
7. Derivation’
e.g
• Play-Playful
• Love-Lover
• Court-Courtship
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IDIOMS
An idiom is a phrase where the words together have a meaning that is
different from the dictionary definitions of the individual words.
Examples:
1.) beat one's brains out: try very hard to understand or do
something.
2.) can't make heads or tails of something: can't understand
something at all;
find something confusing and illogical.
3.) drag one's feet: delay; take longer than necessary to do
something.
4.) elbow grease: hard work; effort.
5.) far-fetched: difficult to accept; difficult to believe.
6.) have one's hands full: be extremely busy.
7.) in over one's head: in a situation that is too much / too difficult
for one to manage.
8.) jump all over someone: severely criticize / find fault with
someone.
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Synonyms
A synonym is a word with the same meaning. The meaning of the unknown
word is understood because the idea is repeated in familiar words.
Examples:
Bellicose – warlike
Misleading - wrong
Fallacious - deception
Dominate - rule
Stupendous – marvelous
Puke – vomit
Loquacious –talkative
Smart – intelligent
Scrupulous – careful
Colossal – humongous
Antonyms
Antonyms are words or phrases that are opposite in meaning.
Examples:
Loquacious - hardly talk at all
Anxiety – calm
Beauty – ugly
Accuracy – precision
Thick – thin
Frigid – scorching
Benevolence – unkindness
Precido – right
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Figure s of Speech
-is a change from the ordinary manner of expression using words in
other that literal sense to enhance the way or thought is expressed.
*Alliteration
-the same sound is repeated noticeably at the beginning of words
placed closed together.
Example:
Santa's Short Suit Shrunk
Tie twine to three tree twigs.
Six slimy snails sailed silently.
*Apostrophe
-direct address of an absent or dead person or personified thing.
Example:
"Science! True daughter of Old Time thou art!"
"Then come, sweet death, and rid me of this grief."
"O black night, nurse of the golden eyes!"
*Hyperbole
-exaggeration not meant to be taken literally.
Example:
―I‘ve told you a million times‖
―It was so cold, I saw polar bears wearing jackets‖
He's got tons of money.
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*Simile
-a comparisons between things, events or actions which are
fundamentally unlike. Typically involves the words ''like'' or ''as''.
Example:
―cute as a kitten,‖ comparing the way someone looks to the way
a kitten looks
―as busy as a bee‖ comparing someone‘s level of energy to a
fast-flying bee
"Life is like a box of chocolates, you never know what you're
going to get." comparing the uncertainty of life to the uncertainty
of choosing a chocolate from a box.
*Personification
-representing a thing, quality or idea as a person.
Example:
The stars danced playfully in the moonlit sky.
The phone awakened with a mighty ring.
The tornado ran through town without a care.
*Metaphor
-is a figure of speech that says that one thing is another different
thing.
Example:
The noise is music to his ears
Heart of a lion
Love is a growing garland
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*Oxymoron
-a paradoxical statement in which two contradictory terms or words
are brought together.
Example:
After celebrating the new year all night, she was miserable,
hung over and looked like living death.
Her new hairstyle is pretty ugly.
This chocolate is bitter sweet.
*Metonomy
-substituting a word which is suggested by it or which is closed
associated with it for another word.
Example:
The White House supports the bill (using White House instead
of President. The President is not like the White House, but
there is contiguity between them).
We need a couple of strong bodies for our team. (strong people)
I've got a new set of wheels. (car, motorcycle, etc.)
*Onomatopoeia
-using words to imitate the sound they represent.
Example:
Don't beep that horn again.
The birds in the tree went cheep, cheep, cheep until they were
fed
We heard the tlot-tlot of the horses hoofs
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Tenses of the Verb
A verb indicates the time of an action, event or condition by changing
its form. Through the use of a sequence of tenses in a sentence or in a
paragraph, it is possible to indicate the complex temporal relationship
of actions, events, and conditions
There are many ways of categorizing the twelve possible verb tenses.
The verb tenses may be categorized according to the time frame: past
tenses, present tenses, and future tenses.
Verb Tense: Time
The four past tenses are:
1. the simple past ("I went")
2. the past progressive ("I was going")
3. the past perfect ("I had gone")
4. the past perfect progressive ("I had been going")
The four present tenses are:
1. the simple present ("I go")
2. the present progressive ("I am going")
3. the present perfect ("I have gone")
4. the present perfect progressive ("I have been going")
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Note that the present perfect and present perfect progressive are a
present not past tenses -- that idea is that the speaker is currently in
the state of having gone or having been going.
The four future tenses are:
1. the simple future ("I will go")
2. the future progressive ("I will be going")
3. the future perfect ("I will have gone")
4. the future perfect progressive ("I will have been going")
Verb Tense: Aspect
Verb tenses may also be categorized according to aspect. Aspect
refers to the nature of the action described by the verb. There are three
aspects: indefinite (or simple), complete (or perfect), continuing (or
progressive).
The three indefinite tenses, or simple tenses, describe an action but
do not state whether the action is finished:
the simple past ("I went")
the simple present ("I go")
the simple future ("I will go")
A verb in the indefinite aspect is used when the beginning or ending
of an action, an event, or condition is unknown or unimportant to the
meaning of the sentence. The indefinite aspect is also used to used to
indicate an habitual or repeated action, event, or condition.
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The three complete tenses, or perfect tenses, describe a finished
action:
the past perfect ("I had gone")
the present perfect ("I have gone")
the future perfect ("I will have gone")
A verb in the complete aspect indicates that the end of the action,
event, or condition is known and the is used to emphasize the fact that
the action is complete. The action may, however, be completed in the
present, in the past or in the future.
The three incomplete tenses, or progressive tenses, describe an
unfinished action:
the past progressive ("I was going")
the present progressive ("I am going")
the future progressive ("I will be going")
A verb in the continuing aspect indicates that the action, event, or
condition is ongoing in the present, the past or the future.
It is also possible to combine the complete tenses and the incomplete
tenses, to describe an action which was in progress and then finished:
the past perfect progressive ("I had been going")
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the present perfect progressive ("I have been going")
the future perfect progressive ("I will have been going")
The Function of Verb Tenses
The Simple Present Tense
The simple present is used to describe an action, an event, or
condition that is occurring in the present, at the moment of speaking or
writing. The simple present is used when the precise beginning or
ending of a present action, event, or condition is unknown or is
unimportant to the meaning of the sentence.
Each of the highlighted verbs in the following sentences is in the
simple present tense and each sentence describes an action taking
place in the present:
Deborah waits patiently while Bridget books the tickets.
The shelf holds three books and a vase of flowers.
The crowd moves across the field in an attempt to see the rock
star get into her helicopter.
The Stephens sisters are both very talented; Virginia writes and
as in the following sentences:
Rectangles have four sides.
Canada Day takes place on July 1, the anniversary of the
signing of the British North America Act.
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The moon circles the earth once every 28 days.
Calcium is important to the formation of strong bones.
Menarche and menopause mark the beginning and the ending
of a woman's reproductive history.
The simple present is used to indicate a habitual action, event, or
condition, as in the following sentences:
Leonard goes to The Jumping Horse Tavern every Thursday
evening.
My grandmother sends me new mittens each spring.
In fairy tales, things happen in threes.
We never finish jigsaw puzzles because the cat always eats
some of the pieces.
Jesse polishes the menorah on Wednesdays.
The simple present is also used when writing about works of art, as in
the following sentences.
Lolly Willowes is the protagonist of the novel Townsend
published in 1926.
One of Artemisia Gentleschi's best known paintings represents
Judith's beheading of Holofernes.
The Lady of Shallot weaves a tapestry while watching the
passers-by in her mirror.
Lear rages against the silence of Cordelia and only belatedly
realizes that she, not her more vocal sisters, loves him.
The play ends with an epilogue spoken by the fool.
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The simple present can also be used to refer to a future event when
used in conjunction with an adverb or adverbial phrase, as in the
following sentences.
The doors open in 10 minutes.
The premier arrives on Tuesday.
Classes end next week.
The publisher distributes the galley proofs next Wednesday.
The lunar eclipses begins in exactly 43 minutes.
The Present Progressive
While the simple present and the present progressive are sometimes
used interchangeably, the present progressive emphasises the
continuing nature of an act, event, or condition.
Each of the highlighted verbs in the following sentences is in the
present progressive tense. In each sentence the on-going nature of the
action is emphasised by the use of the present progressive rather than
the simple present.
Nora is looking for the first paperback editions of all of Raymond
Chandler's books.
Deirdre is dusting all the shelves on the second floor of the
shop.
The union members are pacing up and down in front of the
factory.
KPLA is broadcasting the hits of the 70s this evening.
The presses are printing the first edition of tomorrow's paper.
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The present progressive is occasionally used to refer to a future event
when used in conjunction with an adverb or adverbial phrase, as in the
following sentences.
The doors are opening in 10 minutes.
The premier is arriving on Tuesday.
Classes are ending next week.
The publisher is distributing the galley proofs next Wednesday.
The Present Perfect Tense
The present perfect tense is used to describe action that began in the
past and continues into the present or has just been completed at the
moment of utterance. The present perfect is often used to suggest that
a past action still has an effect upon something happening in the
present.
Each of the highlighted compound verbs in the following sentences is
in the present perfect tense.
They have not delivered the documents we need.
This sentence suggest that the documents were not delivered in the
past and that they are still undelivered.
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The health department has decided that all high school students
should be immunised against meningitis.
The writer of this sentence uses the present perfect in order to suggest
that the decision made in the past is still of importance in the present.
The government has cut university budgets; consequently, the
dean has increased the size of most classes.
Here both actions took place sometime in the past and continue to
influence the present.
The heat wave has lasted three weeks.
In this sentence, the writer uses the present perfect to indicate that a
condition (the heat wave) began in past and continues to affect the
present.
Donna has dreamt about frogs sitting in trees every night this
week.
Here the action of dreaming has begun in the past and continues into
the present.
The Present Perfect Progressive Tense
Like the present perfect, the present perfect progressive is used to
describe an action, event, or condition that has begun in the past and
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continues into the present. The present perfect progressive, however,
is used to stress the on-going nature of that action, condition, or event.
Each of the highlighted verbs in the following sentences is in the
present perfect progressive tense and each sentence suggests that the
action began in the past and is continuing into the present.
That dog has been barking for three hours; I wonder if someone
will call the owner.
I have been relying on my Christmas bonus to pay for the gifts I
buy for my large family.
They have been publishing this comic book for ten years.
We have been seeing geese flying south all afternoon.
Even though the coroner has been carefully examining the
corpse discovered in Sutherland's Gully since early this
morning, we still do not know the cause of death.
The Simple Past Tense
The simple past is used to describe an action, an event, or condition
that occurred in the past, sometime before the moment of speaking or
writing.
Each of the highlighted verbs in the following sentences is in the
simple past tense and each sentence describes an action taking place
at some point in past.
A flea jumped from the dog to the cat.
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Phoebe gripped the hammer tightly and nailed the boards
together.
The gem-stones sparkled in a velvet lined display case.
Artemisia Gentilsechi probably died in 1652.
The storyteller began every story by saying "A long time ago
when the earth was green."
The Past Progressive Tense
in the past. These actions often take place within a specific time frame.
While actions referred to in the present progressive have some
connection to the present, actions referred in the past progressive
have no immediate or obvious connection to the present. The on-going
actions took place and were completed at some point well before the
time of speaking or writing.
Each of the highlighted verbs in the following sentences is in the past
progressive tense.
The cat was walking along the tree branch.
This sentence describes an action that took place over a period of
continuous time in the past. The cat's actions have no immediate
relationship to anything occurring now in the present.
Lena was telling a story about the exploits of a red cow when a
tree branch broke the parlour window.
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Here the action "was telling" took place in the past and continued for
some time in the past.
When the recess bell rang, Jesse was writing a long division
problem on the blackboard.
This sentence describes actions ("ran" and "was writing") that took
place sometime in the past, and emphasises the continuing nature of
one of the actions ("was writing").
The archivists were eagerly waiting for the delivery of the former
prime minister's private papers.
Here the ongoing action of "waiting" occurred at some time
unconnected to the present.
Between 1942 and 1944 the Frank and Van Damm families
were hiding in a Amsterdam office building.
In this sentence, the action of hiding took place over an extended
period of time and the continuing nature of the hiding is emphasised.
The Past Perfect Tense
The past perfect tense is used to refer to actions that took place and
were completed in the past. The past perfect is often used to
emphasise that one action, event or condition ended before another
past action, event, or condition began.
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Each of the highlighted verbs in the following sentences is in the past
perfect.
Miriam arrived at 5:00 p.m. but Mr. Whitaker had closed the
store.
All the events in this sentence took place in the past, but the act of
closing the store takes place before Miriam arrives at the store
After we located the restaurant that Christian had raved about,
we ate supper there every Friday.
Here the praise ("had raved") precedes the finding ("located") of the
restaurant. Both actions took place sometime before the moment of
speaking or writing.
The elephant had eaten all the hay so we fed it oats for a week.
In this sentence, both actions take place in the past, but the eating of
the hay ("had eaten") preceded the eating of the oats ("fed").
The heat wave had lasted three weeks.
While the sentence "The heat wave has lasted three weeks" suggests
that a condition began in the past and continues into the present, this
sentence describes an action that began and ended sometime in the
past ("had lasted"). By using the past perfect the writer indicates that
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the heat wave has no connection to any events occurring in the
present.
After she had learned to drive, Alice felt more independent.
Here the learning took place and was completed at a specific time in
the past. By using the past perfect rather than the simple past
("learned"), the writer emphasises that the learning preceded the
feeling of independence.
The Past Perfect Progressive Tense
The past perfect progressive is used to indicate that a continuing
action in the past began before another past action began or
interrupted the first action.
Each of the highlighted compound verbs in the following sentences is
in the past perfect progressive tense.
The toddlers had been running around the school yard for ten
minutes before the teachers shooed them back inside.
Here the action of the toddlers ("had been running") is ongoing in the
past and precedes the actions of the teachers ("shooed") which also
takes place in the past.
We had been talking about repainting the front room for three
years and last night we finally bought the paint.
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In this example, the ongoing action of "talking" precedes another past
action ("bought").
A construction crew had been digging one pit after another in
the middle of my street for three days before they found the
water main.
Here, the action of digging ("had been digging") took place in the past
and occurred over a period of time. The digging was followed by the
action of finding ("found").
Madeleine had been reading mystery novels for several years
before she discovered the works of Agatha Christie.
In this sentence the act of discovery ("discovered") occurred in the past
but after the ongoing and repeated action of reading ("had been
The chef's assistant had been chopping vegetables for several
minutes before he realized that he had minced his apron strings.
This sentence is a bit more complex in that it contains three different
past verb tenses. The sequence of tenses conveys a complex set
ofinformation. The past perfect progressive ("had been chopping") is
used to emphasise the ongoing nature of the past act of chopping.
While a second past perfect progressive ("had been mincing") could be
used, the past perfect ("had minced") is used to suggest that act of
mincing was completed. The simple
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past ("realized") is used to describe the action closest to the present,
an action that followed both the chopping and the mincing.
The Simple Future Tense
The simple future is used to refer to actions that will take place after
the act of speaking or writing.
The future progressive tense is used to describe actions ongoing in
the future. The future progressive is used to refer to continuing action
that will occur in the future.
Each of the highlighted compound verbs in the following sentences is
in the future progressive tense.
The glee club will be performing at the celebration of the town's
centenary.
Ian will be working on the computer system for the next two
weeks.
The selection committee will be meeting every Wednesday
morning.
We will be writing an exam every afternoon next week.
They will be ringing the bells for Hypatia next month.
The Future Perfect Tense
The future perfect is used to refer to an action that will be completed
sometime in the future before another action takes place.
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Each of the highlighted verbs in the following sentences is in the future
perfect tense.
The surgeon will have operated on 6 patients before she
attends a luncheon meeting.
In this sentence, the act of operating ("will have operated") takes place
in the future sometime before the act of attending ("attends").
The plumber and his assistant will have soldered all the new
joins in pipes before they leave for the next job.
Here, the plumbers' act of soldering ("will have soldered") will precede
the act of leaving ("leave").
By the time you get back from the corner store, we will have
finished writing the thank you letters.
In this sentence, the act of returning from the store ("get back") takes
place after the act of writing ("will have written").
If this year is like last year, I will have finished my holiday
shopping long before my brother starts his.
In this example, the act of finishing ("will have finished") occurs well
before the act of starting ("starts").
They will have written their first exam by the time we get out of
bed.
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Here, the act of getting out of bed occurs sometime after the writing of
the exam.
The Future Perfect Progressive Tense
The future perfect progressive tense is used to indicate a continuing
action that will be completed at some specified time in the future. This
tense is rarely used.
Each of the highlighted verbs in the following sentences is in the future
perfect progressive tense.
I will have been studying Greek for three years by the end of
this term.
In this sentence, the future perfect progressive is used to indicate the
ongoing nature of the future act of the studying. The act of studying
("will have been studying") will occur before the upcoming end of term.
By the time the meeting is over, the committee will have been
arguing about which candidate to interview for three hours.
Similarly in this sentence, the ongoing nature of a future act ("will have
been arguing") is emphasised by the use of the future perfect
progressive. The act of sustained arguing will take place before the
meeting is over.
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When he returns, the wine will have been fermenting for three
months.
Here the ongoing action of fermentation will precede ("will have been
fermenting") the act of return
The Twelve Tenses of English
PRESENT (main verb)
I study English.
He studies English.
PAST (past tense of main verb)
I studied English.
He studied English.
FUTURE (will or shall + main verb)
I will study English.
He will study English.
PRESENT PERFECT (have or has + past participle of verb)
I have studied English.
He has studied English.
PAST PERFECT (had + past participle of verb)
I had studied English.
He had studied English.
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FUTURE PERFECT (will or shall + have + past participle of verb)
I will have studied English.
He will have studied English.
PRESENT PROGRESSIVE (form of "be" verb + "ing" form of main
verb)
I am studying English.
He is studying English
PAST PROGRESSIVE (past tense of form "be" verb + "ing" form
of main verb)
I was studying English.
He was studying English.
FUTURE PROGRESSIVE (will or shall +be + "ing" form of main
verb)
I will be studying English.
He will be studying English.
PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE (have or has + been + "ing"
form of main verb)
I have been studying English.
He has been studying English.
PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE (had + been + "ing" form of main
verb)
I had been studying English.
He had been studying English
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FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE (will or shall + have + been +
"ing" form of main verb)
I will have been studying English.
He will have been studying English.
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Run on Sentences
Run on sentences are sentences that contain too many ideas without
proper punctuation. Not all long sentences are run on sentences. It is
perfectly acceptable to join several related ideas in one compound
sentence. However, if you don't follow punctuation rules, a sentence
can become a run on. A simple explanation of run ons and some
examples of run on sentences should help to make this point clear.
Components of a Sentence
Each sentence has 3 necessary components
1. A subject: What is this sentence about? The subject is usually, but not
always, a noun or a pronoun.
2. An action: What is the subject of the sentence doing? The action is
always a verb.
3. A complete thought: What is the purpose of this sentence?
For example, lets look at the sentence "Jim is cold." This sentence has
a subject: "Jim." It has an action: "is" which is a form of the "to be"
verb. Jim is doing the action of "being cold." It also expresses a
complete thought- the purpose of this sentence is to tell the reader that
Jim is cold.
Sentences which have these 3 components are
called Independent Clauses. If a sentence is lacking in one of the 3
components, it is called a Dependent Clause. Independent clauses
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can stand on their own- they form their own sentences. Dependent
clauses can't stand alone- they need to be joined to another clause.
What is a Run on Sentence?
A run on sentence is a sentence that has 2 or more clauses which are
improperly joined. Independent and dependent clauses can be joined
together to create compound sentences when writing.
However, there are rules that have to be followed when creating
compound sentences, in order to avoid creating a run on sentence:
2 related independent clauses can be joined using a semicolon.
Related independent clauses are clauses that could stand on their
own, but that are related to each other. For example: "Jim is cold; he
wants to go inside." Each of the two clauses in this sentence are
independent clauses- they could stand by themselves. They are
related, so they are joined together by a semicolon.
An independent clause can be joined to another independent
clause using a subordinating conjunction
An independent clause can be made dependent on another clause, by
using asubordinating conjunction. For example: "Jim is cold but he
wants to say outside." The second clause "He wants to stay outside."
could be an independent clause. However, the subordinating
conjunction "and" makes it dependent on the first clause. With the
"and" at the beginning, the sentence could no longer stand on its own.
It is dependent on the first clause.
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Examples of Run on Sentences
The following 3 examples of run-on sentences demonstrate problems
that occur when compound sentences are formed without proper
punctuation:
1. Kelly likes to cook, she makes chicken every day.
"Kelly likes to cook" is an independent clause that could stand by
itself. "She makes chicken every day" is an independent clause that
could stand by itself. These two sentences cannot be joined by a
comma. The improper use of a comma here is called a comma
splice. The sentence could be corrected by using a semicolon in
place of the comma. It could also be corrected if a conjunction was
used: "Kelly likes to cook, and she makes chicken every day."
2. Mary likes dogs she has a beagle.
"Mary has dogs" is an independent clause that could stand by itself.
"She has a beagle" is an independent clause that could stand by itself.
As written, the sentence is a run on sentence since it contains two
separate ideas. These two clauses must have punctuation and/or a
conjunction.
3. Ann likes to read; she reads lots of books; she goes to the
library 3 times a week.
While semicolons can be used to link independent thoughts, they can
only be used to link 2 independent thoughts. You can't use 2
semicolons to link 3 independent thoughts. One of these thoughts
needs to be a separate sentence, or a conjunction needs to be used.
For example, it would be acceptable to say "Ann likes to read; she
reads lots of books and goes to the library 3 times a week."
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Fragments
Every sentence has to have a subject and a verb in order to be
complete (remember what we said about subjects and verbs?). If it
doesn't, it's a fragment. That's easy enough if you have something like
1. Ran into town. (no subject)
2. The growling dog. (no verb)
Unfortunately, there's a little more to it than that. You can have a group
of words with both a subject and a verb that is still a fragment. Not fair?
What is? So, before we go any further, we need to cover some basics.
A phrase is nothing more than a group of words. (See prepositions.)
A clause is a group of words with a subject and a verb. There are two
types that you need to be able to distinguish:
1. main (independent) clause: one that can stand alone and express
a complete thought
2. subordinate (dependent) clause: one that depends on another
element for its complete meaning
A main clause is a complete sentence; a subordinate clause, because
it depends on something else, isn't--even though it has a subject and a
verb. A few examples should make this clear (subjects and verbs are
bolded):
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1. I sit in front of the fireplace.
2. We go for a walk.
3. I like people.
These are all main clauses. The information might be sketchy, but the
ideas are complete. Compare these with the following which are all
subordinate clauses. There is a subject and a verb, but the ideas are
incomplete.
1. When it is cold.
2. After the dishes are put up.
3. Who pat my head and give me treats.
These are fragments because they are punctuated incorrectly. It's easy
to spot this kind of mistake: just read your paper aloud, slowly and
carefully, exactly as it is punctuated (that is, stop at each period). If
anything is incomplete (a fragment), you should hear it.
Think about it: if I come into the room and haven't spoken to you, you'll
be a little puzzled if all I say is "When it is cold." You're going to be
waiting for more information. (Actually, you'd probably be more than
puzzled if I said anything!)
One way to put these examples together clearly and correctly is:
1. When it is cold, I sit in front of the fireplace.
2. We go for walk after the dishes are put up.
3. I like people who pat my head and give me treats.
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Notice the punctuation. When a subordinate clause begins a sentence,
always put a comma after it (#1). If the subordinate clause comes after
the main clause, you usually need no punctuation (#2 and #3). With
sentence 1 and 2, you could just as easily have written (again, pay
attention to the punctuation):
1. I sit in front of the fireplace when it is cold.
2. After the dishes are put up, we go for a walk.
Some of the words that create a subordinate clause are: after,
although, as, because, before, if, since, that, unless, until, when,
whether, which, while, and who. Watch out for these and check your
sentences carefully to make sure they're punctuated correctly.
That's probably enough on fragments. Just remember: whatever is
between that opening capital letter and the closing period in a
sentence has to express a complete thought. Otherwise, you'll
probably give your professor something to mark on your paper!
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Dangling Modifiers &
Sometimes modifiers in a sentence cannot do their work effectively
because they have been placed in a ―wrong‖ position. The following
pointers will help you achieve effective modification.
Misplaced Modifier
A modifier is misplaced when it is placed so far from the word it
modifies that it gives rise to misinterpretations. Place the phrase
modifier near the noun it modifies.
Examples:
Misplaced: The wind frightened the children rattling the window
panes.
(It seems that the children are rattling the window panes.)
Improved: The wind rattling the window panes frightened the children.
Misplaced: Eagerly awaiting her birthday, Mary's presents were all
picked up and admired by
Mary many times throughout the course of the day.
(Here, this sentence makes it seem as though Mary's presents were
eagerly
awaiting Mary's birthday. Since presents can't exhibit the emotion of
feeling eager,
it is unlikely that this modifier is written correctly. The most logical
explanation is
that Mary was eagerly awaiting her own birthday.)
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Improved: Eagerly awaiting her birthday, Mary picked up and admired
her presents many times
throughout the day.
Misplaced: She served sandwiches to the children on paper plates.
Improved: She served the children sandwiches on paper plates.
A dangling modifier is one that has no word to which it could be
attached. A phrase modifier that comes at the beginning of a sentence
should be followed at once by the subject of the sentence.
It is placed in such a way that it appears to modify unintended words in
the same sentence.
EXAMPLES:
Dangling: Walking on the sidewalk the flowers seemed to dance and
bow.
(Who is walking on the sidewalk?)
Improved: Walking on the sidewalk, I saw the flowers that seemed to
dance and bow.
Dangling: Hoping to garner favor, my parents were sadly
unimpressed with the gift.
(This is a dangling modifier because we do not know who or what was
garner favor. It is unlikely that the parents were hoping to garner favor,
since they wouldn't have given an unimpressive gift to themselves.)
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Improved: Hoping to garner favor, my new boyfriend brought my
parents a gift that sadly unimpressed them.
Dangling: Hoping to excuse my lateness, the note was written
and given to my teacher.
( Here, it seems as though we have a subject- my.
However, my is part of the modifier and not the subject itself.)
Improved: Hoping to excuse my lateness, I wrote a note and
gave it to my teacher.
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Capitalization
Capitalization Rules
There are many rules to capitalization. Most people know the basics of
capitalization such as capitalizing the first letter of the first word at the
beginning of a new sentence, but when is capitalization appropriate
in other situations? Outlined below is a comprehensive guide providing
rules and examples to proper capitalization.
Buildings, Streets, Parks, Statues, Monuments
- Capitalize the names of:
· buildings · towers · churches · schools
· thoroughfares · squares · parks
· statues · monuments
Continents, Countries, Counties, Districts, Cities, Towns
- Capitalize the names of:
· continents · countries · counties · districts
· towns · villages · hamlets · communities
· political divisions (i.e. United Kingdom, French Republic)
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Courts
- Federal and State and Provincial Courts - Capitalize when
used with a definite name.
Examples:
· the Supreme Court of Canada · the State Court of Appeals
· the United States Circuit Court
Do not capitalize district or city courts. (example: the
magistrate‘s court)
Compass Points
- Capitalize points of the compass when they designate
geographical parts of a country, region or city.
Examples:
· the Inland Northwest · Southeast states · out West · Eastern
sources
- Capitalize northern, southern, western, eastern, east, west, north,
south when used as part of proper names to designate a world
division. DO NOT capitalize when used to indicate parts of
states or provinces.
Examples:
· Eastern Hemisphere · Southwestern Europe · Southeast
Asia
· southern California · northern Quebec
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Degrees - Academic
- Capitalize academic degrees and professional
designations. When writing more than one degree/designation,
arrange them in accordance to their importance
Examples:
· Laura Bates, Ph.D. · James Pallister, M.D. · Peter Wong,
M.D., BChir
Eras and Historical Periods - Scientific and Common names
- Capitalize scientific names of the world‘s eras and common
names for historical epochs, periods and events.
Examples:
· the Ice Age · Colonial days · the Great Depression
Flags
- Capitalize the names and synonyms for flags of nations.
Examples:
· the Union Jack · the Star-Spangled Banner
· Old Glory · the Maple Leaf
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Geographical Terms
- The following geographical terms are usually capitalized
immediately following the names:
Basin Bend Branch Butte Canal
Canyon Harbor Passage Peninsula Plateau
Geographical Words
- The following words are usually capitalized when they
stand before or after a name or when used as part of a name:
Bay Bayou Camp (military) Cape
Desert Falls Fort Head
Isle Lake Mount Oasis
Pass Port River
Strait Valley
Government
- Capitalize the word “Government” when referring to the
country‘s Government or that of any foreign nation.
Example:
· Her Majesty‘s Government · Government responsibility
· Imperial Government · on official Government business
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Holy Bible
- Names for the Bible – Capitalize all names for the Bible, for
parts and versions of the Bible and all names of other sacred
books.
Examples:
· Bible · Scriptures · Word of God · Holy Bible
- Creeds and Confessions – Capitalize all names of creeds and
confessions of faith and general Biblical terms.
Examples:
· Lord‘s Supper · the Apostles‘ Creed
· the Westminster Catechism · Nicene Creed
- Deity - Capitalize all names for Deity
Examples:
· Father · Almighty · God · Lord · Holy Spirit · Son of Man
· Messiah · Lord of Hosts · Redeemer · Savior · Holy
Trinity
- Devil - Capitalize all names for the Devil
Examples:
· Devil · Satan · Adversary · Father of Lies · Evil
One · Lucifer
· Prince of Darkness · Beelzebub (meaning Satan)
* Do not capitalize when used in a general sense or as an
expletive. (Example: The devil is a formidable adversary.)
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Military
- Army, Navy and Air Force – Capitalize when referring to these
organizations by name or with other widely accepted references to
them.
Examples:
· the Army · U.S. Army · French Army · Organized Reserves · 1st
Regiment
· the Navy · U.S. Navy · British Navy · Marine Corps · the Marines
· the Air Force · U.S. Air Force · Royal Air Force · Edwards Air
Force Base
Names/Persons
- Proper Nouns – Capitalize all proper nouns that are names
of individuals.
Examples:
· Sally Jane Anderson · John. A. Smith
- Personal Pronoun “ I ” – Capitalize the word " I
" when referring to oneself in the first person. This word is
always capitalized, even when used in mid sentence.
Examples:
· I will try to make the time for a vacation this year.
· This year, I will try to make the time for a vacation.
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- Epithets - Capitalize epithets added to proper names or
applied to people or places.
Examples:
· the Dallas Cowboys · the Golden Gate · the Green Belt
· William the Conqueror · the Empire State Building
- Family - Father and Mother – Capitalize when used as a
means of personally addressing the individual, but not when
used as a possessive pronoun.
Examples:
· Before I forget to tell you, Father, they are expecting you
at 7:00 PM at the hall.
· My mother has agreed to stay with our children.
- Family - Uncle, Aunt, Cousin – Capitalize these and other
family terms when used with a proper noun, but not when used
as a possessive pronoun.
Examples:
· I saw Aunt Sarah dancing all night.
· When I arrived, Cousin Bill was directing traffic.
· My uncle sold the farm because of his bad health.
- Prefixes – Capitalize prefixes in the names of foreign people
unless preceded by a given name or title.
Examples:
· Van Leeuwen · Thomas van Leeuwen
· De Paul · Cardinal de Paul
With British and American names, such prefixes are usually
capitalized even if preceded by a given name or title. Individual
preference prevails in these cases.
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Nation or Republic
- Capitalize when used as a synonym for a country.
Examples:
· The Nation stands by its men and women in combat.
· The future of the Republic is riding on his shoulders.
Organized Bodies
- Capitalize when referring to these organized groups as a
whole.
Examples:
· Shriners · Democrats · Elks
Organizations
- Capitalize names of clubs, societies, associations,
companies, foundations, institutes, etc.
Examples:
· Knights of Columbus · American Lung Association · Microsoft
Corporation
Poetry
- Traditionally, the first word of every line of poetry is
capitalized.
- In some modern English poetry formats, only the first word
of the first line is capitalized, and sometimes even this word is
all lower-case.
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Quotations
- Capitalize the first word of every complete quotation within
quotation marks.
Example:
· The waitress asked, ―Do you want your coffee with cream and
sugar?‖
- DO NOT capitalize that part of a quotation resumed within
the same sentence.
Example:
· ―Do you want your coffee,‖ the waitress asked, ―with cream
and sugar?‖
Sentences
- Capitalize the first word of every sentence, whether it is a
complete sentence or not.
State or Province/Provincial
- Capitalize when used with a name or when used in place of
the name. Lower-case applies when used as a general term.
Examples:
· The Province of Ontario · New York State · State‘s legislation
· provincial park · state prison
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Titles - Personal
- Academic and Religious titles – Capitalize when
preceding a name or when used as a means of personally
addressing the individual.
Examples:
· Professor David Schwartz · Bishop Larry Wiseman
· Doctor Paul McNeil · Dr. Paul McNeil
· Reverend Henry Krause · Rev. Henry Krause
· Please be completely honest with me, Doctor, about your
prognosis.
* The titles Doctor and Reverend are usually abbreviated, but
are often spelled out with formal use.
- Government titles – Capitalize when referring to definite
persons or to their positions.
Examples:
· the Queen of England · the President of the United States
· Secretary of Defense · Congressman from Massachusetts
- Rank, Respect, and Honor titles – Capitalize all titles of
rank, respect and honor when preceding a name.
Examples:
· President Theodore Roosevelt · Senator Robert Morris
· Chief Justice William H. Rehnquist · Speaker John Denison
- Titles instead of Names – Capitalize titles when used as a
means of personally addressing the individual.
Examples:
· We‘ve talked with the troops, General, and they seem to be in
56. P a g e | 56
good spirits.
· Mr. Secretary, please give me your opinion on this issue.
· I came across the crime scene, Officer, and immediately called
the police.
· Is there enough support, Senator, to get this bill passed?
Titles - Other
- Book titles – Capitalize all principal words (nouns,
pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs) and first word in book
titles.
Example:
· Gone With the Wind by Margaret Mitchell.
- Document and Report titles – Capitalize all principal words
(nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs) and first word in
these titles.
Examples:
· U.S. Constitution · American Lung Association Annual Report
- Captions/Pictures – Capitalize all principal words (nouns,
pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs) and first word in the
captions under pictures.
Example:
· Da Vinci‘s ―Last Supper‖
- Musical Composition titles – Capitalize all principal words
(nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs) when referring to
musical compositions.
Example:
· Beethoven‘s Moonlight Sonata, Opus 28, No.15
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- Radio Program titles – Capitalize all principal words (nouns,
pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs) and first word in radio program
titles.
Example:
· All Things Considered with hosts Robert Siegel, Michele Norris
and Melissa Block
- Television Show/Movie titles – Capitalize all principal words
(nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs) and first word in these
titles.
Example:
· The Wizard of Oz, with Judy Garland
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Punctuations
Valuable punctuation tips on how to implement the basic rules of
punctuation into your every day writing.
Although there is a trend towards the minimal use of punctuation in the
addressing of letters, it is essential to maintain correct punctuation in
the body of the letter in order to convey the writer‘s precise
meaning. Remember, punctuation is powerful—one punctuation mark
can change the whole meaning of a sentence.
Each element of punctuation listed below gives a full explanation of the
basic rules that apply to that type of punctuation.
1. Apostrophe 2. Brackets
3. Colon and Semicolon 4. Comma
5. Dash 6. Ellipsis Dots
7. Exclamation Mark 8. Hyphen
9. Parentheses 10. Period
11. Question Mark 12. Quotation Marks
59. P a g e | 59
Apostrophe
The proper use of apostrophes in writing is important to maintain the
writer‘s precise meaning.
The apostrophe is used:
a) To indicate contractions:
Example:
it’s (it is) don’t (do not) o’clock (on the clock)
b) To show possession.
Example:
1) The girl‘s dress was purple. ... (singular - referring to
only one girl)
2) All the girls‘ dresses were purple. ... (plural - referring to
more than one girl)
Sometimes it may be difficult to decide where to place the
apostrophe to indicate correct possession. A simple rule to
follow is to turn the phrase in the sentence around to read:
1) “the dress of the girl”
If the final word does not end in an ―s,‖ then
add ’s (apostrophe s ) to that word in the sentence.
(i.e. girl‘s )
2) “the dresses of all the girls”
If the final word in the phrase does end in an ―s,‖
then s’ ( s apostrophe) is used. (i.e. girls‘ )
c) To denote joint possession.
Example:
Tom, Jake, and Sally‘s project received the top grade.
The apostrophe is added to the possessor mentioned last, in
a list of two or more.
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Colon
The colon is used:
a) To introduce a list.
Example:
You will have to order several accessory components: chargers,
cases, cords, cables, and speakers.
b) To introduce an extract or quotation that follows an
introductory sentence.
Example:
As Author, Erica Jong, stated: ―If you don‘t risk anything, you
risk even more.‖
c) In the salutation of a formal business letter.
Example:
Dear Sir: Dear Madam:
d) Between figures denoting hours and minutes, with
exception to the 24-hour clock system.
Examples:
4:30 A.M. 6:20 p.m. 1820 hrs.
e) To precede an extended explanation.
Example:
There are two conditions that must exist before we can
experience true freedom: first, each person must be entitled to
act independently of the other; second, each must agree not
cross those parameters that have been set in place as
protection from harm.
f) To precede a restatement of an idea.
Example:
The play was poorly performed: it lacked both experience and
characterization from the actors.
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Semicolon
While the comma is frequently used, the following are the general
accepted rules for the use of the semicolon.
a) To separate two independent thoughts in a sentence that
otherwise would have been separated by using a
conjunction such as and or but.
Example:
It was the first of April; all the spring lines were on display.
* A comma separating these thoughts would not provide a
distinct enough pause.
b) To precede the words “for example,” “for instance,” “as
in,” etc. in sentences.
Example:
The course will include role-playing which demonstrates the
practical application for anger management skills learned; for
example, a boss employee conflict, a spousal argument, and a
situation of a misbehaved child with a parent.
c) To separate items in a long list, especially when commas
have already been used.
Example:
Please place the following orders with the restaurant for our
breakfast meeting:
two boiled eggs, sausages, toast, and coffee; eggs benedict
with a side order of hash browns, tea and orange juice; and two
pancakes with one egg cooked over easy and coffee.
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* First, a colon is used to indicate "the following orders," then
the semicolons are used within the list itself.
Dash
Proper use of the dash in writing helps to convey the precise
message.
The dash is used:
a) To denote a sudden change of thought.
Example:
What he said was true—or so I thought.
b) To indicate a sudden break in a sentence.
Example:
I can‘t let them continue to—so many people would be
hurt if they proceeded with this action.
c) In the place of parentheses.
Example:
They were all in agreement with the restructuring—even
agreeing to the shortened lunch breaks—but if anyone tried to
revamp their vacation time they claimed they would walk out.
d) As a replacement of the word to with reference to dates,
sections, verses, etc.
Examples:
2001-2004
sections 8-10
pages 112-134
Genesis 11:5-8
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Exclamation Mark
Restraint should be exercised when using the exclamation punctuation
mark in writing, for when it is used liberally it will lose its impact.
The exclamation mark is used to:
a) Indicate a strong and emotional response.
Example:
We are going to hold a party to celebrate this great
success!
b) Emphasize a strong command.
Example:
Call an ambulance!
c) Express a special indication of contempt or scorn.
Example:
There goes the company expert!
* Double exclamation marks should be avoided in business
correspondence.
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Parenthesis
The use of parentheses in writing.
"Parenthesis" is singular
"parentheses" is plural
Parentheses are used to:
a) Enclose words not directly relevant to the main topic of the
sentence but too important to omit.
Example:
Optimistic thinking people (and I count myself among them)
always seem to produce positive results in any situation
.
b) Enclose figures or letters marking the division of a
subject.
Example:
Our silent auction fundraising project included the following
priorities:
(1) Securing the location to hold the auction.
(2) Soliciting businesses in the community to donate items.
(3) Launching an aggressive advertising campaign in the
community.
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c) Add examples.
Example:
The new photo copier has many features (including
scanning options and faxing capabilities) that will be most
beneficial to us in this office.
Question Mark
The question mark is primarily used to indicate a question is
being asked.
Using the question mark:
a) This punctuation mark is used to indicate
a direct question being asked.
Example:
―What time does the show start?‖ he asked.
b) The question mark is not used at the end of
an indirect question.
Example:
He asked what time the show starts.
c) When used in dialogue, the question mark is placed inside
the quotation marks and takes the place of a period or a
comma.
Example:
Karen asked, ―Will you be able to make that meeting?"
66. P a g e | 66
d) If the question mark does not form part of the quotation, it
is placed outside of the quotation marks.
Example:
Did Jane say the meeting will, ―start earlier because of the
game,‖ or ―end earlier because of the game‖?
Bracket
The proper use of brackets in writing.
Brackets [ ] … not to be confused with parentheses ( ) are used:
To enclose words and phrases independent of the
sentence; as in, explanatory notes, omissions, and
comments that are not written by the author.
Examples:
They arrived in America and in the following year [1931]
founded one of the first plastics manufacturing plants in the
country.
Through all the obstacles, he [Henry] remained optimistic
about the future demand for the automobile.
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Comma
Commas are used to separate thoughts within a sentence
allowing the reader to mentally pause and assimilate the full
meaning of the sentence. The misuse of commas can alter the
entire meaning of sentences.
The comma is used:
a) To set apart words in opposition. Appositives are words
that identify or define other words.
Example:
Mr. Smith, our manager, will be there.
* Do not separate compound personal pronouns from the
words they emphasize.
Example:
Jane herself will take on that project.
b) To set apart titles written after a person’s name.
Example:
John Smith, Ph.D. is the professor taking over that area.
* A comma may or may not be used before and after Jr.
and Sr. following a name.
Examples:
- John Smith, Jr., will be the successor to his father‘s
corporation.
- John Smith Jr. will be the successor to his father‘s
corporation.
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* Omit periods and commas before and after II, III, and IV with
names.
c) When setting apart the year from the month and the day
in a sentence.
Example:
We‘ve had to reschedule the fundraising event, which will
now be held on June 15, 2006.
d) To separate successive nouns and adjectives in a
sentence.
Examples:
- Please don‘t forget to bring pens, pencils, paper, and
envelopes.
- We‘re going to need balls, helmets, markers, etc., for the
tournament.
* A comma is used before the final „and‟ in a list of three or
more items.
e) To introduce spoken words.
Example:
Mr. Smith said, ―Do not charge service fees on
the Dawson account.‖
f) After the salutation and complimentary close of a personal
or informal business letter.
Example:
Dear John, Best regards,
g) To coordinate adjectives as qualifying words preceding a
noun.
Example:
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We want it to be a clear, simplified, informative presentation.
* Don‘t use a comma between two adjectives preceding a noun
if the adjectives are too closely related to be separated:
Examples:
- It‘s an attractive quaint little motel along the shore.
- The reasonable additional cost for this perk is
acceptable.
h) To separate the name of a person that is addressed from
the rest of the sentence.
Example:
We welcome you, Jane, as the newest addition to our team.
i) To set off a contrasted word, phrase or clause.
Example:
A better way to get cooperation from your team members is
by asking, not telling.
j) To set off a transitional word or expression when a
pause is needed for clearness or emphasis.
Examples:
- Therefore, this matter must be dealt with as quickly as
possible.
- Indeed, it was a success.
- As was intended, the focus turned to costs.
* Do not use a comma when such words, phrases and clauses
do not interrupt the thought or required punctuation for
clearness.
Examples:
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- The board therefore voted unanimously in favor of the
acquisition.
- It is indeed surprising that that they lost the contract.
- That decision in this case was expected.
k) To follow words such as yes, no, well when one of these
words is at the beginning of a sentence.
Examples:
- Yes, we expect him to arrive this week.
- Well, this is the case so we must implement plans to
offset the losses.
Ellipsis Dots
When and how to use ellipsis dots in writing.
Ellipsis Dots are used:
1. To signify an omission: Ellipsis is the term for omission of
words or paragraphs from a quotation. It is indicated by the use
of three period dots. ( … )
2. To indicate a pregnant pause: Ellipsis dots can be used to
signify hesitation by the writer. Often a writer will use ellipsis
when attempting to conceal something or when unable to write
directly about the matter.
3. To indicate an unfinished thought: Ellipsis dots are used
when the writer‘s thoughts trail off.
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Three dots mean that the omission, pause or unfinished thought is
within the sentence. The three dots follow any punctuation within a
sentence and a space is left before the series of dots and after the last
dot, before the next word in the sentence.
Four dots indicate that the omission, pause or unfinished thought is
between sentences. The fourth dot is actually a period ending the
sentence.
Hyphen
A guide to the proper use of the hyphen in compounded words
and phrases.
A hyphen is used:
a) To compound words which will form a compound
adjective that precedes a noun.
Examples:
first-rate service one-man job up-to-date fashions
When the compound adjective follows the noun, it is not
generally hyphenated.
Example:
The service they provide, first rate and consistent, will be what
turns that company into a success.
b) To compound numerals.
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Examples:
thirty-five forty-second twenty-six hundred
And compounding numerals with other words.
Examples:
Ten-foot post twelve-o‘clock lunch break 50-yard
dash four-year-old boy
c) In certain compounds made up of nouns and
prepositional phrases.
Examples:
Mother-in-law hand-in-hand off-the-cuff
d) In titles compounded with ex and elect.
Examples:
ex-wife ex-Governor President-elect
e) In compounds made up of prefixes joined to proper
names.
Examples:
mid-September anti-American un-American
f) To distinguish words spelled alike but differing in
meaning.
Examples:
re-count, to count again re-cover, to cover again
recount, to relate in detail recover, to regain
g) To eliminate the confusion where vowels are doubled in
combination with a prefix.
Examples:
co-owner semi-independent
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* Exceptions to this rule are the
words cooperate andcoordinate along with their derivatives.
h) Generally in words compounded with self as the prefix.
Examples:
Self-confidence self-worth self-
reliant
* Do not use a hyphen in the word selfless or in pronouns
compounded with self; as in, myself, itself, herself, etc.
Period
The use of the period as punctuation in writing.
The primary uses of the period are:
a) At the end of a sentence, when the sentence is a
statement or instruction.
Example:
Please have those reports completed and on my desk by
Friday.
b) After an abbreviation or after initials.
Examples:
Gov‘t. etc. I.R.S. John W. Smith Inc. (
Sample Company Inc. or Sample Company, Inc. )
c) It is acceptable to omit the period after an abbreviation in
some cases. If in doubt, consult a dictionary.
Examples:
TV FBI UN Mr. or Mr Dr. or Dr
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d) When abbreviating, for example calendar months, titles,
degrees, or days of the week, it should be remembered that
only one space follows the period at the end of the abbreviation,
and that no spaces follow the letters within the abbreviation.
Examples:
U.S.A. not U. S. A
Ph.D. not Ph. D.
e) If a sentence concludes with an abbreviation that ends
with a period, a second period should NOT be used.
Example:
This matter will now be referred to the I.R.S
Quotation Marks
Using quotation marks properly as punctuation in written works.
Quotation marks are primarily used to indicate:
a) Direct speech.
Example:
―Will you have them send over the contracts now please?‖
asked Mr. Jones.
Note: All punctuation marks in the sentence are placed
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inside the quotation marks,with the exception of: i)
question marks that do not form part of the quotation and,
ii) semicolons and colons.
Examples:
―Please begin your presentation whenever you are ready,‖ the
chairman told him.
(Statement)
―What are the new hours of operation?‖ Harry asked.
(Question)
―They just all stopped working and walked out of the plant!‖
exclaimed the supervisor.
(Exclamation)
i. If the question mark does not form part of the
quotation, it is placed outside of the quotation marks.
Example:
Did Jane say, ―The meeting will start earlier because of
the game, or end earlier because of the game‖?
ii. Semicolons and colons, are placed outside the
quotation marks.
Example:
That‘s when she gave up those small acting parts as
―queen of commercials‖: she paid her dues.
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b) A quotation within a quotation.
Use single quotation marks to enclose a quotation within a
quotation.
Example:
―I specifically remember he asked, ‗Which lever will slow it
down?‘ when I showed him how to operate the machine,‖ said
Joe.
c) To set off from the context any quoted or emphasized word
or phrase.
Example:
With a ―deer in the headlights‖ look on his face, John just
stared out across the audience.
d) To indicate ironical use of words.
Example:
Everyone at the barbeque party ―borrowed‖ my sunscreen
lotion until it was all used up.
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Qualities of Good Paragraph
1. Unity
- is when a paragraph contains one single main idea.
2. Coherence
- is when a sentence follow one another in such a way that the writer`s
ideas are expressed in a clear logical manner without sudden shifts or
gaps of thought.
a. be arranging the details in logical order to avoid thought gaps.
b. by using transitional devices or signals to link the thought sequence
from one idea to the next.
3. Emphasis
- is the principle of composition by means of which important ideas are
made to stand.
4. Order
- the quality that gives the paragraph a specific direction.
- it guides the readers mind towards the point the writer wishes to
make or directs the direct the reader towards the understanding of that
point.
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Friendly Letter Writing
Purpose of a Friendly Letter
A friendly letter (or informal letter) is a way of communicating between
two people (sometimes more) who are usually well acquainted. There
are many uses and reasons for writing a friendly letter but friendly
letters will usually consist of topics on a personal level. Friendly letters
can either be printed or hand-written.
Friendly Letter Writing
The friendly letter is typically less formal than that of a business letter.
Usually the first paragraph of the body will consist of an introduction
which will give the recipient an idea about why you're writing to them
with a short summary of the main topic of your letter. If you don't know
the person you are writing to, you may want to introduce yourself in
this introductory paragraph as well.
The next few paragraphs will usually consist of the message you want
to get across along with any details you may want to convey.
The last paragraph will usually be the conclusion where you wrap
everything up. You can sum up your main idea in this paragraph, thank
the recipient for their time, wish the recipient well, and/or ask any
questions.
Since friendly letters are less formal, you can feel free to write it
however you like, but the above format is fairly common.
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up, use your own discretion and make sure it looks presentable). Also
the first line of each paragraph is indented.
Your Address 1
All that is needed is your street address on the first line and the city,
state and zip on the second line. (Not needed if the letter is printed on
paper with a letterhead already on it.)
Date 2
Put the date on which the letter was written in the format Month Day
Year e.g. August 30, 2003. Skip a line between the date and the
salutation.
Salutation 3
Usually starts out with Dear so and so, or Hi so and so. Note: There is
a comma after the end of the salutation (you can use an exclamation
point also if there is a need for some emphasis).
Body 4
The body is where you write the content of the letter; the paragraphs
should be single spaced with a skipped line between each paragraph.
Skip 2 lines between the end of the body and the closing.
Closing 5
Let's the reader know that you are finished with your letter; usually
ends with Sincerely, Sincerely yours, Thank you, and so on. Note that
there is a comma after the end of the closing and only the first word in
the closing is capitalized.
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Signature 6
Your signature will go in this section, usually signed in black or blue ink
with a pen. Skip a line after your signature and the P.S.
P.S. 7
If you want to add anything additional to the letter you write a P.S.
(post script) and the message after that. You can also add a P.P.S
after that and a P.P.P.S. after that and so on.
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Sample Friendly Letter
506 Country Lane
North Baysville, CA 53286
July 16, 2007
Dear Susan,
It feels like such a long time since the last time I saw you. I know it's only
been several weeks since I saw you. So far my summer has been great!
I spend my all my weekends at the beach. I am getting a nice tan and
you can no longer say I am paler than you. I have been playing lots of
volleyball, surfing and building a nice collection of sea shells. Just this past
weekend I took second place in a sandcastle building contest!
On the weekdays I work. I drive an ice cream truck around and sell ice
cream to the kids. It is so cool. It is a combination of the two things I love
most, ice cream and kids. The pay isn't too great but I love the job so much.
I hope the summer's been going well for you too. There's only a month
and a half left in summer vacation and after that it's back to school. Would
you like to meet up some time before school starts?
Your friend,
Signature
P.S. John Austin says hi.
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Business Letter Writing
Purpose of a Business Letter
A business letter (or formal letter) is a formal way of communicating
between two or more parties. There are many different uses and
business letters. Business letters can be informational, persuasive,
motivational, or promotional. Business letters should be typed and
printed out on standard 8.5" x 11" white paper.
Elements of a Good Letter
The most important element of writing a good letter is your ability to
identify and write to your audience. If you are addressing your letter to
the department of human resources, avoid using highly technical terms
that only engineers would understand, even if your letter is addressed
to an engineering company, chances are that the personnel in human
resources does not have an engineering background.
The next element is that you make sure your present your objective in
a clear and concise manner. Don't be vague about your objective, most
people will not have the patience to sit there and guess at the meaning
of your letter or the time to read a long-winded letter, just get to the
point without going into unnecessary details.
Another important element to remember is to remain professional.
Even if you are writing a complaint letter, remain polite and courteous,
simply state the problem(s) along with any other relevant information
and be sure to avoid threats and slander.
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Closing (Sincerely...), 7
Signature 8
Your Name (Printed) 9
Your Title
Enclosures (2) 10
Typist Initials. 11
The block format is the simplest format; all of the writing is flush
against the left margin.
Your Address 1
The return address of the sender so the recipient can easily find out
where to send a reply to. Skip a line between your address and the
date. (Not needed if the letter is printed on paper with the company
letterhead already on it.)
Date 2
Put the date on which the letter was written in the format Month Day
Year i.e. August 30, 2003. Skip a line between the date and the inside
address (some people skip 3 or 4 lines after the date).
Inside Address 3
The address of the person you are writing to along with the name of
the recipient, their title and company name, if you are not sure who the
letter should be addressed to either leave it blank, but try to put in a
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title, i.e. "Director of Human Resources". Skip a line between the date
and the salutation.
Salutation 4
Dear Ms./Mrs./Mr. Last Name:, Dear Director of Department Name: or
To Whom It May Concern: if recipient's name is unknown. Note that
there is a colon after the salutation. Skip a line between the salutation
and the subject line or body.
Subject Line (optional) 5
Makes it easier for the recipient to find out what the letter is about. Skip
a line between the subject line and the body.
Body 6
The body is where you write the content of the letter; the paragraphs
should be single spaced with a skipped line between each paragraph.
Skip a line between the end of the body and the closing.
Closing 7
Let's the reader know that you are finished with your letter; usually
ends with Sincerely, Sincerely yours, Thank you, and so on. Note that
there is a comma after the end of the closing and only the first word in
the closing is capitalized. Skip 3-4 lines between the closing and the
printed name, so that there is room for the signature.
Signature 8
Your signature will go in this section, usually signed in black or blue ink
with a pen.
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Printed Name 9
The printed version of your name, and if desired you can put your title
or position on the line underneath it. Skip a line between the printed
name and the enclosure.
Enclosure 10
If letter contains other document other than the letter itself your letter
will include the word "Enclosure." If there is more than one you would
type, "Enclosures (#)" with the # being the number of other documents
enclosed, not including the letter itself.
Reference Initials 11
If someone other than yourself typed the letter you will include your
initials in capital letters followed by the typist's initials in lower case in
the following format; AG/gs or AG:gs.
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Sample Business Letter
3519 Front Street
Mount Celebres, CA 65286
October 5, 2004
Ms. Betty Johnson
Accounts Payable
The Cooking Store
765 Berliner Plaza
Industrial Point, CA 68534
Dear Ms. Johnson:
It has come to my attention that your company, The Cooking Store has been
late with paying their invoices for the past three months.
In order to encourage our customers to pay for their invoices before the due
date, we have implemented a discount model where we'll give you 2% off
your invoice if you pay us within 10 days of receiving the invoice.
I hope that everything is going well for you and your company. You are one of
our biggest customers, and we appreciate your business. If you have any
questions, feel free to contact me at (555) 555-5555.
Sincerely,
Signature
Bob Powers
Accounts Receivable
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Application Letter Writing
Writing a cover letter often seems like a particularly daunting task.
However, if you take it one step at a time, you'll soon be an expert at
writing cover letters to send with your resume.
A cover letter typically accompanies each resume you send out. Your
cover letter may make the difference between obtaining a job interview
and having your resume ignored, so it makes good sense to devote the
necessary time and effort to writing effective cover letters.
A cover letter should complement, not duplicate, your resume. Its
purpose is to interpret the data-oriented, factual resume and add a
personal touch. A cover letter is often your earliest written contact with
a potential employer, creating a critical first impression.
There are three general types of cover letters:
The application letter which responds to a known job opening
(review samples)
The prospecting letter which inquires about possible positions
(review sample)
The networking letter which requests information and assistance in
your job search (review samples)
Your cover letter should be designed specifically for each purpose
outlined above as well as for each position you seek. Do not design a
90. P a g e | 90
form letter and send it to every potential employer (you know what you
do with junk mail!).
Effective cover letters explain the reasons for your interest in the
specific organization and identify your most relevant skills or
experiences (remember, relevance is determined by the employer's
self-interest). They should express a high level of interest and
knowledge about the position.
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Application Letter Format
Contact Information
Name
Address
City, State, Zip Code
Phone Number
Email Address
Date
Employer Contact Information (if you have it)
Name
Title
Company
Address
City, State, Zip Code
Salutation
Dear Mr./Ms. Last Name, (leave out if you don't have a contact)
Body of Application Letter
The body of your application letter lets the employer know what
position you are applying for, why the employer should select you for
an interview, and how you will follow-up.
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First Paragraph
The first paragraph of your letter should include information on why
you are writing. Mention the job you are applying for and where you
found the job listing. Include the name of a mutual contact, if you have
one.
Middle Paragraph(s)
The next section of your application letter should describe what you
have to offer the employer. Mention specifically how your qualifications
match the job you are applying for. Remember, you are interpreting
your resume, not repeating it.
Final Paragraph
Conclude your application letter by thanking the employer for
considering you for the position. Include information on how you will
follow-up.
Complimentary Close
Sincerely,
Signature
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Sample Application Letter
First Name Last Name
87 Washington Street
Smithfield, CA 08055
555-555-5555 (h)
123-123-1234 (c)
email
Date
Mr. John Doe
Smithfield Elementary School
Main Street
Smithfield, CA 08055
Dear Mr. Doe,
I am interested in applying for a teaching position, on the elementary
level, in your school district. As a 200X graduate of XXX College, I
have student teaching experience on the third and sixth grade level, in
both suburban and urban school districts.
At the present time I am teaching ―at risk‖ preschool children. This
position enables me to provide these students with a ―head start‖ in
mastering basic skills. I am challenged to be creative, nurturing and
most of all, patient.
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In my junior year at XXX College, a passion for, and knowledge of
horses created an opportunity for me work for the Racing Museum.
This position allowed me to teach every fourth grade class in the local
school system. I coordinated field trips with classroom instruction.
It is my goal to combine my range of experience with my ability to be a
compassionate, enthusiastic, intelligent teacher who will make a
positive contribution to your school district. I would welcome an
interview and hope to hear from you at your earliest convenience.
Sincerely,
Signature
FirstName LastName
95. P a g e | 95
RULES IN SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT
Basic Rule
The basic rule states that a singular subject takes a singular verb,
while a plural subject takes a plural verb.
NOTE: The trick is in knowing whether the subject is singular or plural.
The next trick is recognizing a singular or plural verb.
Hint: Verbs do not form their plurals by adding an s as nouns do. In
order to determine which verb is singular and which one is plural, think
of which verb you would use with he or she and which verb you would
use with they.
Example:
talks, talk
Which one is the singular form?
Which word would you use with he?
We say, "He talks." Therefore, talks is singular.
We say, "They talk." Therefore, talk is plural.
Rule 1
Two singular subjects connected by or or nor require a singular verb.
Example:
My aunt or my uncle is arriving by train today.
Rule 2
Two singular subjects connected by either/or or neither/nor require a
singular verb as in Rule 1.
96. P a g e | 96
Examples:
Neither Juan nor Carmen is available.
Either Kiana or Casey is helping today with stage decorations.
Rule 3
When I is one of the two subjects connected by either/or or neither/nor,
put it second and follow it with the singular verb am.
Example:
Neither she nor I am going to the festival.
Rule 4
When a singular subject is connected by or or nor to a plural subject,
put the plural subject last and use a plural verb.
Example:
The serving bowl or the plates go on that shelf.
Rule 5
When a singular and plural subject are connected
by either/or or neither/nor, put the plural subject last and use a plural
verb.
Example:
Neither Jenny nor the others are available.
Rule 6
As a general rule, use a plural verb with two or more subjects when
they are connected byand.
Example:
A car and a bike are my means of transportation.
97. P a g e | 97
Rule 7
Sometimes the subject is separated from the verb by words such
as along with, as well as, besides, or not. Ignore these expressions
when determining whether to use a singular or plural verb.
Examples:
The politician, along with the newsmen, is expected shortly.
Excitement, as well as nervousness, is the cause of her shaking.
Rule 8
The pronouns each, everyone, every one, everybody, anyone,
anybody, someone, andsomebody are singular and require singular
verbs. Do not be misled by what follows of.
Examples:
Each of the girls sings well.
Every one of the cakes is gone.
NOTE: Everyone is one word when it means everybody. Every one is
two words when the meaning is each one.
Rule 9
With words that indicate portions—percent, fraction, part, majority,
some, all, none, remainder, and so forth —look at the noun in
your of phrase (object of the preposition) to determine whether to use a
singular or plural verb. If the object of the preposition is singular, use a
singular verb. If the object of the preposition is plural, use a plural verb.
Examples:
Fifty percent of the pie has disappeared.
Pie is the object of the preposition of.
Fifty percent of the pies have disappeared.
Pies is the object of the preposition.
98. P a g e | 98
One-third of the city is unemployed.
One-third of the people are unemployed.
NOTE: Hyphenate all spelled-out fractions.
All of the pie is gone.
All of the pies are gone.
Some of the pie is missing.
Some of the pies are missing.
None of the garbage was picked up.
None of the sentences were punctuated correctly.
Of all her books, none have sold as well as the first one.
NOTE: Apparently, the SAT testing service considers none as a
singular word only. However, according to Merriam Webster's
Dictionary of English Usage, "Clearly none has been both singular and
plural since Old English and still is. The notion that it is singular only is
a myth of unknown origin that appears to have arisen in the 19th
century. If in context it seems like a singular to you, use a singular
verb; if it seems like a plural, use a plural verb. Both are acceptable
beyond serious criticism" (p. 664).
Rule 10
The expression the number is followed by a singular verb while the
expression a number is followed by a plural verb.
Examples:
The number of people we need to hire is thirteen.
A number of people have written in about this subject.
Rule 11
When either and neither are subjects, they always take singular verbs.
99. P a g e | 99
Examples:
Neither of them is available to speak right now.
Either of us is capable of doing the job.
Rule 12
The words here and there have generally been labeled as adverbs
even though they indicate place. In sentences beginning
with here or there, the subject follows the verb.
Examples:
There are four hurdles to jump.
There is a high hurdle to jump.
Rule 13
Use a singular verb with sums of money or periods of time.
Examples:
Ten dollars is a high price to pay.
Five years is the maximum sentence for that offense.
Rule 14
Sometimes the pronoun who, that, or which is the subject of a verb in
the middle of the sentence. The pronouns who, that,
and which become singular or plural according to the noun directly in
front of them. So, if that noun is singular, use a singular verb. If it is
plural, use a plural verb.
Examples:
Salma is the scientist who writes/write the reports.
The word in front of who is scientist, which is singular. Therefore, use
the singular verb writes.
He is one of the men who does/do the work.
100. P a g e | 100
The word in front of who is men, which is plural. Therefore, use the
plural verb do.
Rule 15
Collective nouns such as team and staff may be either singular or
plural depending on their use in the sentence.
Examples:
The staff is in a meeting.
Staff is acting as a unit here.
The staff are in disagreement about the findings.
The staff are acting as separate individuals in this example.
The sentence would read even better as:
The staff members are in disagreement about the findings.
101. P a g e | 101
I. Structural Analysis
hand out given by Mrs. Mildred Par last semester
II. Homonyms, Homograph & Heteronyms
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homonym
III. Word Association
IV. Idioms
V. Synonyms and Antonyms
VI. Figures of Speech
http://yourdictionary.com
http://www.uebersetzung.at
http://wikipedia.org
http://wiki.answers.com
http://answers.yahoo.com
http://bigcsshop.hubpages.com
VII. Tenses of the Verb
http://www.writingcentre.uottawa.ca/hypergrammar/us
etense.html
http://utminers.utep.edu
102. P a g e | 102
VIII. Run-ons
http://grammar.yourdictionary.com/sentences/run-on-
sentences.html
IX. Fragments
X. Modifiers
examples.yourdictionary.com
Language Literature World Literature Revised Edition
(Grammar Workbook) IV
Authors: Remedios F. Nery, Esperanza Chee Kee,
Lourdes M. Ribo
XI. Capitalization
www.libraryonline.com
XII. Punctuations
www.libraryonline.com
XIII. Qualities of a Paragraph
www.wiki.answers.com
XIV. Friendly and Business Letter
www.letterwritingguide.com
XV. Application Letter
www.jobsearch.about.com
XVI. Rules in Subject verb Agreement
http://www.grammarbook.com/grammar/subjectVerbA
gree.asp
103. P a g e | 103
Submitted by:
Lezette P. Endozo
Ann Loreine S. Estolero
Rachelle A. Francisco
Marivic A. Gallanosa
Mark Jayson A. Garcia
Gio Miguel L. Garrido
Ian Cliffton C. Gludo
Rohmar L Ibañez
Ma. Elaine C. Igdalino
