Conservation and utilisation of
indigenous chicken genetic resources in
Southern Africa
B.J. MTILENI1,4*, F.C. MUCHADEYI2, A. MAIWASHE1, M. CHIMONYO3 and
K. DZAMA4
1Agricultural Research Council, Animal Production Institute, Private Bag X2, Irene
0062, South Africa; 2Agricultural Research Council, Biotechnology Platform,
Private Bag X5, Onderstepoort, 0110, South Africa; 3Discipline of Animal and
Poultry Science, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Private Bag X01, Scottsville 3209,
Pietermaritzburg, South Africa; 4Department of Animal Science, Stellenbosch
University, P/Bag X1, Matieland 7602, South Africa
*Corresponding author: jmtileni@arc.agric.za
The opportunities for sustainable utilisation and conservation of chicken genetic
resources in Southern Africa need to be addressed. Indigenous chickens are an
important animal genetic resource amongst resource-limited rural communities of
Southern Africa. They play an important socio-economic role in traditional and
religious ceremonies of rural households. They are important in customary rites,
such as gift payments. Although the productivity of indigenous chickens in terms of
growth and number of eggs per hen per year is low, its production is attained with
minimal labour and rearing inputs. The low inputs and, consequently, low risk is
one of the major advantages of indigenous chickens production. The conservation of
these valuable chicken genetic resources is necessary in the light of the rapid loss of
indigenous breeds and strains through commercial dilution and breed replacement.
All varieties of domestic species and species with potential for domestication are
considered to be important candidates for conservation. Indigenous chicken
populations with economic potential, scienti1c use and cultural or aesthetic
interest are of particular importance but all indigenous chickens which are
unique and endangered should be incorporated into conservation efforts. This
phenotypic information could be useful to standardise the different phenotypes
within a region or country and design some criteria for characterisation and
description of the indigenous chicken populations into breeds. Molecular markers
are an indispensable tool to understand the genetic structures of populations. The
assessed phenotypic coupled with genetic information could be a powerful tool
towards the promotion of conservation and utilisation of indigenous chicken
genetic resources.
Keywords: indigenous chickens; genetic resources; conservation; utilisation
doi:10.1017/S0043933912000852
© World's Poultry Science Association 2012
World's Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 68, December 2012
Received for publication December 8, 2012
Accepted for publication February 23, 2012 727

Introduction
Indigenous chickens are the most common species of livestock domesticated by resource-
limited rural communities of Southern Africa (Mtileni et al., 2009). Poor households with
minimal labour resources traditionally rear chickens. Indigenous chickens are also known
as rural, village, scavenging, traditional or family chickens, and have various names in
local languages. In Southern Africa, indigenous chickens are reared under extensive or
scavenging system and to a lesser extent in a semi-intensive system under subsistence
farming, with few or no inputs for housing, feeding and health care (McAinsh et al.,
2004; Muchadeyi et al., 2004; Mtileni et al., 2009). Despite these challenges, indigenous
chickens contribute signi1cantly to the livelihood of rural communities of Southern
Africa. A series of surveys in Southern African countries indicates that indigenous
chickens play important socio-economic roles amongst resource-limited rural
communities. They can convert available feed resources around a house or village
into highly nutritious, well appreciated products and functions. These include meat,
eggs, feathers and poultry farmyard manure. A large proportion of animal protein
consumed in rural areas of Southern Africa comes from indigenous chicken meat and
eggs (Swatson, 2003) and is considered to be the main source of income for the rural
poor (Muchadeyi et al., 2007a). Chickens also have roles socio-culturally for social
functions, hospitality and exchange of gifts to strengthen relationships (Aklilu et al.,
2008; Mapiye et al., 2008; Mtileni et al., 2009).
General descriptions of freely ranging indigenous chickens have relied on the
phenotypic characteristics of chickens (Swatson, 2003). A more accurate approach to
the characterisation of chickens makes use of genetic studies that make use of molecular
markers. Recent 1ndings on indigenous chickens using microsatellites con1rmed genetic
differences and contribution of targeted Southern African chicken populations to
purebred commercial lines in Zimbabwe and Malawi chickens (Muchadeyi et al.,
2007b) and in South African chickens (Mtileni et al., 2011). These differences further
justify conservation efforts for these valuable genetic resources. Conservation of chicken
genetic resources can be divided into two main objectives: those which have an
immediate applicability plus future value and those that seek to conserve for the
future (Barker, 2001; Lekule and Kyvsgaard, 2003; Oldenbroek, 2007). The erosion
and loss of animal genetic resources would compromise the 2exibility of future
breeding measures (FAO, 2007a). According to Hoffmann (2009), chicken genetic
resources are considered to be the most endangered and under-conserved, with FAO
estimated the risk status of the world's chicken breeds of about 33% considered
endangered to critical breeds and another 40% with unknown risk status (FAO,
2007b). The Southern African experience is the frizzled, naked-neck, dwarf and silky
genes reported to be in serious danger of extinction (Moreki, 2003). These highly
valuable genetic resources should be conserved for their adaptive features, traits of
scienti1c and economic interest, cultural-historical values, strong links to regional
traditions, and their ability to generate income for rural poor communities.
The Fowls for Africa project of the Agricultural Research Council at Irene and Cedara
are two government efforts to conserve the indigenous chicken genetic resources in South
Africa (ARC, 2006). There is, however, limited information on the genetic diversity of
indigenous chicken genetic resources kept by rural communities of Southern Africa
(Muchadeyi et al., 2007b; Mtileni et al., 2011). This information is crucial for proper
planning of conservation activities and in establishing a niche market for utilisation of
indigenous chicken genetic resources. Therefore, the objective of this review is to collate
current information on the conservation status of indigenous chickens with the view of
Southern African chicken genetic resources: B.J. Mtileni et al.
728 World's Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 68, December 2012

highlighting opportunities for sustainable utilisation and conservation of these genetic
resources in Southern Africa.
Cultural or historical value of indigenous chickens
Crawford (1990) provided historical records indicating that the initial domestication of
fowl in Southern African countries was primarily for cultural and religious purposes.
Fowls were kept for feathers, white and black magic and cock 1ghting (Crawford, 1990).
In many parts of Southern Africa, indigenous chickens have roles in traditional
ceremonies such as marriage feasts, weddings and funerals (Mapiye et al., 2008). The
gift of a chicken is often a way of welcoming high status visitors or honouring af1nes
and kin. Birds are frequently sacri1ced, and, in some cultures, the entrails of dead birds
are consulted as oracles (Mtileni et al., 2009). Indigenous chickens are used to strengthen
relationships with in-laws and to maintain family contacts by entrusting them to other
family members (Muchadeyi et al., 2004) and they are used as token of appreciation for
service rendered (Kusina and Kusina, 1999). For these reasons, Whyte (2002) notes that
poultry are not simply birds, they are a social and cultural practice. Village chicken
feathers are used to make special clothes such as skirts, hats and pillows for traditional
healers for their day-to-day use and for spirit mediums to wear during traditional
ceremonies (Mapiye et al., 2008).
The role of indigenous chickens as a potential tool to escape extreme poverty as
described in Table 1 has frequently been claimed (Dolberg, 2001; Dossa et al., 2003;
Kristjanson et al., 2004; Holmann et al., 2005). Their outputs such as meat and eggs
serve as a good source of protein for both rural and semi urban people of South Africa
(Swatson, 2003; Mtileni et al., 2009) and serve as a source of income (Muchadeyi et al.,
2007a). Similar trends have been reported in Mozambique, where 95% of the chickens
consumed in rural and peri-urban areas come from the indigenous poultry sector. In
Zambia and Tanzania, approximately all of the household protein supply in rural areas
arises from the consumption of indigenous chickens (Kaumbata, 2009). Their products
are preferred by the majority of smallholder farmers because of the pigmentation, taste,
leanness and suitability for special dishes (Horst, 1989; Aberra, 2000; Mtileni et al.,
2009). Indigenous chickens can also be sold or bartered to meet family needs such as
medicines, medical costs, school fees and village taxes. In this way, they act as a ready
source of cash for maintaining rural livelihoods, meeting emergencies and purchasing
small household requirements. Indigenous chickens provide manure for vegetable
gardens (Mtileni et al., 2009) and perform valuable sanitary functions by consuming
kitchen waste and controlling insect pests in gardens (Muchadeyi et al., 2007a). Cocks
are also used as alarm clocks in rural communities (Kusina and Kusina, 1999).
Table 1 Village chickens contribution to the livelihood of rural communities of Southern Africa.
Goals Village chickens contributions References
Poverty alleviation Improved village chickens generate income and Dolberg (2001)
improve food security
Achieve universal Village poultry products sold to pay school fees for Alders and Pym
primary education children and for poor households (2008); Alders et al.
(2007a)
Promote gender equality Improved village chickens production has empowered Bagnol (2001);
and empower women poor women Dolberg (2003)
Reduce child mortality Village chickens products provide high quality Alders and Pym
Southern African chicken genetic resources: B.J. Mtileni et al.
World's Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 68, December 2012 729

Goals Village chickens contributions References
and improve maternal nutrients, income for poor households and education (2008); Alders et al.
health for women on balanced diets. Disease control for (2007a)
poultry can be related to family health and wellbeing
Combat HIV/AIDS, Village chickens provide high quality nutrients for the Alders et al. (2007b)
malaria and other sick and can be sold to purchase medicines
diseases
Ensure environmental Village chickens contribute to pest control, provides Alders and Spradbrow
sustainability small quantity of manure for vegetable and crop (2001)
production and consumes local feedstuffs that are
frequently unsuitable for human consumption.
Develop a global Globally, partnerships have developed among those Alders (2004)
partnership for working with village poultry (the International Network
development for Family Poultry Development, the Asian Paci1c
Federation Working Group on Small-scale Family
Poultry farming, the Danish Smallholder Poultry
Network and the International Rural Poultry Centre)
with other development and conservation organizations.
Ownership patterns and gender participation
Knowing who is responsible for raising indigenous chickens is of utmost importance
when planning to improve production. The analysis of gender relations is of major
signi1cance for any type of intervention amongst resource-limited rural communities
of Southern Africa (Table 2). The general understanding of gender relations and their
inference for indigenous chicken production are essential to promote appropriate
interventions. The different household members can have different interests in
indigenous chicken production, with each species kept in the household level playing
a speci1c role and often owned and cared for by different individuals of the family
member (Bagnol, 2009). Indigenous chickens are generally owned and managed by
women and children, and are often an essential part of households headed by women
and have been seen as particularly signi1cant for women's self-reliance (Table 2). For
example, in Zimbabwe, 95% of the households who keep chickens entirely belong to
women (Kusina and Kusina, 1999; Maphosa et al., 2004). Women dominate most of the
activities around village chicken production; feeding, watering, cleaning, selling of
chickens and eggs (Kusina et al., 2001; Mapiye and Sibanda, 2005). Majority of
women look after the birds where chickens and eggs are often their main source of
income (Muchadeyi et al., 2004).
Women are responsible for most of the decision-making on chicken production even in
those households headed by men (Kusina et al., 2001), but in some communities
decisions are made jointly by males and females (Muchadeyi et al., 2004). While
women own indigenous chickens, men are more likely to own other kind of
livestock, such as goats and cattle (Moreki et al., 2010). However, the type and range
of animals owned by different households and by men and women within the households
also vary according to their level of poverty (Bagnol, 2009). This situation has changed
in developed countries because of scienti1c and technological innovations. In developing
countries, the situation has not changed much. Surveys in Southern African countries
demonstrated that women dominate most activities except for shelter construction and
marketing (Muchadeyi et al., 2004; Mtileni et al., 2009; Moreki et al., 2010). In addition
Table 1 Continued
730 World's Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 68, December 2012
Southern African chicken genetic resources: B.J. Mtileni et al.

to shelter construction, men are also dominant in the treatment and slaughtering of
chickens (Muchadeyi et al., 2004). Men tend to be involved in chicken production
when the enterprise becomes larger and when production is commercial while women
tend to be largely con1ned to production at the subsistence level (Mtileni et al., 2009;
Moreki et al., 2010). Men participate more than women in most of the developmental
meetings conducted by non-governmental and national organizations and this can be
attributed to low literacy levels among many women and the many tasks women have to
undertake at household level (Kitalyi, 1998). Poor access to information and heavy
workloads on women must be overcome if village chicken production is to directly
bene1t women.
Table 2 Chicken ownership (% of households) by gender categories in three Southern African countries.
Country Female Male Children References
South Africa 47.1 43.5 9.4 Mtileni et al. (2009)
Zimbabwe 56.0 36.0 8.0 Muchadeyi et al. (2004)
Botswana 81.8 13.6 4.6 Moreki et al. (2010)
Indigenous chicken production systems
Indigenous chickens in Southern Africa are generally owned by individual households
and are maintained under extensive or scavenging system with few or no inputs for
housing, feeding and health care. This system mostly incorporates indigenous chicken
genotypes, which are free to range or scavenge on neighbouring land to meet their
nutritional requirements. Their feeds vary depending on the local scavengeable feed
resource conditions. Housing for chickens may not always be provided and where it
is available, usually local and substandard materials are used (Mtileni et al., 2009). There
are no well de1ned health or vaccination programmes for indigenous chickens.
FLOCK SIZES
Flock sizes in the scavenging production system are highly variable. Various studies
conducted in the smallholder communal areas showed average 2ock sizes of between 10
and 20 chickens (Lombrou, 1993; Pedersen, 2002) with a range of 1-50 (Muchenje and
Sibanda, 1997; Muchadeyi et al., 2004; Mtileni et al., 2009) (Table 3). The 2ocks are
mainly composed of chicks (Maphosa et al., 2004; Muchadeyi et al., 2004). Larger 2ock
sizes are associated with a need for greater intensi1cation in housing, feeding, disease
control and marketing.
HOUSING
Indigenous chicken housing in the smallholder sector is relatively similar across the
Southern African regions. The common chicken housing structures in the extensive
production systems are either constructed on the ground or raised. The traditional
poultry houses studied in the smallholder sector of Zimbabwe revealed three housing
types namely saddle-roofed houses, round thatched huts, boxes and basket types
(Huchzermeyer, 1976). There are cases where chickens do not have separate houses
and, instead, the chickens roost in the family house, kitchen or in tree branches
(Kusina et al., 2001; Mtileni et al., 2009).
Southern African chicken genetic resources: B.J. Mtileni et al.
World's Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 68, December 2012 731

Table 3 Characteristics of indigenous chicken production systems in Southern Africa.
Parameters Extensive or scavenging system Backyard or subsistence system
Breeds Indigenous genotypes Mostly indigenous and few crossbreds
Flock size 2-10 10-20
Owners Mostly women, few men/children Mostly women and family
Housing system Poor night shelter provided, trees or open Besides night shelters, fenced backyards
spaces also provided
Feed resource Scavenging and occasionally hand feeding Scavenging and regular supplementation
Health care Insigni1cant, no vaccination or Little, vaccination but no medication
medication
Use of product Home consumption Home consumption and sale
Mortality High due to Newcastle disease and Moderate - primarily diseases
predation
FEEDING
The smallholder chicken production system makes use of predominantly scavenging
feeding systems. To date in the scavenging feeding system there is however no reliable
methods of estimating the feed resource quantitatively or qualitatively to facilitate
estimation of input - output relationships. Roberts and Gunaratne (1992) indicated that
the low performance of the smallholder chicken production could be attributed much to
the poor feed resource base, while Swatson (2003) suggested the use of unconventional
feed resources such as termites, maggots and worms as one of the alternatives for
increasing the scavenging feed resource base. Integrating poultry and cropping has
also been suggested for increasing the scavenging feed resource smallholder chicken
production (Baksh, 1994).
HEALTH OR VACCINATION PROGRAMMES
Little knowledge on disease epidemiology, poor infrastructure and insuf1cient
diagnostic facilities compounds the problem of diseases control in scavenging
production systems. The introduction of new stock, 2ock contacts while scavenging,
exchange of live birds and transmission from wild birds are all entities identi1ed within
and among the 2ocks that contributes in limiting the development of sound health
programmes in smallholder chicken production (Kitalyi, 1998). Farmers have little
knowledge in controlling the most devastating infectious diseases such as Newcastle
disease (Chabeuf, 1990; Yongolo, 1996). Various local concoctions are currently used by
smallholder farmers but, so far little research has been done to assess the effectiveness of
those local treatments. The use of Aloe sp. plant leaf extract as an example of a local
therapy is widely used in Zimbabwe and Tanzania (Kitalyi, 1998) and South Africa
(Mtileni et al., 2009). The possibility of making use of ethno-veterinary practises in the
control of poultry diseases and parasites should be explored. There is a movement of
farmer associations and groups that seek to enhance plant-extract input supply and
distribution in the rural areas. These advocates have received some support from
government and non-governmental organizations. A good example is a Newcastle
disease control program initiated in Mozambique, Tanzania and Malawi (Alders et al.,
2009). The impact of introducing ethno-veterinary practises will depend on stimulating
farmers interest and buy-in, improving farmers access to information on the chicken
disease situation and the implementation of adequate control measures.
Southern African chicken genetic resources: B.J. Mtileni et al.
732 World's Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 68, December 2012

MARKETING
Marketing and use of indigenous chicken products in this production system is poorly
developed in Southern Africa. Majority of smallholder chicken producers depend on
hawkers or middlemen who buy the indigenous chickens for urban markets, while the
demand within this production area is still low. Promoting value added products in
indigenous chicken production is still lacking. Thus, improving the marketing system
coupled with introducing value added products like most other agricultural commodities
could trigger increased indigenous chicken production, consumption and its contribution
to socio-economic livelihoods of rural Southern Africa.
Constraints to indigenous chicken production
High mortality was reported as the major constraint identi1ed by indigenous chicken
farmers of Southern Africa (Muchadeyi et al., 2004; Abdelqader et al., 2007). It is
dif1cult to associate the high mortality with a single factor, as it is a combination of
several factors. The main causes of mortality in chickens in order of importance were
diseases (Newcastle disease), predation (eagles, snakes and wild cats), and hostile
environment (cold stress) in the 1rst days of life, poor housing and lack of technical
support. Other constraints like feed, marketing, labour and land are of decreasing
importance in that order.
DISEASES
Newcastle disease is the main production limitation for indigenous chicken production
in developing countries of Southern Africa, causing about 50% - 100% losses every year
in village 2ocks (Mavale, 1995; Wethli, 1995; Buza and Mwamhehe, 2001; Alexander et
al., 2004). An explanation for the high mortality due to diseases in households that
practiced extensive production system could be related to unrestricted contacts between
2ocks of different households and exchange of live birds in the form of breeding stock,
sale, gifts and slaughter that fuels disease outbreaks (Kusina et al., 2001). In addition, the
wealth status of the household is assumed to have an impact on 2ock management, feed
availability and disease control strategies (Pedersen et al., 2002). Wealth, age and access
to production resources are usually linked; for example, youth-headed households are
often poorer and have less access to resources required to control diseases than adult-
headed households (Aklilu et al., 2008). Newcastle disease is likely to occur in chickens
kept by poor and youth-headed households, implying that such households do not have
money to purchase vaccines or resources to control the disease. To have a positive impact
on household economies and gender equity, concerns for different gender groups have to
be integrated in indigenous chicken developmental programmes. The observation that
households that did not practice supplementary feeding were more likely to be affected
by Newcastle disease could be partly explained by inadequate nutrition (Reta, 2009).
Under-nutrition leads to malnutrition and immuno-suppression, which in turn could
contribute to disease occurrence and, consequently mortality in indigenous chickens
(Spradbrow, 1993). A supplementary feeding policy that identi1es and utilises locally
available feed resources to formulate balanced diets is, therefore, highly recommended,
particularly in low rainfall areas. Research on locally available tannin-rich leguminous
feeds, which improves growth, meat quality and fatty acid composition and reduce
nematodes burdens in chickens, should be given high priority.
Disease control measures are seldom in place and high mortality rates are predominant
in rural communities of Southern Africa (Matthewman, 1977; Wilson et al., 1987;
Permin et al., 2001). Considering the relatively high incidence of Newcastle disease
Southern African chicken genetic resources: B.J. Mtileni et al.
World's Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 68, December 2012 733

in Southern Africa regions (Kusina et al., 2001; Mapiye and Sibanda, 2005) and its trans-
boundary nature, networking and regional support in planning and execution of
appropriate preventive and control strategies against this viral disease could foster
progress. For example, the Southern Africa Newcastle Disease Control Project
(SANDCP), promoted local production, quality control of the I-2 thermotolerant
Newcastle disease vaccine, its administration by community vaccinators and the
establishment of effective cost-recovery mechanisms in Tanzania, Malawi and
Mozambique. Studies to determine sero-prevalence, virus pathotypes, implications of
the disease on the performance of indigenous chicken ecotypes and utility of
thermostable vaccines are imperative. Since farmers indicated that they sometimes use
traditional medicines such as the Aloe to control diseases (Mtileni et al., 2009), verifying
the effectiveness of such herbals is, therefore, important. Extension and veterinary
technical support should include the separation of unhealthy chickens and proper
disposal of dead chickens, viscera and feathers that remain if the chickens are eaten.
Training and use of para-veterinary medicines, preferably by women, to undertake
vaccination at group level is advised.
PREDATORS
Predators such as snakes, rats, dogs, cats, foxes, raccoons and birds of prey has been
reported as the second major cause of chickens mortality in rural areas, especially among
young chickens, when there are no Newcastle disease outbreaks or other serious diseases
(Branckaert and Gueye, 1999). Another group of predators such as baboons, monkeys,
hawks, eagles and crows contribute to chicken losses (Kusina et al., 2001). Harun and
Massango (2001) further reported signi1cant chicken losses and reduction of village
chicken production to predators such as dogs, rats, owls, eagles, hyenas, wild cats,
squirrel and human thieves. According to Kusina et al. (2001) predator attacks
increases during the dry season when the vegetation cover declines. Shortage of
natural food for baboons and other predators during the dry season force them to
forage as close to the homesteads as possible. Farmers are often reluctant to invest
any time to improve productivity as it is considered a waste of time in areas with a
major loss of chickens caused by predation. In the rainy season, good vegetation cover
provides some form of protection against airborne predators such as hawks and eagles
that target young chickens. Another signi1cant method to prevent these constraints could
be to construct housing using locally available materials as some sort of housing to
protect the chickens.
HOUSING AND PARASITES
Indigenous chickens are reported to possess some degree of natural immunity against
common diseases and parasites (Gondwe and Wollny, 2007; Muchadeyi et al., 2009).
Mtileni et al. (2009) reported that high probability of mortality observed in households
that did not have proper shelter and vaccines were expected. Lack of proper housing
allows free movement of birds and exacerbates spread of disease and parasites, and
predisposes birds to predation (Kusina et al., 2001; Mapiye and Sibanda, 2005;
Muchadeyi et al., 2007a). For example, mass vaccination through drinking water is
feasible when birds are con1ned but is not possible when no housing is provided
(Reta, 2009). Poor hygienic condition of housing, results in high infestation with
external parasites. Reduction in growth of indigenous chickens is also associated with
high infestation with a number of external parasites, 2eas and mites and can be fatal for
young chickens (Kusina et al., 2001). Some parasites suck blood causing irritation and
anaemia, leading hens to abandon brooding resulting in poor hatchability and killing of
chicks.
Southern African chicken genetic resources: B.J. Mtileni et al.
734 World's Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 68, December 2012

Kaiser (1990) reported a considerable decline in external parasites (Argas persicus) and
mortality from spirochetosis through improved construction of perches in a chicken
house. Remarkably lower chick mortality of 19% was observed in Gambia through
improved chicken housing, relative to that observed in Ethiopia (66%) and Tanzania
(33%), where no improvements of chicken housing were made (Kitalyi, 1998). Chicken
housing and management could be improved through appropriate on-farm training of
farmers to construct housing structure using locally available materials and manufacture
small equipment, like feeders, drinkers and nests.
HOSTILE ENVIRONMENT
Other causes of mortality reported in smallholder chicken production are exposures to
excessive heat and cold. Kusina et al. (2001) reported that chicken mortality was mostly
severe during the hot and cold, dry season due to cycling temperatures throughout the
day, more especially during the 1rst three weeks after hatching. In case of seasonal
chicken losses through excessive heat and cold, proper management is very important
such as the provision of water in combating effects of heat stress in chickens and
protecting chick from cold weather during the 1rst few weeks of life.
Diversity in Southern African indigenous chicken genetic resources
Genetic diversity is integral to human culture, history, environment, economy and, most
importantly allows for future advances and improvement in response to changing human
and animal production needs (Notter, 1999; Hall, 2004). Thousands of chicken breeds
originated relatively from small genetic pools that have evolved over time to suit
particular environments and farming systems. This is both the result of natural
processes and of human needs for specialized breeds (Hall, 2004; Thiyagasundaram,
2005) serving both as a production component and as a source for genetic improvement
(Cassman et al., 2005). As knowledge of genetics continues to increase a greater
understanding of how this biodiversity evolved has been achieved (Hall, 2004).
Chicken biological diversity encompasses both phenotypic as well as genotypic
variation. Biodiversity can be described at several levels, from phenotypic
observations to molecular data.
PHENOTYPIC DIVERSITY
The improvement of domestic animals including chickens to meet human needs is
dependent on variations within and between breeds. Such variation among individuals or
groups of chickens gives room and opportunity for breeding and selection. General
descriptions of freely ranging indigenous chickens have relied on the phenotypic
characteristics as among the 1rst to be used to determine the relationship between
chicken breeds (Moiseyeva et al., 1994; Romanov, 1994; 1999; Swatson, 2003).
Phenotypes including adult body weight, egg weight, reproduction performance and
immune responses to various diseases are among the diversity of the local chickens
reported so far (Gueye, 1998; Msoffe et al., 2001; 2004). Types and varieties of
indigenous chickens are usually differentiated by body plumage colour and other
external characteristics (Table 4). The seven common genotypes of chickens found in
villages of Southern Africa include normal feathered, naked neck, frizzle, silky, dwarf,
rumples and feet feathering (Table 4). Some, however, are reported to possess other
characteristics that are of economic importance. These include genotypes that are adapted
for hot climates. Examples are the genes for bare or featherless neck, dwarf body type
and frizzled feathers. These heat tolerant genes are considered important in hot climates
Southern African chicken genetic resources: B.J. Mtileni et al.
World's Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 68, December 2012 735

of Southern Africa and can be incorporated in breeding programmes. Egg production for
naked neck and rumpled chickens as evident by smallholder farmers are said to be higher
than that of other genotypes. Hatchability for naked neck chickens is also than that of
rumples chickens. Because of lower hatchability rates, many rearers do not keep rumples
chickens despite the fact that these chickens attain heavier body weights. This may result
in these birds becoming extinct in future (Moreki, 2003).
Table 4 Phenotypic characteristics of indigenous chicken populations of Southern Africa.
Characteristic Description
Phenotypes Normal feathered, frizzled, naked-neck, dwarf, silky,
rumpled and feet feathering
Plumage colour Black, white, brown, red grey, yellowish, light orange
and multiple coloured
Comb and wattles Red, red with white and black spots
Ear lobes Red and white
Beak colour Black and dark grey
Colour of skin White, yellow and reddish
Feet and toes Black and cream
Age at sexual maturity (days) 140 170
Egg production/year 35 45
Egg weight (g) 33 55
Egg hatchability (%) 50 75
GENETIC DIVERSITY
A combination of phenotypic (including classical morphometric) studies, biochemical
(e.g. protein polymorphism, blood group) analysis and, more recently, molecular genetic
studies using DNA information are the central sources of data on genetic relationships
among varieties of breeds and strains (Rege and Gibson, 2003). Genetic diversity within
a given farm animal species refers to the variety of genetic variation evolved during
domestication and is displayed by the existence of structural variation among genomes of
individuals, families, strains and populations. In recent years, numerous studies in
indigenous chicken demonstrated that DNA variability is a powerful source of
information for examining diversity within and among individuals, families, and
populations (van Marle-Koster and Nel, 2003; Muchadeyi et al., 2007b; van Marle-
Koster et al., 2008; Hassen et al., 2009; Mtileni et al., 2011a). Considering genetic
diversity in agricultural populations not only the capacity to evolve with the changing
production environment (e.g. global warming, changes in disease pressure) but also the
capacity to cope with changing market requirements (e.g. other composition of fatty acids
in animal products) is of high relevance (Simianer, 2005a). As a result, genetic diversity
is seen as an insurance against future changes (Smith, 1984).
The evaluation of genetic diversity within and between different chicken populations of
Southern Africa, both indigenous and commercial has been undertaken by using several
microsatellites (van Marle-Koster and Nel, 2003; Muchadeyi et al., 2007b; van Marle-
Koster et al., 2008; Hassen et al., 2009; Mtileni et al., 2011a) and mitochondrial DNA
(mtDNA) marker systems (Muchadeyi et al., 2008; Mtileni et al., 2011b). In recent
analysis using microsatellites, Mtileni et al. (2011a) and Muchadeyi et al. (2007b)
demonstrated that indigenous chicken populations of Southern Africa showed a high
genetic diversity and could not be subdivided into subpopulations (Table 5). This
population showed almost all possible phenotypes of chickens found in villages of
South Africa, Zimbabwe, Malawi and Sudan. mtDNA sequences has also been a
useful tool for studying the evolution of closely related species and maternal origin.
Southern African chicken genetic resources: B.J. Mtileni et al.
736 World's Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 68, December 2012

The chicken mtDNA sequence polymorphism has been used to examine genetic
relationship within breeds, among breeds and also to address questions of chicken
domestication (Liu et al., 2006; Oka et al., 2007; Muchadeyi et al., 2008; Adebambo
et al., 2010; Berthouly-Salazar et al., 2010; Revay et al., 2010; Mtileni et al., 2011b).
mtDNA has strictly maternal inheritance, which means mtDNA haplotypes should be
shared by all individuals within a maternal family line.
Table 5 Mean number of alleles (MNA) per locus, expected (HE), observed (HO) heterozygosity, overall-
population (FIT), between-populations (FST) and within-population (FIS) inbreeding coef1cients of
southern African chicken populations.
Population MNA HO HE FIT FST FIS
Zimbabwe (Village) 6.32 0.64-0.66 0.59-0.63 0.084 0.008 0.077
Malawi and Sudan (Village) 6.16 0.52-0.66 0.56-0.63 0.115 0.039 0.079
South Africa (Village) 6.10 0.61-0.64 0.67-0.69 0.083 0.008 0.076
South Africa (Conservation) 3.99 0.51-0.60 0.51-0.62 0.186 0.187 -0.001
Source: Muchadeyi et al. (2007b) and Mtileni et al. (2011)
Conservation of chicken genetic resources
Conservation of animal genetic resources engages many activities (strategies,
management, planning, polices and actions) intended to ascertain that the diversity of
farm animal genetic resources is maintained to contribute to current and future
agricultural and food production (Rege and Gibson, 2003). There are several obstacles
and challenges associated to conservation of farm animal genetic resources (Mendelsohn,
2003). Conservation strategy must have clear objectives that are understandable by all
stakeholders who will be the drivers for its implementation and eventual success. There
are many conservation objectives that can be adapted to meet local conditions. This
includes those which have an immediate applicability plus future value and those that
seek to conserve for the future (Barker, 2001; Lekule and Kyvsgaard, 2003; Oldenbroek,
2007). The erosion and loss of animal genetic resources would compromise the 2exibility
of future breeding measures (FAO, 2007a). Chicken genetic resources are considered to
be the most endangered and under-conserved (Hoffmann, 2009). This has been evident
by the previous literature by FAO (2007b) that about 33% of the world's chicken breeds
are considered endangered to critical breeds and another 40% with unknown risk status.
A further need exists to guard against depleting diversity due to current breeding
technologies, worldwide movement of germplasm, the proliferation of highly selected
industrialized chicken breeds, and commercial stocks founded on a relatively small
number of breeding individuals (NRC, 1993).
Conservation of domestic animal genetic resources encompasses characterisation,
identi1cation, monitoring and utilisation to ensure management for best short term use
and longer term readily available (Moyo, 1995). There is a need to conserve adaptive
traits as opposed to commercial traits. The Southern African experience is the frizzled
gene reported to be in serious danger of extinction, while the naked neck and dwarf genes
also appeared to be endangered (Moreki, 2003). These important genotypes should be
further identi1ed using molecular tools and be conserved for their adaptive traits and
being able to produce under hot climates of Southern Africa. The conserved genetic
resources will be future sources of unique genes and will be useful when environmental
concerns necessitate change in production systems. The importance of conservation of
Southern African chicken genetic resources: B.J. Mtileni et al.
World's Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 68, December 2012 737

chicken genetic resources has long been recognised in South Africa to prevent the
extinction of local chicken breeds. A conservation programme of chicken genetic
resources known as Fowls for Africa was initiated by the Animal Production Institute
of the Agricultural Research Council in 1994. The four breeds that form part of the
conservation 2ocks include the Venda, Naked Neck, Ovambo and Potchefstroom
Koekoek. However, conservation decisions of South African chickens were made
mainly based on population size information and population trends of the individual
breeds. Other indicators affecting extinction probability and the contribution of the breeds
to total genetic diversity have not been taken into account, and allocation of conservation
funds might not ensure prevention of the loss of national chicken genetic resources in the
long-term.
Indigenous chickens in most Southern African countries are not adequately
characterised making it impossible to understand the existing diversity that could be
of use for decision making on the development of rational conservation and utilisation
strategies. It is necessary to create an inventory of indigenous chicken varieties and their
characteristics as a 1rst step in breed conservation and assessment for future breeding
strategies (Solis et al., 2005). Biotechnology techniques such as molecular markers could
be used to characterise indigenous chickens (Muchadeyi et al., 2007b; van Marle-Koster
et al., 2008; Hassen et al., 2009; Mtileni et al., 2011a; Mtileni et al., 2011b). It should,
however, be noted that several Southern African countries face challenges of lack of
infrastructure for breeding purposes and have relatively small de1ned populations
(Wollny, 1995a; 1995b). There is a need to establish laboratory space, relevant
equipments and staff capability to carry out the research. A good example in
Southern African countries is South Africa which has both the laboratories, techniques
and personnel to carry out advanced molecular characterisation research due to a better
economy compared to other Southern African countries. There is a need to consider
characterisation of indigenous chicken breeds if genetic conservation for economic,
scienti1c, cultural and social development and sustainability is to succeed (Wollny
1995b).
National initiatives and government policies on conservation of
indigenous chickens
There are several threats to the production of indigenous chicken populations in Southern
African countries. These include the replacement of local indigenous chicken populations
with exotic chicken breeds. For example, The Black Australorp Village Poultry
Improvement Programme initiated in 1969 in Malawi, where a total of 320,000 6-
week-old growers of both sexes were sold to smallholder chicken farmers every year,
but the results were not evaluated (Upindi, 1990). The enforcement of an unbalanced
admixture through uncontrolled crossbreeding resulted from policy initiatives or
economic considerations (Safaloah, 2001; Mendelsohn, 2003). These did not have
clearly de1ned goals and execution strategies which led to unsupervised crossing of
indigenous chickens with Black Australorps and consequently the nondescript breeds
produced did not perform as expected (Safaloah, 2001). Malawi, the only country to
engage on unsupervised crossbreeding programmes in Southern Africa, has not bene1ted
from the programme due to unclear, non-existent or ill-de1ned policies. Other Southern
Africa countries, except South Africa, seem not to have coherent policies on conservation
indigenous chicken population and incentive systems for the farmers that will be
involved in those programmes. Some policies take no notice of conservation of
indigenous chicken populations and undermine traditional production systems, while
Southern African chicken genetic resources: B.J. Mtileni et al.
738 World's Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 68, December 2012

public agricultural institutions focus research and extension services on a narrow base
that excludes local breeds (Halewood and Mugabe, 2002). Interestingly, the African
Union developed a Model Law to provide a legal framework for the conservation,
evaluation and sustainable use of biological resources, and associated technologies
and knowledge, but no country had adopted it according to latest reports (FAO,
2007a). These practices have to change. The public sector is largely absent from the
animal genetic resource conservation landscape, leaving all activities to commercial
players whose main aim is pro1t (FAO, 2007a). Strategic approaches for
conservation, managing, and utilisation of chicken genetic resources at the national
levels suited to different needs must be established and implemented in developing
countries of Southern Africa.
Prioritising populations for conservation in Southern Africa
Informed decisions need to be taken when prioritising a particular population for
conservation based on an inventory of the de1nite breeds carried out on a global
scale through the World Watch List (FAO, 2000) which include the speci1c
population genetic diversity and their characteristics. Weitzman's (1992; 1993)
diversity concept is widely used as a formal approach to rational decision making in
livestock conservation. Weitzman's theory was applied in studies on various farm animal
species, such as chicken (Pinent et al., 2005), pig (Laval et al., 2000; Fabuel et al., 2004),
cattle (Thaon d'Arnoldi et al., 1998; Cañón et al., 2001; Simianer, 2002; Reist-Marti et
al., 2003, Simianer et al., 2003; Tapio et al., 2006; Zerabruk et al., 2007; Zander et al.,
2009), horse (Thirstrup et al., 2008) and dog (Leroy et al., 2009). This approach suggests
that the conservation potential is the single most informative criterion to rank breeds with
respect to conservation priority. The conservation potential of a breed basically re2ects
the amount of expected diversity that can be conserved if a breed is made completely
safe.
Simianer (2002; 2005) and Piyasatian and Kinghorn (2003) further suggested
combining the expected diversity with other criteria resulting in the expected total
utility as a maximisation criterion. The suggested criteria may encompass the presence
of special genetic traits such as disease tolerance, production and cultural or environment
values of breeds, inter alia. The approach combines genetic diversity assessed at the
molecular level and extinction probabilities estimated by socio-economic factors to derive
conservation priorities of breeds based on their conservation potential. Using
conservation potentials for prioritising breeds is very ef1cient in selection of breeds
for conservation, when the objective of the conservation plan is to maximise the
genetic diversity conserved (Reist-Marti et al., 2003; Simianer et al., 2003; Zerabruk
et al., 2007). Individual genotypes therefore need to be identi1ed once the
aforementioned decisions are made to become part of the conservation scheme, where
desirable genetic properties of the sample should: (i) represent the genetic portfolio of the
population or breed, (ii) have a maximum effective population size and (iii) conserved
special genetic traits.
Cost implications of conservation
Every sound conservation effort bears a cost which differs with perspective on the
particular population or breed, countries, regions and production environments
(Gandini and Oldenbroek, 2007). Although the conservation potential is considered as
Southern African chicken genetic resources: B.J. Mtileni et al.
World's Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 68, December 2012 739

a good indicator for conservation decision, it does not give information on how to
allocate the conservation budget to maximise the conserved diversity. It is necessary
to assign appropriate shares of the conservation budget to the different breeds once the
decision is made as to which population or breeds should be sampled. Several methods of
estimating the likely cost of conservation efforts has been described elsewhere (Drucker
et al., 2001; Scarpa et al., 2003; Pattison et al., 2007; Zander et al., 2009). Firstly the
costs and effects for the different conservation schemes in terms of reduced extinction
probability need to be established and known. The costs can typically be subdivided into
variable costs, which depend on the number of chickens cryo-conserved sample and the
1xed costs, which are necessary to establish the conservation scheme inter alia. In
general terms, it is always possible to identify the optimum conservation scheme for a
given investment level within breed when the cost functions for different conservation
schemes in the same breed are known. This is demonstrated in Reist-Marti (2004) where
three out of four different conservation schemes were found to be preferable in at least
one out of eight breeds chosen for conservation. If such a planning process is considered
in conserving Southern African indigenous chickens, factors such as labour-intensive ex
situ conservation schemes may be cheaper than cryo-conservation in some countries
where the infrastructure for cryo-conservation is not available (Reist-Marti, 2004).
Opportunities for smallholder chicken research and development
Indigenous chicken are an important component of farming systems in smallholder
farming areas. Research efforts in indigenous chicken should be targeted at aspects
ranging from feeding, breeding, disease control and husbandry to obtain a better
understanding of indigenous chicken production systems in relation to other crop-
livestock systems and the changes in socio-economic conditions in smallholder set-
ups. Biological factors are not the only factors considered by farmers when adopting
technologies to suit their local farming circumstances. Instead, socio-economic factors are
also important to the farmer and, therefore, should not be ignored. Both objectively
measured variables and subjectively measured variables should be studied to produce
more meaningful research results. Detailed studies of most of the issues raised above
would contribute to improved poultry production and contribute towards improving
family income and nutrition. Qualitative data can be gathered in a once off/single
visit. Reliability of such data depends on the ability of farmers to recall past events.
Smallholder farmers do not usually keep farm records, more reliable data are obtained
through monitoring studies and discussions with farmers. By improving existing
management, it is possible to increase indigenous chicken production in the
smallholder sector. Bene1ts from genetic improvement can only accrue if existing
management is improved.
The conservation of chicken genetic resources is essential in the light of the rapid loss
of strains and breeds through dilution and breed replacement. All varieties of domestic
species and species with potential for domestication are considered to be important
candidates for conservation. Indigenous chicken populations with economic potential,
scienti1c use and cultural or aesthetic interest are of particular importance but all
indigenous chickens which are unique and endangered should be incorporated into
conservation efforts. Molecular markers are an indispensable tool to understand the
genetic structures of populations. For the sampling of germplasm to create an animal
gene bank, they are necessary but in no way suf1cient to make adequate decisions. In
addition to diversity information derived from molecular data, there needs to be good,
speci1c knowledge and understanding of breed characteristics and values, the risk status
Southern African chicken genetic resources: B.J. Mtileni et al.
740 World's Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 68, December 2012

of breeds, availability and cost ef1ciency of possible conservation programmes, among
others. It is therefore strongly recommended to concentrate co-ordinated genotyping
efforts to 1ll in the still existing white spots on the Southern African chicken
genetic resources and to re-allocate funds to develop a better understanding of the
other components of a rational decision-making process. All the different aspects of
indigenous chicken covered in this review should be incorporated into a model
together, rather than individually, in order to identify combinations that optimise
smallholder chicken production and improve smallholder household's income and
nutrition.
Conclusions
Smallholder chicken farmers de1nitely have opportunities to bene1t from the existing
poultry genetic resources. But this will only be possible if the conditions to which these
chickens are subjected can be improved. A successful plan to improve upon indigenous
chicken production amongst resource limited households will require a holistic approach.
Relevant efforts in this respect must be made from a combination of measures in different
areas. Stakeholders in this process will include the state, research community,
development organisations, private sector and the smallholders themselves. Indigenous
chicken genetic resources could be considered as national and global public goods and
their utilisation be guided by national strategies. However, such national strategies should
fully consider communities interests and economic needs as chicken production are the
major means of livelihoods for smallholder farmers. Smallholders are more likely to
pro1t from the existing poultry genetic resources if they co-operate in farmers
organisations. This will allow them to have larger and more regular quantities of
chickens for sale on the market while simultaneously improving product quality.
Smallholder farmers will also have a better chance of becoming suppliers for
expanding supermarkets and they will be in a better negotiating position, save costs,
and reduce their risks. Developing farmers organisations is not always easy, as, among
other things, it requires a great deal of commitment and the capacity to build consensus.
Mutual learning, as well as attendance of training courses, can constitute important inputs
that help smallholder farmers to improve chicken production.
If smallholders are to have opportunities to produce for the market, the infrastructure in
rural areas will have to be improved. Good agricultural extension services and veterinary
services will also be needed to increase indigenous chicken productivity. Economic
development should not bene1t only large-scale industrial operations. Smallholder
chicken producers should also be able to participate in the market more easily for
example, through improved microcredit conditions, particularly for women. Public
Private Partnerships can be singled out as a promising means for integrating
smallholders into the market under fair conditions and for preparing them to deal with
the demands of large wholesalers such as supermarkets. Different measures in the areas
of research and extension could improve the low productivity of indigenous chicken
situation. In order to be able to select and breed at all, data on performance must be
systematically collected and evaluated. Breeding suitable pure or cross-bred birds will
then be a source of better and more regular income for farmers. Another principal
measure in indigenous chickens research should be targeted at aspects ranging from
strengthening of local extension services, and emphasis put on vaccination of chicks,
formulation of low-cost feed resources, and design of low-cost housing. A major strategy
would be to empower the smallholder chicken owners through training and provision of a
chicken farmers tailor-made credit facility, which is informed by data on the indigenous
Southern African chicken genetic resources: B.J. Mtileni et al.
World's Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 68, December 2012 741

chicken production cycle and the major bottlenecks along it. Improved husbandry and
breeding will allow farmers to fully exploit the genetic potential of the systematically
bred animals, hence improve poultry production and contribute towards improving
smallholder household's income and food security.
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