1. ADVERTISING TOYS TO CHILDREN
1. Introduction
Television advertising to children and particularly of toys, is an activity which is often
questioned in all of the Member States of the Community and is, consequently, extensively
regulated. However, it is worth noting that the questions about advertising generally
originate from a limited number of interest groups - the recorded level of public complaint,
even in those States which have efficient and publicly known complaint procedures, are
extremely low.
In considering advertising of toys to children, therefore, a useful starting point is the
realisation that it appears not to be a matter of great public concern and that the activity is
already hedged by extensive legal and voluntary regulation - there are, for example, 45
different rules governing advertising to children in the United Kingdom which have statutory
force. However, while the concern that does exist tends to be common among the States,
the regulations are different in each of the twelve countries of the EC, in some cases very
markedly so - giving rise to the suspicion that the subject is as yet imperfectly understood.
What follows, which concerns television advertising of toys only, is intended to provide some
clarification.
2. The social role of toys
The social benefits to be gained from toys and the value of play are often generally
underestimated. Academic psychologists, however, recognise that play is an essential aid to
balanced human development, It helps children develop an understanding of the world in
which they live and, particularly when they play in groups, assists in the “socialisation” of
the child. It is universally accepted that learning to play together is an excellent preparation
for learning to live and work together in later life.
Toys, though not absolutely essential to play, nevertheless make a vital contribution by
initiating, organising and widening the significance of play. Toys and games also provide
acceptable challenges to the child to begin and complete tasks, to develop physical and
mental responses of value in adult life and develop cognitive ability. Toys play an important
role in stimulating creativity. They provide children with opportunities for self expression
and allow them to learn about participation in group activities, sharing tasks and roles within
. a group.
Most parents are aware of the entertainment benefits of toys. They play an important part
in modem family life, allowing parents tirne to deal with daily tasks and along with books
provide a vital alternative to television. They are particularly useful for children too young
to read.
... 2
Finally, toy makers are proud of the educational value of their toys - Those which are
designed with that specific purpose in mind and those which educate incidentally. This can
be as simple as a child with a doll mimicking an adult with a baby or building houses with
blocks which teaches about structures. Toys also play an important role in the physical
development of children, helping children become dexterous and teaching them about the
physical qualities of different materials.
All in all, toys and games are a useful, beneficial and some respects vital category of the
products of human ingenuity. In principle, therefore, it seems right that as much information
as possible about them should be available publicly - always consistent with any special
consideration which needs to be paid to the children themselves.
3. The special characteristics of the toys business in relation to advertising
Like any other industry, the toy industry wishes to display its products to its potential
customers. The toy industry is, however, unique in that its customers are usually not in a
position to buy the products for themselves. Consequently advertising also needs to inform
parents, who will make the purchase. The fact that the potential customers are so young also
poses some serious communications challenges for the toy industry; not least the need to
communicate effectively with an audience which may have some difficulty understanding
complicated written or spoken information while conveying a message to a much more
sophisticated parental audience. Both groups need sufficient information to enable them to
arrive at an informed decision.
This communications challenge generally means that toy advertisers choose to demonstrate
the toys on offer. Demonstration provides usable decision making information to both
parents and children. It is because of this that the toy industry’s marketing efforts so often
rely principally on television. It is the most effective way of reaching children and their
parents in a way appropriate to each.
In addition, toys tend to be ephemeral products. This means that far more new toys and
games are launched each year than in any other consumer goods industry. For this reason,
substantial a n u a l l y recurring advertising is essential as a means of continually introducing
the industry’s innovation to its customers - who, as children, naturally expect the freshness,
entertainment and excitement of new things.
.
Partly for these reasons the Industry is also highly competitive. Advertising is an essential
means of making such competition effective, with the related consumer (children) benefits
of continuous innovation and inventiveness, lower consumer prices and higher product quality
and safety.
Perhaps unfortunately for the public image of the industry a great deal of this competitive
effort and therefore advertising is visibly concentrated in one time of year, in the 8 weeks
or so before Christmas when as much as 70% of toy and game annual purchases (by value)
are made.
. . . I . . .Finally, it needs to be understood that there is a close connection in the Toy Industry
between television advertising and distribution.
reflecting the high rate of innovation.
Toys and games are an uncertain business,
Distributors and retailers need the assurance of the
expected effects of introducing new products through advertising to encourage them to make
the products available in their stores. In this connection, it should be remembered that in the
Toy Industry, for reasons of scale and rate of innovation, there is no such thing as a “test
market” .
.
Advertising for toys and games therefore plays a vital role in making products physically
available for the exercise of consumer choice and in international terms, breaks down
national distributive barriers - traditionally in place to protect local manufacturers.
4. The nature of the perceived “problems” with toy advertising
There are four areas which appear to generate most expressed concern and therefore a t t r a c t
the attention of those responsible for public policy.
The issue of “vulnerability” of children and the moral question of early exposure to
“commercial pressure”. Children are thought to be easily persuadable, which is seen

2. to be “unfair” and possibly harmful in terms of family economic decision making.
There is a generalised dislike of “commercial pressure” which leads to a feeling that
children need to be protected from such pressure.
The adult irritation caused by the concentration of television advertising around the
industry’s peak season. Toys are almost unique in being products in which adults
have limited personal interest. Repetitive advertising for such products seems to be
irritating partly for this reason.
The depiction of violent or aggressive behaviour in advertisements for toys has been
raised by some as an area of concern.
The negotiation process in the family and the unwanted parental involvement in this
negotiation process leading to toy purchases, particularly at Christmas time. It is
undoubtedly the case that toy and game purchase requests from children force adults
into a decision making process which some will find hard to handle and will possibly
resent.
.
5. The perspective of the toy industry
The toy industry (which is generally staffed by people who are parents, like any other
industry] is very sensitive to the issues related to advertising and has sought to resolve them
in objective terms. To this end the Toy Manufacturers of Europe (TME), which represents
the industry at the European level, along with national toy industry associations and
individual companies have completed a programme of research and study, with the help of
. . . . . .4
the Universities of Utrecht and Gent, designed to help the Industry understand the advertising
issue better and to test whether its behaviour is responsible in the light of what is known
academically about the subject. The main findings have been interesting in that they show
that many of the underlying assumptions are unsubstantiated, or must be qualified.
a. Vulnerability
The idea of “vulnerability” encompasses the notion that children, being unaware of the intent
of advertising, are unfairly open to persuasion, that consequently they may become involved
in inappropriate transactions and they may be misled. Scrutiny of all of the relevant research
by the Department of Communications at the University of Gent and by Professor Goldstein
of Utrecht University suggests:
i ) There is no evidence that advertising can harm children.
ii) Children may be aware of “commercial intent” down to as low as the age of 3, well
-
within the age range within which they are entirely under the tutelage of their parents
or guardians (if they are not under such tutelage, that is an entirely different social
problem not directly related to advertising and toys.
iii) However, awareness of “commercial intent” does not appear to differentiate the
influence of advertising for children, any more than it does for adults. Toy and game
advertising does encourage children to want the products.
iv) Children are sophisticated and critical observers of television advertising - able to
decode the messages at least as well as adults - often better. Their behaviour shows
that they are also highly discriminating, often choosing toys which are not advertised
and not choosing toys which are advertised.
As a matter of record, television advertising for toys often fails in its purpose -noting
that the Industry is unable to conduct test markets. There could be no greater
testimony to children’s ability to resist, to an unexpected degree, the blandishments
of toy advertising and to make independent choices,
b. Commercial pressure
The research is largely silent on this highly subjective idea - though careful study of the
academic work shows clearly that negative views of “commercial pressure” have conditioned
a number of the pieces of the research in an unacademic fashion.
The best way of looking at this issue is probably in the context of the entire panoply of
commercial activity which underwrites the prosperity and living standards of western
European nations. In all Member States children are born and brought up in societies for
which successful commercial activity is a vital resource. Consequently, they are surrounded
from first consciousness by all the external signs of this activity, which they will have to
come to understand and which eventually they will wish to exploit for their own benefit.
. .5
Invoivement as children in their own purchase decisions under the guidance and control of
parents or guardians may well be one of the more important pieces of education for children
growing up in successful industrial societies such as ours.
Finally, the research does tell us that in terms of “commercial pressure” advertising is
relativelv unimportant. Research studies consistently show that television advertising ranks
third or fourth behind “playground influence”, shop windows and catalogues as the motivator
of child requests for toy and game products.
C. Aggression
The TME is naturally sensitive to this issue and recently commissioned an extensive study
of all available academic research on the subject of aggression. The study, conducted by
Professor Goldstein of the University of Utrecht, showed that toys themselves do not
generate aggressive behaviour patterns in children; where a child exhibits aggressive
behaviour in connection with a toy the aggression comes from the child, not the toy. Any
predisposition to such behaviour is the result of far more important influences, particularly
those of parents and teachers.
Transposed to advertising, this conclusion indicates that what aggression there is in television
commercials for toys is not harmful. However, it should also be noted, in any event, that
in most Member States there are rules which minimise any “aggressive” content in television
advertising to children. The TME is now taking steps to ensure that these restrictions are
applied in all Member States - regardless of the state of national legislation.
d. Misleadingness
There is unquestionably a danger that children may be mislead by advertising just as adults
sometimes are and this is confirmed by the research. Strict rules about allowable content,
however, along the lines of the very detailed British Independent Television Commission
(ITC), do appear to address this problem satisfactorily. The Toy Industry is glad to work
voluntarily within all of the ITC rules, even in countries where strict rules do not apply and
the TME is now in the process of developing some improvements to the ITC rules which
may reduce any risk of misleadingness still further (see below).
e. Irritation
.
Adult irritation in the face of toy commercials is certainly unfortunate but it must be
remembered that these commercials are directed primarily to children who enjoy them and
are not irritated. A more positive approach for adults would be to view the commercials as

3. very important information about the lives of their children and as data from which they can
help their children to make sensible and appropriate decisions.
f. Negotiation
.
Parents also tend to have concerns about the process of “negotiat
ion” which takes place
. . . . . .I
6
following child requests for advertised products. However, the research generally shows that
this transaction usually goes quite well and if properly conducted, is valued by “both sides”.
It is difficult to envisage a sustainable, in principle objection to this process, given the
considerations already outlined - particularly those relating to the education and development
of children in a society, one of whose chief distinguishing characteristics is energetic
commercial activity.
6. The benefits of toy advertising
There are a number of reasons why advertising is of benefit to a free society. Many of these
benefits apply to all industries but for the toy industry five reasons stand out.
z Advertising in general is a key tool of a market economy. Efficient and successful
market economies are based upon competition. If advertising of toys were to be
restricted it would restrict companies, especially those companies seeking to enter a
new territory and would reduce the efficiency of the market. This point is
particularly important when one considers the number of companies who will wish
to enter new markets in other Member States after the advent of the Single Market
at the end of this year and the rate of innovation in this particular business.
z It is now generally understood that competition results in lower prices and increased
quality. The Toy Industry is no exception to this general rule - economies of scale
being particularly important in a relatively small scale business. Advertising
underwrites vigorous competition and is therefore the consumers guarantor of value
and quality benefits in toys and games - as in other advertised product categories.
z Toy t e l evi s ion adve r t i s ing i s the key de t e rminant of ma rke t ent ry and the
“internationalisation” of the Toy business, noting the role television plays in gaining
initial distribution. Hence, without television advertising, the barriers to trade, or the
equivalent, created by preferential distribution arrangements, which have always been
common in western Europe, would inhibit the enlargement of consumer choice and
protect distributor margins at the expense of consumers (children).
Learning to understand and interpret advertising is an important lesson which all
children have to learn. Advertising should be seen as contributing to the “life
education“ of children.
Advertising enlarges consumer choice. To most people, greater choice means greater
freedom - children (with their parents) are no exception. Advertising contributes
directly to choice by bringing products and services to the consumers’ attention, by
encouraging innovation and distribution and by lowering prices.
7. Regulation of toy advertising now and in the future
The toy industry recognises the need to establish clear guidelines for advertisers which deal
BR 7
satisfactorily with public concern about advertising to children. In some Member States these
exist, but in the Community as a whole, the irregularities and disparities in the regulatory
regime are dismaying and represent a weakness in the coherence and value of European
regulation on this subject. It is recognised that detailed regulations which take into account
all the national requirements covering advertising are very difficult to develop, but this
obstacle could be overcome. The best method would be by initial recognition by the Member
States of each others’ national rules combined with the introduction of self regulation based
on a code of practice at least as comprehensive as the ITC code (currently the most detailed
and extensive).
The Community should also back and seek to obtain international recognition of this self
regulatory system. To this end the TME is currently developing its own code of practice for
its members who advertise in Europe. We look forward to discussing it in detail with
members of the European Parliament, the European Commission and other interested parties.
INTRODUCTION
Several European countries forbid or severely curtail advertising to children; in the United States, on the other hand, selling to children is simply ―business as usual.‖1 The
average young person views more than 3000 ads per day on television (TV), on the Internet, on billboards, and in magazines.2 Increasingly, advertisers are targeting younger
and younger children in an effort to establish ―brand-name preference‖ at as early an age as possible.3 This targeting occurs because advertising is a $250 billion/year
industry with 900 000 brands to sell,2 and children and adolescents are attractive consumers: teenagers spend $155 billion/year, children younger than 12 years spend
another $25 billion, and both groups influence perhaps another $200 billion of their parents' spending per year.4,5 Increasingly, advertisers are seeking to find new and
creative ways of targeting young consumers via the Internet, in schools, and even in bathroom stalls. 1
Previous SectionNext Section
THE EFFECTS OF ADVERTISING ON CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS
Research has shown that young children—younger than 8 years—are cognitively and psychologically defenseless against advertising. 6–9 They do not understand the notion
of intent to sell and frequently accept advertising claims at face value.10 In fact, in the late 1970s, the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) held hearings, reviewed the existing
research, and came to the conclusion that it was unfair and deceptive to advertise to children younger than 6 years. 11 What kept the FTC from banning such ads was that it
was thought to be impractical to implement such a ban. 11 However, some Western countries have done exactly that: Sweden and Norway forbid all advertising directed at
children younger than 12 years, Greece bans toy advertising until after 10 PM, and Denmark and Belgium severely restrict advertising aimed at children. 12
Previous SectionNext Section
ADVERTISING IN DIFFERENT MEDIA
Television
Children and adolescents view 400 00 ads per year on TV alone.13 This occurs despite the fact that the Children's Television Act of 1990 (Pub L No. 101–437) limits
advertising on children's programming to 10.5 minutes/hour on weekends and 12 minutes/hour on weekdays. However, much of children's viewing occurs during prime
time, which features nearly 16 minutes/hour of advertising.14 A 30-second ad during the Super Bowl now costs $2.3 million but reaches 80 million people. 15
Movies
A 2000 FTC investigation found that violent movies, music, and video games have been intentionally marketed to children and adolescents. 16 Although movie theaters have
agreed not to show trailers for R-rated movies before G-rated movies in response to the release of the FTC report, children continue to see advertising for violent media in
other venues. For instance, M-rated video games, which according to the gaming industry's own rating system are not recommended for children younger than 17 years, are
frequently advertised in movie theaters, video game magazines, and publications with high youth readership. 17 Also, movies targeted at children often prominently feature
brand-name products and fast food restaurants.18 In 1997–1998, 8 alcohol companies placed products in 233 motion pictures and in 1 episode or more of 181 TV series.18

4. Print Media
According to the Consumer's Union,19 more than 160 magazines are now targeted at children. Young people see 45% more beer ads and 27% more ads for hard liquor in
teen magazines than adults do in their magazines.20 Despite the Master Settlement Agreement with the tobacco industry in 1998, tobacco advertising expenditures in 38
youth-oriented magazines amounted to $217 million in 2000.21
The Internet
An increasing number of Web sites try to entice children and teenagers to make direct sales. Teenagers account for more than $1 billion in e-commerce dollars,22 and the
industry spent $21.6 million on Internet banner ads alone in 2002.23 More than 100 commercial Web sites promote alcohol products.23 The content of these sites varies
widely, from little more than basic brand information to chat rooms, ―virtual bars,‖ drink recipes, games, contests, and merchandise catalogues. Many of these sites use slick
promotional techniques to target young people.23,24 In 1998, the Children's Online Privacy Protection Act (Pub L No. 105–277) was passed, which mandates that
commercial Web sites cannot knowingly collect information from children younger than 13 years. These sites are required to provide notice on the site to parents about their
collection, use, and disclosure of children's personal information and must obtain ―verifiable parental consent‖ before collecting, using, or disclosing this information.25
Previous SectionNext Section
MARKETING TECHNIQUES
Advertisers have traditionally used techniques to which children and adolescents are more susceptible, such as product placements in movies and TV shows,26 tie-ins
between movies and fast food restaurants,18 tie-ins between TV shows and toy action figures or other products,7 kids' clubs that are linked to popular shows, and celebrity
endorsements.27 Cellular phones are currently being marketed to 6- to 12-year-olds, with the potential for directing specific advertisers to children and preteens. Coca-Cola
reportedly paid Warner Bros. Studios $150 million for the global marketing rights to the movie ―Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone,‖ 28 and nearly 20% of fast food
restaurant ads now mention a toy premium in their ads.29 Certain tie-in products may be inappropriate for children (eg, action figures from the World Wrestling Federation
or an action doll that mutters profanities from an R-ratedAustin Powers movie).
Children's advertising protections will need to be updated for digital TV, which will be in place before 2010. In the near future, children watching a TV program will be able
to click an on-screen link and go to a Web site during the program.30 Interactive games and promotions on digital TV will have the ability to lure children away from regular
programming, encouraging them to spend a long time in an environment that lacks clear separation between content and advertising. Interactive technology may also allow
advertisers to collect vast amounts of information about children's viewing habits and preferences and target them on the basis of that information. 31
Previous SectionNext Section
SPECIFIC HEALTH-RELATED AREAS OF CONCERN
Tobacco Advertising
Tobacco manufacturers spend $30 million/day ($11.2 billion/year) on advertising and promotion. 32 Exposure to tobacco advertising may be a bigger risk factor than having
family members and peers who smoke33 and can even undermine the effect of strong parenting practices.34 Two unique and large longitudinal studies have found that
approximately one third of all adolescent smoking can be attributed to tobacco advertising and promotions. 35,36 In addition, more than 20 studies have found that children
exposed to cigarette ads or promotions are more likely to become smokers themselves. 37,38 Recent evidence has emerged that tobacco companies have specifically targeted
teenagers as young as 13 years of age.39
Alcohol Advertising
Alcohol manufacturers spend $5.7 billion/year on advertising and promotion.40 Young people typically view 2000 beer and wine commercials annually, 41 with most of the
ads concentrated in sports programming. During prime time, only 1 alcohol ad appears every 4 hours; yet, in sports programming, the frequency increases to 2.4 ads per
hour.42,43 Research has found that adolescent drinkers are more likely to have been exposed to alcohol advertising.44–50 Given that children begin making decisions about
alcohol at an early age—probably during grade school50—exposure to beer commercials represents a significant risk factor.46,50 Minority children may be at particular
risk.51
Drug Advertising
―Just Say No‖ as a message to teenagers about drugs seems doomed to failure given that $11 billion/year is spent on cigarette advertising, $5.7 billion/year is spent on
alcohol advertising, and nearly $4 billion/year is spent on prescription drug advertising. 52 Drug companies now spend more than twice as much on marketing as they do on
research and development. The top 10 drug companies made a total profit of $35.9 billion in 2002—more than the other 490 companies in the Fortune 500 combined. 53 Is
such advertising effective? A recent survey of physicians found that 92% of patients had requested an advertised drug. 54,55 In addition, children and teenagers may get the
message that there is a drug available to cure all ills and heal all pain, a drug for every occasion (including sexual intercourse).41
Food Advertising and Obesity
Advertisers spend more than $2.5 billion/year to promote restaurants and another $2 billion to promote food products.56 On TV, of the estimated 40 000 ads per year that
young people see, half are for food, especially sugared cereals and high-calorie snacks.29,57 Healthy foods are advertised less than 3% of the time; children rarely see a food
advertisement for broccoli.58Increasingly, fast food conglomerates are using toy tie-ins with major children's motion pictures to try to attract young people.
INTRODUCTION
Several European countries forbid or severely curtail advertising to children; in the United States, on the other hand, selling to children is simply ―business as usual.‖1 The
average young person views more than 3000 ads per day on television (TV), on the Internet, on billboards, and in magazines. 2 Increasingly, advertisers are targeting younger
and younger children in an effort to establish ―brand-name preference‖ at as early an age as possible.3 This targeting occurs because advertising is a $250 billion/year
industry with 900 000 brands to sell,2 and children and adolescents are attractive consumers: teenagers spend $155 billion/year, children younger than 12 years spend
another $25 billion, and both groups influence perhaps another $200 billion of their parents' spending per year. 4,5 Increasingly, advertisers are seeking to find new and
creative ways of targeting young consumers via the Internet, in schools, and even in bathroom stalls. 1
Previous SectionNext Section
THE EFFECTS OF ADVERTISING ON CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS
Research has shown that young children—younger than 8 years—are cognitively and psychologically defenseless against advertising. 6–9 They do not understand the notion
of intent to sell and frequently accept advertising claims at face value. 10 In fact, in the late 1970s, the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) held hearings, reviewed the existing
research, and came to the conclusion that it was unfair and deceptive to advertise to children younger than 6 years.11 What kept the FTC from banning such ads was that it
was thought to be impractical to implement such a ban. 11 However, some Western countries have done exactly that: Sweden and Norway forbid all advertising directed at
children younger than 12 years, Greece bans toy advertising until after 10 PM, and Denmark and Belgium severely restrict advertising aimed at children. 12
Previous SectionNext Section
ADVERTISING IN DIFFERENT MEDIA
Television
Children and adolescents view 400 00 ads per year on TV alone. 13 This occurs despite the fact that the Children's Television Act of 1990 (Pub L No. 101–437) limits
advertising on children's programming to 10.5 minutes/hour on weekends and 12 minutes/hour on weekdays. However, much of children's viewing occurs during prime
time, which features nearly 16 minutes/hour of advertising.14 A 30-second ad during the Super Bowl now costs $2.3 million but reaches 80 million people. 15
Movies
A 2000 FTC investigation found that violent movies, music, and video games have been intentionally marketed to children and adolescents.16 Although movie theaters have
agreed not to show trailers for R-rated movies before G-rated movies in response to the release of the FTC report, children continue to see advertising for violent media in
other venues. For instance, M-rated video games, which according to the gaming industry's own rating system are not recommended for children younger than 17 years, are
frequently advertised in movie theaters, video game magazines, and publications with high youth readership. 17 Also, movies targeted at children often prominently feature
brand-name products and fast food restaurants.18 In 1997–1998, 8 alcohol companies placed products in 233 motion pictures and in 1 episode or more of 181 TV series. 18
Print Media
According to the Consumer's Union,19 more than 160 magazines are now targeted at children. Young people see 45% more beer ads and 27% more ads for hard liquor in
teen magazines than adults do in their magazines.20 Despite the Master Settlement Agreement with the tobacco industry in 1998, tobacco advertising expenditures in 38
youth-oriented magazines amounted to $217 million in 2000.21

5. The Internet
An increasing number of Web sites try to entice children and teenagers to make direct sales. Teenagers account for more than $1 billion in e-commerce dollars,22 and the
industry spent $21.6 million on Internet banner ads alone in 2002.23 More than 100 commercial Web sites promote alcohol products.23 The content of these sites varies
widely, from little more than basic brand information to chat rooms, ―virtual bars,‖ drink recipes, games, contests, and merchandise catalogues. Many of these sites use slick
promotional techniques to target young people.23,24 In 1998, the Children's Online Privacy Protection Act (Pub L No. 105–277) was passed, which mandates that
commercial Web sites cannot knowingly collect information from children younger than 13 years. These sites are required to provide notice on the site to parents about their
collection, use, and disclosure of children's personal information and must obtain ―verifiable parental consent‖ before collecting, using, or disclosing this information.25
Previous SectionNext Section
MARKETING TECHNIQUES
Advertisers have traditionally used techniques to which children and adolescents are more susceptible, such as product placements in movies and TV shows,26 tie-ins
between movies and fast food restaurants,18 tie-ins between TV shows and toy action figures or other products,7 kids' clubs that are linked to popular shows, and celebrity
endorsements.27 Cellular phones are currently being marketed to 6- to 12-year-olds, with the potential for directing specific advertisers to children and preteens. Coca-Cola
reportedly paid Warner Bros. Studios $150 million for the global marketing rights to the movie ―Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone,‖28 and nearly 20% of fast food
restaurant ads now mention a toy premium in their ads.29 Certain tie-in products may be inappropriate for children (eg, action figures from the World Wrestling Federation
or an action doll that mutters profanities from an R-ratedAustin Powers movie).
Children's advertising protections will need to be updated for digital TV, which will be in place before 2010. In the near future, children watching a TV program will be able
to click an on-screen link and go to a Web site during the program.30 Interactive games and promotions on digital TV will have the ability to lure children away from regular
programming, encouraging them to spend a long time in an environment that lacks clear separation between content and advertising. Interactive technology may also allow
advertisers to collect vast amounts of information about children's viewing habits and preferences and target them on the basis of that information. 31
Previous SectionNext Section
SPECIFIC HEALTH-RELATED AREAS OF CONCERN
Tobacco Advertising
Tobacco manufacturers spend $30 million/day ($11.2 billion/year) on advertising and promotion. 32 Exposure to tobacco advertising may be a bigger risk factor than having
family members and peers who smoke33 and can even undermine the effect of strong parenting practices.34 Two unique and large longitudinal studies have found that
approximately one third of all adolescent smoking can be attributed to tobacco advertising and promotions. 35,36 In addition, more than 20 studies have found that children
exposed to cigarette ads or promotions are more likely to become smokers themselves. 37,38 Recent evidence has emerged that tobacco companies have specifically targeted
teenagers as young as 13 years of age.39
Alcohol Advertising
Alcohol manufacturers spend $5.7 billion/year on advertising and promotion.40 Young people typically view 2000 beer and wine commercials annually, 41 with most of the
ads concentrated in sports programming. During prime time, only 1 alcohol ad appears every 4 hours; yet, in sports programming, the frequency increases to 2.4 ads per
hour.42,43 Research has found that adolescent drinkers are more likely to have been exposed to alcohol advertising.44–50 Given that children begin making decisions about
alcohol at an early age—probably during grade school50—exposure to beer commercials represents a significant risk factor.46,50 Minority children may be at particular
risk.51
Drug Advertising
―Just Say No‖ as a message to teenagers about drugs seems doomed to failure given that $11 billion/year is spent on cigarette advertising, $5.7 billion/year is spent on
alcohol advertising, and nearly $4 billion/year is spent on prescription drug advertising. 52 Drug companies now spend more than twice as much on marketing as they do on
research and development. The top 10 drug companies made a total profit of $35.9 billion in 2002—more than the other 490 companies in the Fortune 500 combined. 53 Is
such advertising effective? A recent survey of physicians found that 92% of patients had requested an advertised drug. 54,55 In addition, children and teenagers may get the
message that there is a drug available to cure all ills and heal all pain, a drug for every occasion (including sexual intercourse).41
Food Advertising and Obesity
Advertisers spend more than $2.5 billion/year to promote restaurants and another $2 billion to promote food products.56 On TV, of the estimated 40 000 ads per year that
young people see, half are for food, especially sugared cereals and high-calorie snacks.29,57 Healthy foods are advertised less than 3% of the time; children rarely see a food
advertisement for broccoli.58Increasingly, fast food conglomerates are using toy tie-ins with major children's motion pictures to try to attract young people.59 Nearly 20% of
fast food ads now mention a toy premium in their commercials.29 Several studies document that young children request more junk food (defined as foods with high-caloric
density but very low nutrient density) after viewing commercials.60–63 In 1 study, the amount of TV viewed per week correlated with requests for specific foods and with
caloric intake.61 At the same time, advertising healthy foods has been shown to increase wholesome eating in children as young as 3 to 6 years of age.64
Sex in Advertising
Sex is used in commercials to sell everything from beer to shampoo to cars. 65New research is showing that teenagers' exposure to sexual content in the media may be
responsible for earlier onset of sexual intercourse or other sexual activities.66,67 What is increasingly apparent is the discrepancy between the abundance of advertising of
products for erectile dysfunction (ED) (between January and October, 2004, drug companies spent $343 million advertising Viagra, Levitra, and Cialis)68 and the lack of
advertising for birth control products or emergency contraceptives on the major TV networks. This is despite the fact that 2 national polls have found that a majority of
Americans favor the advertising of birth control on TV.69,70 Ads for ED drugs give children and teens inappropriate messages about sex and sexuality at a time when they
are not being taught well in school sex education programs. 71,72 Research has definitively found that giving teenagers increased access to birth control through advertising
does not make them sexually active at a younger age.73–80
American advertising also frequently uses female models who are anorectic in appearance and, thus, may contribute to the development of a distorted body self-image and
abnormal eating behaviors in young girls.79,81,82
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ADVERTISING IN SCHOOLS
Advertisers have slowly but steadily infiltrated school systems around the country. The ―3 Rs‖ have now become the ―4 Rs,‖ with the fourth R being ―retail.‖83,84 Ads are
now appearing on school buses, in gymnasiums, on book covers, and even in bathroom stalls. 85 More than 200 school districts nationwide have signed exclusive contracts
with soft drink companies.86These agreements specify the number and placement of soda-vending machines, which is ironic given that schools risk losing federal subsidies
for their free breakfast and lunch programs if they serve soda in their cafeterias. In addition, there are more than 4500 Pizza Hut chains and 3000 Taco Bell chains in school
cafeterias around the country.87
There is some good news, however. In May, 2006, the nation's largest beverage distributors agreed to halt nearly all sales of sodas to public schools and sell only water,
unsweetened juice, and low-fat milk in elementary and middle schools. Diet sodas would be sold only in high schools.88
School advertising also appears under the guise of educational TV: Channel One. Currently available in 12 000 schools, Channel One consists of 10 minutes of current-
events programming and 2 minutes of commercials. Advertisers pay $200 000 for advertising time and the opportunity to target 40% of the nation's teenagers for 30
seconds.89 According to a recent government report, Channel One now plays in 25% of the nation's middle and high schools 81 and generates profits estimated at $100
million annually.89
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CONCLUSIONS
Clearly, advertising represents ―big business‖ in the United States and can have a significant effect on young people. Unlike free speech, commercial speech does not enjoy
the same protections under the First Amendment of the Constitution.90 Advertisements can be restricted or even banned if there is a significant public health risk. Cigarette
advertising and alcohol advertising would seem to fall squarely into this category, and ads for junk food could easily be restricted. 91
One solution that is noncontroversial and would be easy to implement is to educate children and teenagers about the effects of advertising—media literacy. Curricula have
been developed that teach young people to become critical viewers of media in all of its forms, including advertising. 92–94 Media education seems to be protective in
mitigating harmful effects of media, including the effects of cigarette, alcohol, and food advertising