Race and Ethnicity – Part II SOCY 3720-E01 Global Perspect.docx

Race and Ethnicity – Part II
SOCY 3720-E01 Global Perspectives on Social Issues
Summer 2019
Part II:
• For the second part of our lecture we will be discussing these
main academic notions:
– Minority Interaction
• Genocide
• Segregation
• Assimilation
• Pluralism
• Prejudice and Bigotry Approaches
• Prejudice and Bigotry in Social Structures.
• Prejudice and Bigotry and their Cultural Factors:
rms
• Prejudice and Bigotry in the Individual:
– Aggression

Patterns of Majority - Minority Interaction
• There are many different ways that majority and minority
populations interact. These interactions can
also range from positive to negative and from peaceful to
deadly.
• When studying these patterns, sociologists use four models:
• Genocide: today this term is used to describe “the deliberate,
systematic killing of an entire people or
nation.” (Schaefer, 2002).
• Genocide is murder and it has occurred again and again in
human history. It has been tolerated and
sometimes even encouraged by governments and their people.
• There have been many instances of genocide throughout the
ages and some of the most infamous
examples are:
• Beginning in 1500, the Spanish, Portuguese, English, French,

and Dutch forcefully colonized North and
South America, resulting in the deaths of thousands of native
people. (Although most native people fell
victim to diseases brought by Europeans to which they had no
natural defenses, many were also killed.)
• Turkish authorities killing about one million Armenians in
1915.
• We often hear this term when discussing the Holocaust as
Adolf Hitler and Nazi Germany exterminated
about 6 million European Jews along with Homosexual
individuals and Romani people.
• We have our own history of genocide in the United States in
relation to American Indians.
• Jozef Stalin is believed to have killed approximately 7 million
people.
• The more recent genocides in Rwanda and in Darfur.
• Segregation: it refers to “the physical separation of two groups
in residence, workplace, and social
functions. Generally, the dominant group imposes segregation
on a subordinate group.” (Schaefer,
2002).
• We have seen examples of segregation right here in the United
States not only though the institution of

slavery, but legal segregation as well.
• We have also seen the government-imposed racial segregation
in South Africa during apartheid.
• There are two specific types of segregation:
• De Jure segregation: derives from the Latin “by law,” this type
of segregation is required by law.
• De Facto segregation: derives from the Latin “in fact,” this
type of segregation results from “housing
patterns, economic inequalities, gerrymandered school districts,
and the departure of middle-class
families from communities with increasing rates of minority
households and poor or mediocre schools.”
(Eitzen & Zinn, 2006).
• Assimilation: it is “the process by which a subordinate
individual or group takes on the characteristics of
the dominant group and is eventually accepted as part of that
group.” (Schaefer, 2002).
• Minorities can (and sometimes are expected to) assimilate and
when doing so they may change their
own customs, language, or other important cultural aspects as
well.
• A very well-known notion in relation to assimilation is the
older ‘Melting Pot’ approach, now replaced

by the more inclusive ‘salad bowl’ approach. The latter
ensuring that cultural, ethnic, and other
differences are celebrated or at least preserved instead of being
blended into one similar lifestyle.
• A common example is when majority groups ‘force’ members
from a minority group to learn a language
other than their native one.
• Pluralism: according to Schaefer it “implies that various
groups in a society have mutual respect for one
another’s culture, a respect that allows minorities to express
their own culture without suffering
prejudice or hostility.” (Schaefer, 2002).
• This pattern also includes the notion of a somewhat equal
standing. No disadvantage should exist for a
minority group.
• In many countries pluralism can be seen through the value that
all people have equal standing under the
law.
Prejudice and Bigotry
• These are the Prejudice and Bigotry Approaches we will
review:

• Prejudice and Bigotry in Social Structures.
• Social Norms
• Stereotyping
• Frustration – Aggression
• Projection
• Prejudice and Bigotry in Social Structures:
• Bigot is a very influential term usually referring to an
individual intolerant to others or towards those
with a different opinion or point of view.
• Bigotry is not necessarily intolerance, it is more unreasonable
intolerance.
• As Kornblum and Julian point out, “in many societies the
demand for more than the available supply of
certain goods gives rise to a competitive struggle, which usually
results in the dominance of one group
and the subordination of others.
• Even if the initial competition is for economic goods, the
contest is ultimately a struggle for power and,
hence, a political process.
• Once established, political dominance is likely to be
reinforced by economic exploitation. Slavery and

serfdom are the most obvious forms of exploitation.
• Ex. Migrant farm workers, undocumented immigrants, and
unorganized clerical and service workers.”
(Kornblum & Julian, 2004)
• Discrimination can take different forms within our social
structures.
• Some forms may be practical like members of the subordinate
group being legally prevented from
owning property or voting or being terrorized into submission.
• Some forms of discrimination can be symbolic, for example,
when African Americans were refused
service in many different establishments before and during the
Civil Rights Movement.
• All forms are intended consciously or unconsciously, at
keeping the subordinate people subjugated.
(Kornblum & Julian, 2004)
• Cultural factors have their place and can also influence
prejudice and bigotry in a society. The first
cultural factor relates to social norms.

• A social norm is “a commonly accepted standard that specifies
the kind of behavior that is appropriate
in a given situation. Even though social norms do not
necessarily tells us why prejudice and
discrimination begin, they do help explain how and why they
are perpetuated. Social norms are learned
in a process that begins almost at birth.” (Kornblum & Julian,
2004)
• Another cultural factor is stereotyping.
• This is another source of prejudice and discrimination because
when we stereotype “we are attributing a
fixed and usually unfavorable or inaccurate conception to a
category of people.
• Whereas social norms are concerned primarily with behavior
and only indirectly with attitudes,
stereotyping, as we previously studied, is basically a matter of
attitude.” (Kornblum & Julian, 2004)
• The first factor is frustration-aggression.
• “At one time or another most human beings feel frustrated.
They want something, but because of events
or other people they cannot get it.
• This can lead to anger and to aggression, which may be

expressed in many several ways.
• The most obvious way is to strike at the source of the
frustration, but often this is impossible; frustrated
individuals do not know the source or are subjectively unable to
recognize it or are in a position in
which they cannot risk such an action.” (Kornblum & Julian,
2004)
• The aggression is usually directed at a safer, easier, and more
convenient target, one comparable to the
real source of the frustration.
• This is done by displacing this aggression onto a scapegoat.
• A clear example of this is the Vincent Chin case here in the
United States. Vincent Chin, a Chinese-
American individual was beaten to death by two White
autoworkers who blamed the Japanese and
Japanese companies for being laid off from work. They were
frustrated and they used Vincent Chin as a
scapegoat and beat him to death with a baseball bat. .
• Feel free to watch the documentary Vincent Who? about this
specific case.
• Another source of prejudice and discrimination at an
individual level is projection.
• “Many people have personal traits that they consider

undesirable. They wish to rid themselves of those
traits, but they cannot always do it directly, wither because they
find the effort too difficult or because
they are unable to admit to themselves that they possess those
traits.
• They may relieve their tension by attributing the unwanted
traits to others, often members of another
group. This makes it possible for them to reject and condemn
the traits without rejecting and
condemning themselves. Since the emotional pressure
underlying projection can be very intense, it is
difficult to counter them with rational arguments.” (Kornblum
& Julian, 2004)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QKSq8iuNHsk
• Final Thoughts
• I would recommend that all of you take a moment to reflect
about this topic outside of a graded
academic environment and internalize the main notions
presented in these past two lectures. Read this
information again, not as a student, but as a global citizen in
order to grasp where and how this topic
affects us as a global community and in ways beyond the
borders of this country.

and ethnic issues?
s here? “You say tomato,
I say tomatoe?”
Race and Ethnicity - Part I
SOCY 3720-E01 Global Perspectives on Social Issues
Summer 2019
• Introduction
• For this first part of our lecture we will be discussing these
main points:
- Definitions

Race and Ethnicity Today
• So it is the year 2019 and many people constantly argue the
importance and validity of many claims
associated with race and ethnicity in this and many other
countries.
• Many of us think that race and ethnicity does not matter
anymore.
• That this may not be a global issue.
• That it carries no international ramifications.
• That there may not be any majority – minority interaction.
• That it is a “thing” of the past.
• We hear modern comments such as:
• “I do not see race”
• “I do not see skin color”
• “I do not see nationality”
• “We respect all cultures”
• “Race makes no difference to me”
• “This is no longer a racist society”
• “Racism is no longer an issue”
• “I do not believe in stereotypes nor do I stereotype people”
• “I am not prejudiced”
• “I never discriminate against anybody”
• “It makes no difference to me ____________.”
• So…“We respect all cultures” correct?

• In Western societies, do we see Africa as a country instead of
a continent with 54, yes, 54 countries in
it?
• Therefore, are all Africans the same?
• Are Egyptians different in nationality, culture, religion,
customs, language, and in some cases even
racial categories from South Africans?
• Do they speak Spanish in Equatorial Guinea? (W & C African
nation, Spanish, French & Portuguese are
the official languages)
• Do they speak French in Djibouti, Comoros, Seychelles,
Benin, Burkina Faso, D.R. Congo, Gabon,
Guinea, Ivory Coast, Mali, Niger, Rep of Congo, Senegal, Chad,
Cameroon, and Togo?
• “We do not see race”
• “We do not see skin color”
• “We do not see nationality”
• Who do we see?
• Sir Sidney Poitier

• He is a Bahamian-American (born in Miami).
• But in different countries he is “Black.” In the U.S., he can be
considered African American.
• His native language is English, but the Bahamas is located in
the Caribbean so he is technically of Latin
American descent.
• So is he a Latino who is Black and speaks English?
• Why is he a “Sir”?
• Who do we see?
• Actress, producer, director, humanitarian/activist, and fashion
model: Charlize Theron
• Born in Benoni, South Africa.
• First language is Afrikaans, not English.
• Her ancestry includes French, German, and Dutch, without a
British trace.
• Her mother shot and killed her alcoholic father in 1991 after
an attack.
• We do not see race or nationality anymore right?

• Are they American? Why or why not? What is an “American?”
• “We no longer stereotype people” “No more prejudices
either” Who do you see?
• “We no longer believe in stereotypes”
• No prejudices and no stereotypes.
• Stephanie Wilson
- Active astronaut.
- Second African American woman to go into space.
- Harvard graduate (1988)
- M.A. in Aerospace Engineering (University of Texas, 1992)
- Honorary Doctorate of Science from Williams College (2011)
- Two-time Mission Specialist on three shuttle missions.
- Avid stamp collector.
- Skiing enthusiast.
- Worked two years for the former Martin Marietta Astronautics
Group in Denver, Colorado (1988-90).
• Chang An-Lo “White Wolf”
- Former/Current Chinese Bamboo Union gang leader.

- Triads member.
- Obtained college degrees from U.S. universities.
- Served a prison sentenced in the U.S.
- Assassinated one Taiwanese-American journalist.
- Arrested by Taiwanese authorities in 2013, out on bail (NT$ 1
million, US$ 33,000).
• Gender & Sexuality
• No more stereotypes?
• No more discrimination?
• Gender & Sexuality
• No more stereotypes?
• No more discrimination?
• Race & Ethnicity Today
Race & Ethnicity
• Race:
• “The term race distinguishes one population of an animal
species (including human) from another of the

same subspecies.
• Human racial categories are based on obvious visible traits
(especially skin color, facial features and hair
texture), genes and self-identification.
• Conceptions of race and racial groupings vary by culture and
over time, and are often controversial, for
scientific reasons, as well as because of their impact on social
identity and identity politics” (Manning,
2007).
• Some scientists consider race to be a social construct while
others believe it has genetic basis.
• The two keywords for this term are: obvious and physical.
What is obvious? Hair color? The color of
your eyes? To whom are these differences obvious?
• Thus why race can be seen as a social construct, since
different societies define what they consider to be
obvious.
• Ethnicity (Schaefer, 2002):
• Ethnicity applies to a human population whose members
identify with each other. This identification
factor is usually based on a common ancestry.

• Recognition by others as a separate ethnic group and the
unique labeling or naming for each group also
contribute to defining it.
• Ethnic groups also include an share certain common cultural,
behavioral, linguistic, ritualistic or
religious traits.
• In this sense, an ethnic group is also a cultural community.
• The keywords for this term are: national origin and/or
distinctive cultural patterns.
• Remember that: the designation of a racial group emphasizes
physical differences as opposed to ethnic
groups which emphasize cultural distinctions.
• Why do we use these terms interchangeably?
• This is due to the fact that a modern and macrosociological
perspective on race denotes that: race, as a
concept, includes physical characteristics, culture, geography,
religion, language, and nationality of an
individual or specific group.
Racism, Prejudice, and Discrimination
• Racism, prejudice, and discrimination can be considered a
“root problem” in this and any other society
because it also affects the way we discuss:

war
• Prejudice:
• Prejudice includes a pre-judgment, the tendency to decide in
advance how to think about a situation, an
event, an object, or an individual.
• It usually involves an emotional investment that can strongly
resist change.
• It is a categorical and/or predetermined thought that forms an
attitude.
• In a negative way, it also means thinking ill of others without
sufficient warrant.

• Racism, Prejudice, and Discrimination
• A prejudice is an attitude towards members of other groups,
resulting in a negative evaluation of them
on the basis of group membership. (Ex. Racial groups,
politicians, environmentalists, ex-convicts,
rappers, headbangers)
• Key elements:
1) Attitude (negative)
2) Attitude based on group membership
3) Pre-judgment
4) The thought
• Discrimination:
• We discriminate when we make a distinction.
• It can also be seen as a negative or positive behavior toward a
person based on negative or positive
attitudes anyone can hold in relation to the group that individual
belongs to.
• Formally or informally classifying people into different
groups.
• Treating one group of people less well than another on such
grounds as their race (racism), gender

(sexism), religion (religious discrimination), physical
characteristics, ethnic background, national origin,
disability, sexual orientation, preference or behavior, age, or
political views.
• Key elements:
1) To make a (negative) distinction
2) Unfair treatment
3) The action
• Racism:
• Racism includes: a negative behavior, in word or action,
toward any individual based on his/her race.
• Racism can also be seen as an ideology of racial hegemony,
domination, or exploitation. It can also
include a belief that another race(s) are “inferior” in different
ways.
• Ex. Colonial Dutch, British, as well as Colonial Whites in the
U.S., Nazi Germans, etc.
• Racism and racist ideologies can derive from one person, from
one group, one segment of the population

or it can be included into different social systems and
institutions. (Ex. social structures, laws).
• Racism can refer to personal or social beliefs, practices, and
different institutions that discriminate
against people based on their perceived or attributed race.
• In some instances the term can be used to describe the belief
that race is the primary determinant of
individual, group, or overall human capacities.
Minority Groups: Types and Characteristics
• Minority Groups
• From a sociological perspective, minorities are those that do
not receive the same treatment as other
groups in society.
• In other words, a minority group “is a subordinate group
whose members have significantly less control
or power over their own lives than do the members of a
dominant or majority group” (Schaefer, 2002).
• Specific examples: Puerto Ricans, Guamanians, American
Samoans in the United States, Uyghurs in
China, Dalits in India, and Roma people in Europe to name a
few.
• As Schaefer (2002) points out, being superior in numbers does

not guarantee a group’s control over its
own destiny nor assures it of majority status.
• For example, Whites are a minority within the world’s
population. Asians, Arabs, Africans, and
Hispanics represent a majority of the world’s population.
• Characteristics of Minority Groups
• Sociologically speaking, there are FIVE main characteristics
of a minority group (Wagley & Harris,
1958):
1) Unequal treatment.
2) Distinguishing physical or cultural traits.
3) Involuntary membership.
4) Awareness of subordination.
5) Endogamy.
• Characteristics of Minority Groups

• Unequal Treatment:
• Schaefer (2002) explains that members of a minority group
experience unequal treatment and have less
power over their lives than members of a dominant group have
over their own lives.
• Prejudice, discrimination, and extermination can create this
social inequality.
• Distinguishing physical or cultural traits:
• Members of a minority group share physical or cultural
characteristics that distinguish them from the
dominant group, such as skin color, religion, tribal affiliation,
or language, among many others.
• Different societies have their own standards for determining
which characteristics are most important in
defining dominant and minority groups.
• For example, height, aesthetics, skin color within the same
group, etc (Schaefer, 2002).
• Involuntary membership:
• Membership in either a dominant or a minority group is
involuntary. People are simply born into the
group.
• For example, (technically) a person cannot choose to be

African-American, Hispanic, White, etc
(Schaefer, 2002).
• Awareness of subordination:
• “Minority group members have a strong sense of group
solidarity.
• Individuals make distinctions between members of their own
group (the in-group) and everyone else
(the out-group).
• When a group is the object of long-term prejudice and
discrimination, the feeling of ‘us versus them’
can and often becomes extremely intense” (Schaefer, 2002).
• For example, Israelis, Jewish people, African-
Americans/American Indians v. Whites in the U.S., the
Hmong people from East and Southeast Asia.
• Endogamy (or in-group marriage): “members of a minority
generally marry others from the same
group.
• Some members of a dominant group are often unwilling to join
a supposedly “inferior” minority by
marrying one of its members.

• In addition, the minority group’s sense of solidarity
encourages marriage within the group and
discourages the opposite” (Schaefer, 2002).
• Exogamy is the opposite.
• Types of Minority Groups
• Ethnic Groups:
• Groups that share cultural features, such as language, religion,
national origin, dietary practices, and a
common history, and who regard themselves as a distinct group.
• For example, ethnic groups in the U.S. include Hispanics or
Latinos, including Mexican-Americans
(Chicanos), Puerto Ricans, Cubans, and other Latin Americans
as well.
• The same breakdown applies to American Indians and their
different Nations. (i.e., Sioux, Iroquois,
Navajo, Cherokee, Cheyenne, etc) (Schaefer, 2002).
• Asians and Asian Americans also share the same breakdown
plus there is also a nationality component
to their ethnicity. (i.e., Japanese-Americans, Chinese-
Americans, Hmong, Vietnamese-Americans, etc).
• Religious Groups:
• As Schaefer (2002) explains, association with a religion other

than the dominant faith is another basis
for minority group status.
• For example, in the U.S., Protestants, as a group, outnumber
members of all other religions.
• Roman Catholics form the largest minority religion.
• Other religious minorities include groups such as Mormons,
Pagans, Atheists, Agnostics, the Amish,
Muslims, and Buddhists.
• Globally speaking, Christians form the majority with 31% of
the population being Christian, followed
by 24% being Muslim, the ‘unaffiliated’ group in third place
with 16% of the population followed in
fourth place by 15% of the population being Hindu (Pew
Research Center, 2017).
• Atheists and Agnostics, are also discriminated against and are
considered a religiously-oriented
minority.
• Jewish people are usually excluded from this category and
placed among ethnic groups; culture is a
more defining trait for Jewish people worldwide than is
religious dogma (Schaefer, 2002).

• Types of Minority Groups (Example)
• Meet Consuelo:
• At the same time, in a more comprehensive example of all
types of minority groups we may find an
older, short, aesthetically unpleasant, Black, handicapped,
Atheist, Hispanic single mother,
Lesbian, born in Cuba with a legal status of political refugee.
• Not only would this woman almost fill the Affirmative Action
quota for an entire company or institution
in many countries, but simply imagine the prejudice and
discrimination factors that she would have to
overcome in this and many other societies.
Terminology
• Ethnocentrism
• Ethnocentrism, coined by William Graham Sumner is the
viewpoint that one’s ethnic group is the
center of everything, against which all other groups are judged.
• “The tendency to assume that one’s culture and way of life are
superior to all others” (Schaefer, 2002).
• Afrocentrism or the Afrocentric Perspective is the belief or

the emphasis that African cultures have
been the source of cultural and intellectual achievements
permeating the behavior of ‘Blacks’ in this
and many other countries.
• Americentrism or American ethnocentrism refers to those
individuals from the United States who can
be ethnocentric or culturally biased while thinking that
‘American’ values are of higher worth than
others.
• Judeocentrism, Semitism, Jewish ethnocentrism (Judeo-
centric, etc.) are new political terms used by
those who view Zionism as Jewish or Zionist ethnocentrism.
• It refers and applies to those Jewish individuals who can
consider their culture and values to be superior
to all others.
• Eurocentrism includes the ideology and/or practice of
believing in the inherent superiority of European
(or Western) theories and practices when compared or applied
to other cultures.
• It also assumes that Western concepts are universal.
• Western ideals usually include individualism, human rights,
secular authority and law, and the

separation of religion and state.
• Androcentrism, Gynocentrism, and Anthropocentrism
• Androcentrism includes the belief and/or action of prioritizing
male human beings or the masculine
point of view at the center of a society or a culture (sometimes
including its history).
• Gynocentrism includes the belief and/or action of prioritizing
female human beings or the femenine
point of view at the center of a society or a culture (sometimes
including its history).
• Anthropocentrism is the belief or practice of placing human
beings at the center of the universe. It
sometimes includes the notion that the universe was created for
us, that we are the reason why the
universe exists.
• Cultural Bias
• Cultural bias includes viewing, judging, and understanding
social and/or cultural aspects from one’s
own culture and social values.
• For example: when we usually hear the phrase “they drive on
the wrong side of the road” as it is applied

to British culture. It is certainly not the “wrong” side to them.
• Cultural Imperialism
• Cultural imperialism is considered to be the promotion, and
sometimes, the forced adoption of one
culture and different cultural aspects onto another.
• For example: One important example of cultural imperialism
was when the British Empire decided to
eradicated the use of Latin in order to be substituted with the
general use of English.
• Think of the different countries that still live under British
cultural influence.
• Xenophobia
• Xenophobia: Fear (phobia) of strangers (xeno) and of the
unknown.
• Both racism and homophobia can sometimes be reduced to
xenophobia.
• It often involves the dislike of foreigners.
• Often a dislike of individuals from a particular nation.
• Anti-Semitism
• Anti-Semitism, can be prejudice and/or discrimination towards
Jewish people.
• It can range from attitudes and actions towards Jewish people

at an individual level or at the group level
in institutionalized ways.
• Some forms of anti-Semitism include:
-Semitism
-Semitism
-Economic Anti-Semitism
• Political Correctness
• Political correctness is language usually applied to avoid
offense or stereotyping. It is intended to deter
and even eradicate language previously used to discriminate or
subjugate any specific individual or
group.
• Another purpose is to prevent the exclusion individuals based
on differences or handicaps.
• A major purpose behind politically correct language is to
bring peoples’ unconscious biases into
awareness in order to recognize factors/behaviors different
people might find offensive.
• White Guilt
• White guilt refers to the feeling of guilt by White or
Caucasian individuals when including past or

present unjust actions against other racial/ethnic minorities.
• Although many White people do not necessarily have personal
guilt over past oppression of other races
they often choose to distance themselves from the crimes of
their ancestors and can feel a sense of
collective guilt.
• Whites can also become very anxious to avoid being seen as
racist.
• Racial Profiling
• Racial profiling is the use of race as a consideration in suspect
profiling or other law enforcement
practices.
• The debate is divided on whether race should be:
1) Considered when statistically significant, or
2) Never considered for any reason.
• Including race as a factor in suspect profiling is usually
supported by the law enforcement community.
Profiling based on different characteristics is a universal police
tool.
• Affirmative Action
• Affirmative action is “the positive effort to recruit
subordinate-group members including women for

jobs, promotions, and educational opportunities.” (Schaefer,
2002)
• This may consist of preferential access to education,
employment, health care, or social welfare.
• Some may argue that affirmative action is still needed, others
argue that is no longer needed and that
‘discrimination is discrimination’ regardless of being positive
discrimination.
• Others argue that affirmative action is program designed to
correct a history of discrimination against
minorities.
• Others object to the use of racial quotas and gender quotas in
affirmative action.

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