Bachelor In Architecture Final year Thesis Report

1. A
THESIS PROJECT REPORT
On
“PROPOSED CONSTRUCTION OF CRICKET STADIUM FOR
EASTERN RAILWAY AT BEHALA, KOLKATA, W.B.”
This thesis is submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of
Bachelor of Architecture
in
UP Technical University, Lucknow
Session (2006-2011)
By:
Shyam Sunder Singh
B.Arch-10th Semester
Roll No. 0608881041
APEEJAY School of Architecture and Planning
Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh
www. apeejay.edu/architecture
1

2. DECLARATION
I Shyam Sunder Singh, hereby declare that the Thesis Project report on “PROPOSED CONSTRUCTION
OF CRICKET STADIUM FOR EASTERN RAILWAY AT BEHALA, KOLKATA, W.B.”
for the fulfillment for the Tenth Semester of Bachelor of Architecture course of APEEJAY School of
Architecture & Planning India is a record of my own work.
It is the original work done by me and the information provided in the study is authenticated to the best of my
knowledge.
The matter embodied in this report has not been submitted for the award of any other degree or diploma.
Shyam Sunder Singh
B.Arch-10th Semester
Roll No. 0608881041
2

3. CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Shri Shyam Sunder Singh has been allotted the Thesis topic “PROPOSED
CONSTRUCTION OF CRICKET STADIUM FOR EASTERN RAILWAY AT BEHALA, KOLKATA,
W.B.” for the fulfillment for the Tenth Semester of Bachelor of Architecture course of APEEJAY School
of Architecture & Planning India is a record of his own work.
This is further certified that he has completed this project work in one semester under my guidance and
supervision.
THESIS GUIDE: SUBMITTED BY:
Prof. M.N. Khullar Shyam Sunder Singh
B.Arch-10th Semester
Roll No. 0608881041
This Thesis Project Report has been accepted
External Examiner – 1 -----------------
External Examiner – 2 -----------------
Prof. Deval Rajwanshi
Head Department of Architecture
A.I.T.SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE & PLANNING
3

4. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
4

5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT …………………………………………………………………….
Before I begin I would like to express my gratitude for all those who, knowingly or unknowingly, directly or
indirectly helped in this report. The researchers must acknowledge the role of God in their lives, as without his
perennial guidance and protection, the task at hand would not have been complete. Any academic assignment
or venture cannot be accomplished without the able guidance of the teachers. I am extremely happy to mention
my special thanks to Prof. M.N.Khullar, my guide without whom this project work would not be realized. and
our Training team for their meaningful guidance encouragement and supervision.
My sincere gratefulness to all the participants in my research – the parents who opened up their homes and
lives to my numerous questions and curious observations, without their physical or moral support this report
would not have been a success story. I would like to thank all friends, seniors………Nirbhay shukla ,
Shashank Misra , Bhupender Sharma , Vishal Narayan , Balbir Sharma , Vikas , Abdulla , Rajiv & countless
peoples for the sprit and commitment with which they helped with me on this report.
Concentration, dedication, hard work and application are essential but not the only factors to achieve the
desired goals. These must be supplemented by guidance and assistance of people to make it a success.
Many people have given their experience, ideas and invaluable time to enable me to Complete this project
report. The coaches who tolerated my ignorance and lack of cricketing ability, the administrators of the
cricketing scene, and the children with whom I played cricket.
With and who were all constant sources of joy and delight.
I am really thankful to these persons for making my project so live and understandable to me and making me
aware of many things which would help me in my future. I am Highly indebted to these persons and my
sincere thanks goes to them only.
I would also like to thank all the managers of the various Departments that I visited for helping me gain the
required knowledge and giving me time from their busy schedules.
In the end I would like to thank APEEJAY School of Architecture & Planning , for Providing me with the
opportunity to work on This Project.
Shyam Sunder Singh
5

6. INTRODUCTION
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
The project presented here is a Cricket Stadium located on the campus of Eastern Railway in Behala, Kolkata ,
W.B. holding the capacity of 25000 spectators.
This stadium is a vehicle for exploring and expressing my ideas about the role of structure in architecture, and
about an architect’s realm of control in a building project. The typology of a stadium allows for a limited
number of functional requirements while, at the same time, allowing for, if not demanding, a creative structural
solution.
A stadium is first and foremost the staging ground for spectacles for masses of people. However, this utilitarian
perspective is limited and it belies the bigger implications of a stadium’s effects on the individual visitor and
on the community it serves. The influence of a stadium is tremendous in its immediate surroundings, and, in
some cases, can be felt around the world.
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7. AIM
Plan and Design a Cricket Stadium of
International Standard for the people
of KOLKATA
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8. TABLE OF CONTENTS………………………………………………………………..
S.NO. CHAPTERS PAGE NO.
1. GLIMPSE OF PROJECT
2. AIMS & OBJECTIVES
3. REQUIREMENT OF PROJECT
4. BRIEF OF SITE
1. SITE ANALYSIS
5. DESIGN CONCEPTS
1. DATA COLLECTION
2. CLIMATE RESPONSE
3. VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE OF KOLKATA
6. ALL ABOUT THE CRICKET STADIUM
1. ICC STANDARD DIMENSIONS
2. GEOMETRICAL FORM OF GROUND
7. ROOF OF STADIA
8. BUILDING SERVICES
9. S.W.O.T ANALYSIS
10. STADIUM DESIGN ELEMENTS
11. THE LANDSCAPE
12. DESIGN OUTPUT
13. CONCLUSION
14. REFERENCES
8

9. GLIMPSE OF PROJECT
9

10. GLIMPSE OF PROJECT……………………………………………………………………
Railway minister Mamata Banerjee will lay the foundation stone of a STADIUM AT BEHALA on Thursday.
SATYAJIT RAY STADIUM, as it will be called, will be the second such sporting venue in the city after
Netaji Indoor Stadium.
"The stadium will come up on James Long Sarani, to the Eastern Railway's cricket ground. The stadium will
have a following enlisted requirements below. It will accommodate nearly 25,000 spectators and is expected to
cost around Rs 157 crore to build," said a senior official.
"The stadium will provide a venue to sportspersons from Kolkata and the surroundings.
As far as financial viability is concerned, the project will be aided by the Eastern Railway and will be getting
revenues from national/ international sports meets, tournaments and concerts.
Special efforts are required for the components of the project like Media lounge, Broadcasting facility, V.I.P.
seats, Dressing Room, Commentary box, water supply, Flood lighting etc.
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11. AIMS & OBJECTIVES
11

12. AIMS & OBJECTIVES…………………………………………………………………………………
 To promote and enhance prospects of sports.
 To provide for all citizens a variety of enjoyable leisure opportunities those are accessible safe,
physically attractive and uncrowned.
 To cater national and international meet.
 To train young people in various disciplines of sports.
 To add up such ancillary facilities so as to earn more and more revenue therefore making sports
complex more financially feasible.
 To enhance a sense of national cohesion and common interest, this would act as a major building, force
in society as a whole.
 To access the requirement of sports complex in the light of regional potentials and aspirations of the
people.
12

13. REQUIREMENT OF PROJECT
13

14. SCOPE OF WORK………………………………………………………………………
FOR NO.
TOTAL
REQUIREMENTS :- NOS. OF AREA UNIT
AREA
PEOPLES
SEP. ENTRY FOR
1. SPECTATORS
1 1
2.PLAYER ORGANIZERS
3.VIPS
ATLEAST EVERY 700
2 SEATS WILL HAVE ONE 1
ESCAPE ROUTE.
AC VIEWING GALLERY
3 1 100 750 750 SQM.
FOR VIPS
4 MEDIA CENTER 1 2500 2500 SQM.
PRESS ROOM/
5 1 500 500 SQM.
REPORTERS
6 TRANSMISSION AREA 1 500 500 SQM.
7 INTERVIEW ROOM 2 75 150 SQM.
8 RECORDING 2 100 200 SQM.
9 EQUIPMENT AREA 1 350 350 SQM.
10 STORAGE 1 100 100 SQM.
11 SECURITY 10 10 100 SQM.
12 MULTI GYM FACILITY 1 500 500 SQM.
13 MAIN PAVILLION 1 350 350 SQM.
14 KITCHENETE 15 25 375 SQM.
15 MUSEUM 1 750 750 SQM.
16 DINING 15 50 750 SQM.
17 TICKETING 3 35 105 SQM.
18 SHOP 5 20 100 SQM.
19 EXIHIBITION LIBRARY 1 350 350 SQM.
20 CONFERENCE 1 350 350 SQM.
21 SNACKS AREA 15 50 750 SQM.
22 COMMERCIAL AREA 1 500 500 SQM.
23 DORMITORY 4 200 800 SQM.
24 FITNESS CENTER 1 350 350 SQM.
25 MANAGEMENT OFFICE 1 200 200 SQM.
26 MANAGER ROOM 1 50 50 SQM.
27 ASTT. MANAGER ROOM 1 35 35 SQM.
28 STAFF ROOM 1 350 350 SQM.
STATE CRICKET BOARD
29 1 750 750 SQM.
OFFICE
30 GEN. SECRETARY ROOM 1 50 50 SQM.
31 CONFERENCE 2 50 100 SQM.
ENTRANCE/RECEPTION
32 2 100 200 SQM.
LOBBY
33 PLAYERS AREA 1 1500 1500 SQM.
34 PLAYERS ROOM 4 400 1600 SQM.
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15. 35 CHANGING ROOM 4 20 80 SQM.
36 DOCTOR ROOM 1 200 200 SQM.
37 MASSAGE 2 50 100 SQM.
38 DOPE TEST ROOM 1 50 50 SQM.
39 COACH 4 50 200 SQM.
40 OFFICIAL AREA 1 750 750 SQM.
41 UMPIRES ROOM 1 100 100 SQM.
42 3RD UMPIRE ROOM 1 50 50 SQM.
43 MATCH REFREE 1 75 75 SQM.
44 OTHER OFFICIALS 1 400 400 SQM.
45 SERVICE ROOM 2 350 700 SQM.
ADMINISTRATION ROOM
46 0.1 25000 2500 2500 SQM.
@ 0.1SQM. PER VISITOR
CLOAK ROOM @ 0.05-
47 0.05 25000 1250 1250 SQM.
0.1SQM. PER VISITOR
48 TOILETS
REQUIRED NO. OF
49 TOILETS @ 0.1 PER 0.1 25000 2500 2500 SQM.
VISITOR
TOILETS FOR WOMEN @
50 0.4 2500 1000 1000 NOS.
40%
TOILETS FOR MEN @
51 0.2 2500 500 500 NOS.
20%
URINALS FOR MEN @
52 0.4 2500 1000 1000 NOS.
40%
TOTAL AREA 27470 SQM.
15

16. BRIEF OF SITE
16

17. 17

18. SITE ANALYSIS………………………………………………………………………. ……………….
Orientation, direction and angle  How does the sun move across the site?
of slope  No neighboring buildings overshadow the site?
 The site slope represent any design challenges? E.g. structurally
and/or maintenance of views from adjoining buildings.
 From main roads there be long range views to Stadia building?
Trees and other significant  No light on this site is affected by any significant tree or
vegetation topographical feature on sites?
 There are plenty of trees & significant vegetation on site
(including shrubs, grasses etc).
 Yes we include these assets as features of the development?
Buildings  Indicate existing buildings on your site.
 Some part of them are retaining and incorporating in the
development?
Access points  There are three potential accesses to this site?
 There is also access for neighbors in their site?
 Site has plenty of space for street and on-site parking
conditions?
 We have incorporated pedestrian ways that need to be taken
into account?
Drainage and services  Note the location of services, including street poles, pits,
garbage storage sheds and landscaping.
 There is plenty of space to retain natural drainage within the
site?
Boundaries and easements  Boundaries and easements are marked on site?
 Yes the development will be done within the lease boundaries
with setbacks?
The location and use of  Height of the surrounding buildings compared to this stadia are
surrounding buildings comparatively shorter excluding one M.P.Birla Public School
closer to this site.
The difference in levels between  We should use the slope to provide aspect or views for this site,
the site and surrounding  Slope means limiting height to close neighbours and to provide
properties different building services .
Balconies, decks and habitable  These private areas, for example, habitable room windows and
room windows for nearby balconies/decks are designed as per requirement completing the
properties functional requirement and incorporated as per the design &
orientation of the building .
Major and significant  Around the site it is densely surrounded by trees ,
vegetation on surrounding
properties
The built form, scale and  Site is located in Densely populated low income group peoples
character or surrounding society which is unplanned gives a character of village & in
and nearby development terms of height, bulk, setback, building detailing or vegetation
character that can help influence or guide my design response?
18

19. 19

20. 20

21. CASE STUDY
REPORT – 1
EDEN GARDEN, KOLKATA
21

22. 22

23. 23

24. 24

25. CASE STUDY
REPORT – 2
FEROJ SHAH KOTLA, NEW DELHI
25

26. 26

27. 27

28. DESIGN CONCEPTS
28

29. DATA COLLECTION………………………………………………………………………. …………
CLIMATE RESPONSE
Kolkata has a subtropical climate. The annual mean temperature is 26.8 °C ; monthly mean temperatures range
from 19 °C to 30 °C. Summers are hot and humid and maximum temperatures often exceed 40 °C during May
and June. Winter tends to last for only about two - and - a half months, with seasonal lows dipping to 12 °C –
14 °C between December and January. The highest recorded temperature is 43 °C and the lowest is 5 °C. Often
during early summer, dusty squalls followed by spells of thunderstorm and heavy rains lash the city, bringing
relief from the humid heat. These thunderstorms are locally known as Kal baisakhi (Nor'westers).
The southeast monsoon rains lash the city between June and September and supplies the city with most of its
annual rainfall of 1,582 mm. The highest rainfall occurs during the monsoon in August (306 mm). The city
receives 2,528 hours of sunshine per annum, with the maximum sunlight occurring in March.
29

30. VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE OF KOLKATA
Kolkata has many buildings adorned with Gothic, Baroque, Roman, Oriental and Indo-Islamic (including
Mughal) motifs. The "City of Palaces", as Kolkata is often called, is dotted with colonial buildings. Some of
the major buildings of this period are well maintained and several buildings have been declared "heritage
structures", while others are in various stages of decay. Established in 1814, the Indian Museum is the oldest
museum in Asia and houses vast collection of Indian natural history and Indian art. The Victoria Memorial,
one of the major tourist attractions in Kolkata, has a museum documenting the city's history. The National
Library of India is India's leading public library. The Academy of Fine Arts and other art galleries hold regular
art exhibitions.
30

31. ALL ABOUT THE CRICKET
STADIUM
31

32. PLAYING AREA……………………………………………………………………….
ICC STANDARD DIMENSIONS
The ICC Standard Playing Conditions define the minimum and maximum size of the playing surface. Law 19.1
of ICC Test Match Playing Conditions states:
"The playing area shall be a minimum of 150 yards (137.16 metres) from boundary to boundary square of the
pitch, with the shorter of the two square boundaries being a minimum 65 yards (59.43 metres). The straight
boundary at both ends of the pitch shall be a minimum of 70 yards (64.00 metres). Distances shall be measured
from the centre of the pitch to be used. In all cases the aim shall be to provide the largest playing area, subject
to no boundary exceeding 90 yards (82.29 meters) from the centre of the pitch to be used. Any ground which
has been approved to host international cricket prior to 1st October 2007 or which is currently under
construction as of this date which is unable to conform to these new minimum dimensions shall be exempt. In
such cases the regulations in force immediately prior to the adoption of these regulations shall apply."
http://static.icc-
cricket.yahoo.net/ugc/documents/DOC_1F113528040177329F4B40FE47C77AE2_1254317595929_824.pdf
In addition, the conditions require a minimum 3 yard gap between the "rope" and the surrounding fencing or
advertising boards. This is to allow the players to dive without hurting themselves.
The conditions contain a grandfather clause, which exempts stadiums built before October 2007. However,
most stadiums which regularly host international games easily meet the minimum dimensions.
It is worth noting that based on these guidelines, a cricket field must have at least 16,000 square yards
((150+3+3)/2*(70+70+3+3-22/2)/2*pi) of grass area. A more realistic test-match stadium would have more
than 20,000 square yards of grass (having a straight boundary of about 80m) [1]. In contrast an association
football field needs only about 9,000 square yards of grass, making it impossible to play international cricket
matches unless the stadium was specifically built for cricket [2]. This is one of the reasons cricket games
generally cannot be hosted outside the traditional cricket playing countries, and a few non-test nations like
Canada, the UAE, and Kenya that have built test-match standard stadiums.
32

33. PLAYING AREA……………………………………………………………………….
33

34. A CRICKET FIELD CAN BE DIVIDED INTO THREE PARTS – INFIELD, CLOSE-INFIELD, AND
OUTFIELD.
INFIELD - The infield is made by drawing an arc of 30 yards radius from the center to each wicket with
respect to the breadth of the pitch. The two arcs are then joined by parallel lines which are at a distance of 30
yards from the center of the pitch with respect to the length of the pitch.
CLOSE-INFIELD – The close-infield is defined by drawing a circle of radius 15 yards from the center of
each wicket.
OUTFIELD- The part of the ground which is on the outer side of the infield is termed as the outfield.
SIZE OF STUMPS
The tops of the stumps shall be 28 in/71.1cm above the playing surface and shall be dome shaped except for
the bail grooves. The portion of a stump above the playing surface shall be
cylindrical, apart from the domed top, with circular section of diameter not less than 13⁄8 in/3.49cm nor more
than 11⁄2 in/3.81cm.
THE BAILS
(a) The bails, when in position on the top of the stumps,
(i) shall not project more than 1⁄2 in/1.27cm above them.
(ii) shall fit between the stumps without forcing them out of the vertical.
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35. GROUND MEASUREMENT
YARD FEET INCH METER CM MM
1 3 36 0.91 91.44 9144.0
PITCH DETAILS
22 66 792 20.12 2011.68 201168.0
3.33 10 120 3.05 304.8 30480.0
MEASUREMENT FROM CENTER OF INNER CIRCLE OF PITCH
IN-FIELD 30.00 90 1080 27.43 2743.2 274320.0
OUT-FIELD MIN. 60.00 180 2160 54.86 5486.4 548640.0
OUT-FIELD MAX. 90.00 270 3240 82.30 8229.6 822960.0
STUMPS LENGTH 0.776 2.329 27.953 0.710 71.000 7100.000
DIA. OF STUMP 0.038 0.115 1.374 0.035 3.490 349.000
(3.49 - 3.81 CM) 0.042 0.125 1.500 0.038 3.810 381.000
CRICKET BALL CIRCUM. ( 22.4 0.245 0.735 8.819 0.224 22.400 2240.000
- 22.9 ) 0.250 0.751 9.016 0.229 22.900 2290.000
CRICKET BALL DIA 0.078 0.234 2.809 0.071 7.134 713.376
0.080 0.239 2.871 0.073 7.293 729.299
CREASE
BATTING CREASE 1.334 4.003 48.031 1.220 122.0 12200.0
BOWLING BORDER 2.887 8.661 103.937 2.640 264.0 26400.0
LINE & LENGTH
FAST BOWLERS
0.00 0 0 0.00 0 0.0
FULLER LENGTH
4.00 12 144 3.66 365.76 36576.0
4.00 12 144 3.66 365.76 36576.0
GOOD LENGTH
8.00 24 288 7.32 731.52 73152.0
8.00 24 288 7.32 731.52 73152.0
SHORT LENGTH
11.00 33 396 10.06 1005.84 100584.0
SPIN BOWLERS
0.00 0 0 0.00 0 0.0
FULLER LENGTH
2.00 6 72 1.83 182.88 18288.0
2.00 6 72 1.83 182.88 18288.0
GOOD LENGTH
6.00 18 216 5.49 548.64 54864.0
35

36. 6.00 18 216 5.49 548.64 54864.0
SHORT LENGTH
13.00 39 468 11.89 1188.72 118872.0
PLAYERS POSITIONS……………………………………………………………
36

37. GEOMETRICAL FORM OF GROUND……………………………………………
A cricket ground is an elliptical stretch of grass where the game of cricket is officially played. Though there is
no fixed shape of a cricket ground, deviating too much from a low-eccentricity ellipse is largely discouraged.
The size too varies from 90 to 150 meters (100-160 yards) across. In recent times, the grounds are getting
smaller by the day in order to propagate high-scoring matches. On most of the cricket grounds there is a rope
that demarcates the perimeter of the field. This is known as the boundary.
BOUNDARY
A boundary defines the limits of the playing area and it is marked by a line, a fence or a rope. If a player or any
other foreign object disturbs a part of the boundary during play, then the boundary is considered to be at the
same position as it was before the disturbance.
References can be made to different sections of the boundary in terms of nearest fielding positions - for
instance third-man boundary or mid-wicket boundary.
A ball in play, when touches or crosses the boundary without a bounce, gives six runs to the batsman. When
the ball touches or crosses the boundary with one or more than one bounce, it gives four runs to the batsman. If
a fielder touches the boundary while he is still in contact with the ball, the batsman is awarded four or six runs
accordingly.
37

38. PITCH
A turf pitch is 20.12m long and 3.05m wide. A non-turf pitch is a minimum length of 17.68m and a minimum
of 1.83m wide. A pitch is bounded at either end by the bowling creases and a set of wickets in the centre of the
bowling crease.
A pitch is generally made up of two kinds of surfaces. The surface generally used is a natural surface with a
grass cover. The grass is usually cut extremely short so that the surface becomes flat.
At times, artificial turf is also used for the preparation of the pitch. This can be a slab of concrete overlaid with
a coir-mat. Artificial pitches are mostly used in exhibition matches.
38

39. CRICKET PITCHES IN INDIAN SUB- CONTINENT
Traditionally Indian subcontinent cricket pitches are dry, slow and flat natured. Most of the cricket pitches in
subcontinent are not fast, bouncy, skiddy and grassy.
The reason why these pitches are slow is simple. Because of high temperatures, hot humid climatic conditions the soil
becomes dry, loses most of its moisture and not only losing its moisture after that scenario as the temperature goes on
increasing the pitch (soil) starts sweating and loses completely whatever the remaining juice is present in it.
At the end of the day it becomes a dead pitch.
SWING OF THE BALL
* Generally swing of the ball doesn’t depend on type of pitches like whether it may be slow or fast or any kind of
pitch. Swing of the ball always depends on shiny part of the ball, speed of the wind, and presence of moisture in the
pitch.
* As long as shine is there and moisture in the pitch the ball goes on swinging.
* The swing of the ball doesn’t depend on type of pitches like slow or fast because the swing of the ball actually
happens in the air before or after hitting the pitch but not when the ball actually hits the pitch.
* Generally the cricket pitches in England are mostly favourable for swing than any part of this world.
* The swing of the ball in England generally sustains for longer period. Because of cold climatic conditions the
moisture in the pitch and air stays for longer period and also there will be presence of breeze regularly there by the ball
doesn’t become rough very easily in those conditions, resulting in the swing of the ball happens more and continuous
for longer period.
39

40. CONSTRUCTION OF PITCHES
It consists of
1. Compacted Bed 2. Base (compacted Gravel and Sand)
3. Layer of clayey loam and 4. Top Soil
Ball Bounce Pitch Pace
Over 19 inch Very Fast
15-18 inch Fast
Medium
12-15 inch Pace
10-12 inch Easy Paced
Less than 10 inch Slow
40

41. ROOF OF STADIA…………………………………………………………………..
It is elliptical in shape. The roof is made of metal tubes and aluminum sheets
Innovative roof: Innovative roofs have been designed for the stands both to maximize shading and provide a
memorable and identifiable signature for the complex. The roofs are designed to be made of tensile fabric.
DEGREE OF ENCLOSURE
Open or partially covered stands are still common in less wealthy regions such as Central and South
America and Africa, and are found even in countries with relatively robust climates such as Canada and
Russia. But spectators are increasingly demanding some form of protective cover and in colder climates
(especially northern Europe, North America and Japan) where sporting events take place in winter roofs
are becoming a standard requirement. The trend towards enclosure has gone furthest in the USA and
Japan, where most new stadia are entirely covered. Designers should note that this deci sion, as pointed
out in Section 4.3.2, has a dramatic effect on the playing surface.
41

42. SHADING FROM THE SUN
For afternoon matches, which are the majority, the main stand should face east with a minimum of
spectators having to look into the sun from a west-facing stand.
In all cases the efficacy of a roof in shading its occupants from the sun, and the exten t of shadow it casts
upon the pitch at different times of the day and year, must be studied by computer modeling. Such
modeling should proceed in parallel with wind tunnel testing, especially if the playing surface is to be
natural grass, because `it is now generally accepted that a combination of shading from sunlight and
reduced airflow at pitch level has an adverse effect on the durability and quality of grass', to quote
Britain's Football Stadia Advisory Design Council.
SHELTER FROM WIND AND RAIN
As far as plan shape is concerned, designers should note Rudolf Bergermann's advice that continuous
roofs arranged in a circle or ellipse, as opposed to separate roofs with gaps between, normally have a
calming effect on the air inside the stadium. This creates more comfortable conditions for spectators and
performers - experience at the Don Valley Stadium in the place and constructing above it a new platform
supported on remote-controlled hydraulic legs. In the UK, Odsal Stadium in Bradford has used a simple
system of restoring the corners of a football pitch which had been cut off by a speedway track around
the pitch: grass was grown on wooden pallets with a reinforced plastic mesh sub -base, and these were
moved away to storage by forklift truck before speedway events. Further notes on this topic are provided
in Section.
42

43. DRAINAGE
PITCH DRAINAGE: The drainage for the ground has been designed such that the entire ground gets dried
within 15 minutes even after very heavy rainfall. A dense network of lateral pipes of 110mm dia collects the
water penetrating the turf and drains to main pipes of 160mm dia which finally drains off to the inner
peripheral drain.
Adequate drainage is a necessity, and the above methods may need to be supplemented to avoid standing
pools of surface water after heavy rainfall and to minimize expensive 'down-time' in wet weather. There
are basically two methods of drainage - passive and active.
The passive approach relies on gravity to drain away the water, and one method of enhancing the basic
system described above would be the cutting of deep `slit drains' into the subsoil by specialist machine,
and filling these with sand or fine gravel to help surface water flow down quickly into the land drains.
This is quite expensive and needs to be carefully coasted before a decision is taken.
The active approach uses pumps, usually activated by water-sensing electronic devices in the field, to
literally suck the water off the pitch and into underground storage chambers, thus clearing t he surface very
quickly and maximizing the availability of the pitch for revenue-generating activity. Special drainage
pipes may be laid for this purpose, or alternatively cellular technology may use the same underground
network of pipes both for irrigation and drainage simply by reversing the direction of flow by computer
control.
IRRIGATION
Traditionally grass pitches have been watered by sprinklers, usually of the pop-up kind, but these are
being challenged by underground water delivery systems. Using special porous low-pressure water supply
pipes (or possibly the underground drainage system with the direction of flow reversed by computer
control as suggested above) which allow a uniform `weep rate' along the whole length of the pipe, a steady
supply of water - possibly mixed with fertilizer and weed-control additives - seeps directly to the grass
root zone. The advantages that are claimed for sub-surface irrigation include:
.
UNDERGROUND IRRIGATION PIPES ARE NORMALLY LAID BETWEEN 150 MM AND 350 MM BELOW THE
SURFACE, SPACED FROM 450 MM TO 900 MM APART; BUT SPECIALIST ADVICE MUST BE SOUGHT.
43

44. STRUCTURAL STEEL WORKS:
The structural steel works at this project is again a challenging one. The elements used are very different and
heavy from regular structures, making them difficult for fabrication and erection. The total scope for Structural
Steel work is around 5000 MT and it contributes to more than one-fifth of the total project cost. The stadium is
designed in such a manner that structural steel gives excellent aesthetic appearance to the stadium. The
cruciform columns are a special feature in the structural steel work.
44

45. LIGHTING
It is essential to have good quality lighting so that the players can follow the movement of the ball travelling at
high speeds, either struck by the batsman or bowled by the bowler. The illuminance must be uniform
throughout the hall, with the background walls behind both batsman and bowler providing a good viewing
contrast. Safety is paramount and the lighting system must taken into account the propulsion of balls at speed.
The recommended minimum lighting level for an indoor cricket sports centre is between 1000 and1500 lux.
These requirements are generally met by a system of horizontal, fluorescent luminaires, fitted with reflectors
and mounted at right angles to the pitch. The reflectors must screen both batsman and bowler from direct view
of this light source.
The International Standard for lighting cricket grounds is as follows:
 non-televised training ─ 250 lux
 non-televised match ─ 500 to 700 lux
 televised match ─ 1400 lux
45

46. S.W.O.T ANALYSIS
STRENGTHS OF THE BEHALA STADIUM INCLUDE ITS:
1. Pristine serenity, suitable for training
2. Beautiful environs,
3. Lush vegetation and environmentally friendly environs
4. General good climate, weather and cool, maritime sea-breezes
5. Close proximity to accommodation (hotels, inns etc.) and attractions such as golf course ,
6. Victoria memorial , tagore house etc
7. Home to International Sports figures led by the impressive
BEST INDIAN CRICKET CAPTAIN SOURAV GANGULY
8. Located 15-20 minutes away from the EDEN GARDEN CRICKET STADIUM.
9.
WEAKNESSES OF THE STADIUM :
As discussed in the preamble above, the weaknesses of the stadium include the following:
1. The position of the cricket pitch from west to east
2. The lack of lighting to facilitate late evening games
3. Lack of marketing for the facilities
4. Inadequate sporting facilities as currently, cricket is its only focus
46

47. CAMERA POSITION
47

48. CRICKET PRACTICE NETS
Cricket nets are practice nets used by batsmen and bowlers to warm up and/or improve their cricketing
technique. They consist of a 2m x 10m concrete pitch with synthetic grass surrounded along its lengths and
behind the batsman by netting. The bowling end is left open. Nets are found at most reserves where cricket is
played. Double and portable cricket wickets are also popular.
The practice nets are 7.5m high, 7.32m long and 3.66m wide. The frame is made from galvanised steel tubing
with 34mm outside diameter and 2.6mm wall thickness concreted into the ground. The netting is 50mm mesh.
Static Net Kits: Standard Model (with full roof net)
33.7mm OD tube steelwork, fully galvanized
Galvanized fittings and ground sockets
Each bay 3.65m (12ft) wide
2.5mm knotless netting supplied for all sides, back and 7.32m (8yds) roof
Extra roof netting can be supplied at an extra cost
Height above ground 10ft or 12ft
Mobile Net Cages: Superior Model (heavy duty)
 All kits include steelwork, fixings, wheels, side netting and roof netting
 Netting supplied in black knottless high tenacity polypropylene
 Main framework manufactured from 40mm heavy duty box section, fully galvanized
 All bays 3.65m (12ft) wide
 Height above ground 3m (9’10")
 High quality wheels
 Easily manoeuvred
48

49. SIGHT SCREEN
A sightscreen is used in cricket so that when the bowler delivers the ball, the batsman can see it clearly against
the background. It also prevents any major distractions from occurring in that direction as the batsman is
focusing on the ball. In VIT stadium, a white sightscreen is used since the ball used is red. Can you explain a
similar technique used in microbiology and its various types?
 Available in a range of sizes
 33.7mm tubular framework
 Heavy 80mm box section base framework
 All framework galvanized for maximum protection
 High quality pneumatic wheels
 PVC Mesh screen
 Easy to maintain
Anti vandalism screen
 Covered in high quality steel cladding material, coated in white plastisol
 Screen material "louvred" to assist wind flow through the screen
 Heavy duty 80mm box section all round
 Possibly the most substantial framework available
 Low maintenance
49

50.  Easy to move
 Wide wheelbase for stability
 Fully galvanized framework
 High quality pneumatic wheels
Rolling Weights
Light Roller: up to 254kg (5cwt)
Medium Roller: up to 508kg (10cwt)
Heavy Roller: 1014kg (1 ton) or more
The pitch should be rolled in all directions, but with the emphasis on cross rolling in the early stages, but
finish on the line of the pitches. The aim is to consolidate the square to a depth of 100mm (4 inches) before
the commencement of the season. Light scarification may be necessary in the early spring, but this should
only be done in moderation with great care being taken not to destroy grasses sown in the previous autumn.
Heavy mechanised scarification/verticutting that would cut into the surface may well lead to cracking of
pitches later in the season, however a scarifying unit with brush attachment is recommended.
50

51. STADIUM DESIGN
ELEMENTS
Cricket 2 Ground Maintenance & Pitch Preparation
d Maintenance & Pitch Pr
& Pitch Preparation
51

52. Concourses, stairs and ramps
Geometry
As with seating tiers this is covered in detail in later sections and we wish here only to give the designer a picture
of the key influences on overall stadium form and structure.
• The pattern of concourses, stairs and ramps must allow for the smooth inflow of specta tors, without people
losing their way or getting confused, as outlined in Section 13.5; and a similarly smooth outflow after the end
of the match, as outlined in Section 13.6.1.
• Most critically, the layout must allow for fast, safe emptying of the stadium in panic condi tions; see Section
13.6.3.
• Planning must also facilitate easy access to toilets as discussed in Chapter 11 and catering facilities as
discussed in Chapter 10. As a general rule no seat should be more than 60 m from a toilet, preferably on the
same level.
• The circulation routes will probably be planned in a way that subdivides the total seating capacity of the
stadium into sectors of about 2500 or 3000 spectators each, to allow for easier crowd control and a more even
distribution of toilets, bars and restaurants; see Section 13.2:2.
• In each individual seating area the circulation routes will consist of vomitories fed by lateral gangways
(running parallel with the side of the pitch), and radial gangways (which will be stepped). A pattern of few
vomitories served by long gangways usually leaves less space for seats, while a larger number of vomitories
fed by shorter gangways gives better space usage, and easier egress in panic conditions. A balanced solution
should be aimed for.
Surface finishes
Stadia likely to be patronized by well-behaved crowds who will not abuse the building can be finished in the
same way as any other public building, and no special notes are needed here. This is the trend in recent UK and
North American stadia, which may have polished marble concourse floors, toilets finished to hotel standard, and
luxuriously appointed social areas to attract patrons.
In Britain a recent example of a stadium finished durably but elegantly is Richard Horden's 5000 -capacity
Queen's Stand at Epsom Downs racecourse, Surrey. This building, opened in 1992, is not so much a stand as a
private box viewing area and therefore exceptional - but it shows what can be achieved. Another example in the
UK is the new North Stand at Arsenal Football Club, north London, completed in 1993. All seats are padded and
with arms; and circulation, toilets and amenity features are finished to cinema standard.
But where crowds have a record of being boisterous and ill-behaved, and where large parts of the building are
exposed to wind and weather, finishes must be tough enough to stand up to intense wear and tear, regular
abrasive cleaning, and the effects of sun, rain and temperature change.
Concrete surfaces are widely used and relatively inexpensive, can be very durable if treated with additives and
sealants, but are associated with precisely the image that the modern customer -winning stadium would like to
52

53. avoid - of a rough, mean place where one would prefer not to linger. They are also less easy to keep clean than
smoother surfaces, and this adds to their negative image. More positively, the colour and stain additives as used
at places such as Euro Disney are likely to become popular in the future.
Natural concrete block surfaces with antigraffiti coatings are serviceable; but for the public they have the same
utilitarian image as unfinished concrete.
Natural brick walls promote a better image than concrete, and can be treated with antigraffiti coatings.
Wall and floor tiles or mosaics in ceramics and terracotta are expensive initially but are hardwearing and, if
properly used, pleasing in feel and appearance.
Coated steel claddings have improved greatly in recent years and are now very durable. They are easily
cleanable, the choice of colour and pattern is wide, and this cladding type offers the possibility of handsome yet
eminently practical concourse wall-surfaces.
Studded rubber floor tiles and sheeting are available in improved forms and although relatively expensive
initially they are hard-wearing and available in attractive colours. They have been successfully used in the
concourse areas of Wembley Stadium in London.
DETAILS
In all cases correct detailing is as important as correct choice of materials:
• Careful positioning of doors and openings reduces confusion and aids circulation.
• The use of rails along walls can protect the wall face from abuse by keeping people at a safe distance.
• Balustrades set back from the edges of landings and concourses help reduce the danger of objects being
accidentally dropped on people below. Similarly, floor edges in these positions should be upturned to prevent
objects rolling over the edge.
• Upper surfaces of rails and balustrades should be sloping to make it difficult for fans to stand on them.
s Corners can be protected from damage by catering trolleys and other service vehicles by fixing metal guards,
or by having rounded profiles.
• High ceilings help to create an open, airy atmosphere and are beyond reach of deliberate damage.
• Toilets should have surfaces and edge details, etc. which allow the complete washing down of walls and
floors.
 All dangerous projections and sharp edges should be avoided.
53

54. Installation
Planting and maintaining a grass pitch is a task for specialists. All the advice given below is for general
background understanding only: a specialist consultant should be retained from the outset to give advice, draw up
a detailed specification, invite tenders and supervise the work.
shows the elements of a typical grass-turfed surface, and should be studied in conjunction with the following
notes.
Figure 5.1 Elements of a typical natural grass playing
surface.
For bowling greens and croquet the upper grass surface must be smooth, true and absolutely level, necessitating
very good subsoil drainage arrangements. For other sports the grass surface can be less exacting but should be
smooth and free from surface unevenness, and possibly laid to a slight fall for water disposal. Maximum
permissible gradients must be checked before design with the relevant govern ing bodies, because such rules are
constantly being upgraded, and the main fall should ideally be from the centre to both sides of the p itch and not
in the direction of play.
The species of turf grass must be carefully chosen for the correct playing characteristics, resistance to wear and
disease, and suitability for its particular climatic and physical environment and the season of play. An appropriate
cultivar or mix of cultivars will be specified by the consultant and supplied by specialist growers. `Fescues' and
`bents' are commonly chosen species. As an instance, the famous grass surface of Wimbledon Centre Court is
renown every year with 66 per cent Troubadour perennial rye grass, 17 per cent Bingo chewing fescue, and 17
per cent Regent creeping red fescue. This is the best mix for the specific soil, drainage and other conditions found
at Wimbledon, but other situations will demand other specifications.
Immediately beneath the grass surface is a layer of topsoil, often consisting largely of sand, with a depth of not
less than 100 mm and usually averaging about 150 mm. This layer must contain no stones or injurious material,
must be permeable enough for water drainage, and must be uncontaminated and well -fertilized for healthy
growth. Using some local suitable seeming soil will not be good enough: the material will almost certainly be
obtained from specialist suppliers to the precise specification of the consultant, and will probably contain a large
quantity of graded sand.
54

55. Beneath the topsoil is a blinding layer of fine material (ash, crushed stone or the like) to fill the voids in the
surface below and provide a smooth base for the topsoil.
Beneath the blinding layer is a zone of graded stone to ensure that all excess water can drain away freely to pipes
laid in trenches below. There may be sheets of tough water -permeable membrane laid between the foundation
layer and the formation surface to prevent soil from being forced up into the foundation layer and obstructing the
free flow of water. This decision, the depth of the graded stone layer, and the layout and fall of the drains will
depend on subsoil conditions and will all be decided by a specialist.
Heating
Many major stadia in cold climates use some form of under-pitch heating, the most common type being based on a
system of hot water pipes operated by gas boilers and thermostatic sensor controls. The most important aspect of
this type of installation is the laying of the pipes, which must be high enough to heat the pitch but low enough not
be damaged by pitch aeration and other surface works. A free-draining pitch is essential if heating is to be
considered.
Maintenance
Day-to-day maintenance operations are discussed in Section
Synthetic grass surfaces
In completely enclosed stadia artificial turf will almost certainly be chosen in preference to natural grass for the
reasons given in Section above.
For other situations, while synthetic grasses have great virtues and will undoubtedly become more widely used,
specifies must not see them as a magically everlasting, maintenance-free answer to all problems. Capital outlay is
high (which means such pitches need to be fairly intensively used to justify the initial cost): the surface is not
everlasting, six to eight years being a typical life expectancy; the surfaces may need to be watered before play to
keep dust down and keep them cool in summer; sand-filled turfs need periodic re-sanding; markings need
replacement two to four times a year; and regular cleaning and repair are essential. But having made these cautionary
remarks it must be said that synthetic turfs have very great advantages in terms of their ability to endure intensive use in
virtually all weathers. There are three basic categories of permanent surfacing.
Non-filled turf
This is made of nylon, polyester or polypropylene, is available in water-permeable or impermeable types, and comes in
the form of a turf-carpet with an underlying shock-absorbing layer of foam, the latter available in various densities and
thicknesses. The turf and the under layer may be supplied already bonded, or they may be supplied separately and
bonded together on site. Turf and under layer are laid by specialists on a smooth asphalt substrate which in turn rests on a
base of broken stone, sand, and gravel designed to suit the particular situation. Various pile-types and pile-lengths
(typically 10 to 13 mm) are available to suit individual sports and conditions.
In the past it was said that artificial turf caused more skin-burn than natural grass in sports such as rugby, but
manufacturers claim that this need no longer be true. On this, as on choice of turf, design of substrate, and general
installation, up to-date specialist advice must be sought.
Filled turf
This is a variant of the previous type, consisting in most cases of polypropylene with an upright pile that is longer and
more open than the no filled type, backfilled with sand up to 2 or 3 mm from the surface. As described here it has
55

56. become a very popular surface for club tennis courts because the playing characteristics are not dissimilar to natural
grass, but the court remains usable throughout the year including winter. The finish takes two to three months to settle in,
and needs brushing two or three times a week plus regular top-dressing to maintain its condition. This type of artificial
turf is specifically suited to outdoor use and usually carries a 5-year guarantee, though the life may well be longer.
Sand-filled turf has had a reputation of causing injuries when players fall, but this is probably no longer the case: if in
doubt the advice of the relevant sports governing bodies
should be sought. Occasional watering after a prolonged period of dry weather will help reduce the risk of friction burn.
Combined natural and synthetic turf
Natural and artificial surfaces have begun to merge, and systems are now available in which plastics are used to reinforce
the root structure of grass - for instance in the form of a plastic webbing through which the natural grass grows. By this
means the user-friendliness of a natural grass surface is combined with the superior durability of artificial turf, hopefully
giving stadium managers the best of both worlds.
As practical experience of these combined systems increases and the technicalities are perfected they may well become
the compromise of the future, offering a cost-effective, multi-use natural playing surface. In that case sporting authorities
will soon have to face some interesting decisions as to whether these systems are to be classified as `natural' or
`artificial'.
Temporary synthetic turf surfaces
It is possible for a synthetic turf carpet to be kept in a store near the pitch, and then rolled out over the pitch for events
needing that kind of surface. The carpet can simply be rolled out manually, or, in some systems, air jets are used to float
the carpet over the pitch with a minimum of weight, drag and friction. In this case six men can carry out the operation in
three hours or less, allowing for a quick change of events.
Synthetic hard surfaces
Synthetic surfaces are expensive to lay but offer the possibility of all-weather high-intensity use and much reduced
maintenance. They have therefore become very popular for athletics tracks. There are two categories.
Impervious finishes
These may take the form of a 'wet-poured' layer of continuous sheeting (either permanent or temporary), or of a tiled
finish laid on a substrate of bituminous macadam, concrete or both. In the case of athletics tracks, gradients for water
run-off must be less than 1:100 and the
direction of fall must be towards the inside lane, with a drainage channel to dispose of the water. The thickness of
the finish must be related to the length of the spikes on athletes' footwear, or else punctures will allow water to
penetrate to the substrate, causing problems.
Porous finishes
These finishes are of the same types as above, but 'stipple-bonded' to a porous substrate (porous bituminous
macadam or no-fines concrete) so that water can filter through the surface and drain away. In theory the surface
can be completely level, but a cross-fall of 1:100 is advisable in case the surface loses permeability as a result of
pollution
Markings
56

57. In the case of grass the line markings may consist of a temporary powder containing lime. In the case of hard
surfaces the markings can either be inlaid strips of coloured material (the most expensive in first cost but also the
most durable method) or simply be painted on to the surface (and requiring regular repainting).
Governing bodies will give guidance on correct line widths and colours, and whether the width of the line
includes or excludes the playing area - a crucial matter. But as a general guide line widths are mostly 100 mm,
and white and yellow the most common colours.
Protective coverings
If the surface cannot be removed and is vulnerable to damage there are protective covers which will preserve it
when the stadium is used for concerts or other activities which make use of the playing area. Natural grass
especially needs protection, but covers can usually be left down for only about two days before the grass beneath
starts to suffer damage. There are cases where grass pitches have been covered for up to tw o weeks and survived,
suffering only discoloration, but a natural grass pitch would not be ready for immediate sporting use after such an
experience.
For grass protection, Wembley Stadium in London has in the past used a resilient underlay covered with a s tiff
hardwearing rubber layer above, these materials being stored in large rolls outside the stadium and transported to
the ground in special vehicles. More recently Wembley have assisted in the development of a new system which
consists of translucent tile squares (actually 1 m by 1 m boxes about 50 mm deep) which lock together to provide
a good even surface for concert usage, but allow the grass below to grow and survive.
Circulation
Basic principles
Circulation planning in stadium design has two main objects: the comfort and the safety of occupants.
comfort
People should be able to find their way to their (or to toilets or catering facilities, or back to :he exits) easily,
without getting lost or confused. In addition. they should be able to be about with pleasure. not being jostled in
overcrowded spaces, having to climb excessively -;p stairs. or risk losing their footing as they negotiate the many
changes of level which are navigable in large stadia.
•, we give planning guidelines for the circulation routes themselves.
•. we augment the above planning principles with detailed design data dimensions, types of equipment and the
like.
Safety
safety requires maintenance of all the above desirable characteristics in panic conditions - :. when for example,
hundreds (perhaps thousands) of spectators are fleeing in fear of a tire, an outbreak of violence in the crowd, or
some --her real or imagined danger. Even better, preventive measures should minimize the risk of such situations
arising in the first place. This should preferably be achieved by skilful design.
that people want to go where they have to be n the stadium and are not made to go there.
1n the following sections we show how these requirements can be catered for in practical terms
~ First. in Section 13.?, we examine the implications of circulation requirements upon stadium layout as a whole.
57

58. Stadium layout
Circulation planning has two major influences on the overall stadium layout - zoning the stadium for safe escape
from tire, and subdividing the stadium for crowd management.
Zoning
As already described in Section ?.3 the modern stadium is designed as four concentric zones:
• Zone 1 is the playing field and central area of the stadium.
• Zone 2 consists of the viewing areas and the internal circulation area, i.e. the seating;/ standing tiers and
terraces and their gangways and vomitories.
• Zone ? is the external circulation area surrounding the stadium building but within the perimeter fence.
• Zone 4 is the area outside the perinteter .fence It will contain the car parks and the bus and coach off-loading
areas.
The purpose of the zones is to enable spectators to escape in case of emergency - first from Zone ? to either Zone l
or Zone 3 (the 'temporary safety zones'), and thence to the 'permanent safety zone' of Zone 4 and the Outside world.
Such escape must be possible in specified times, which then determine the distances and widths of the relevant
escape routes: see Section 13.E.?.
In stadia accommodating more than 15 000 or 20 000 spectators all four of the zones should be present but in
smaller stadia. where spectators exit directly to the exterior from the spectator viewing and internal circulation
areas. Zones 3 and 4 can be combined. Such small stadia will not justify a perimeter fence, but to compensate for
that they will require particularly diligent stewarding; at the exits.
Sub-division
Subdividing the total ground capacity into smaller units or sectors of about 2500 to 3000 spectators each allows for
easier crowd control and for a more even distribution of toilets, bars and restaurants. Each of these sectors should
have its own independent circulation routes as well as its share of' ancillary facilities.
Separation of different categories of spectator should form part of this division system. For example:
• separation of seated and standing areas: and • segregation of fans fr om opposing clubs.
The actual division between areas can sometimes be achieved simply by barriers or changes of height.
58

59. In the case of separating rival fans each sector should be completely independent. This independence may go as far
as to require protected routes leading all the way from the nearby transport services to the turnstiles (secured by
police), and from the turnstiles to the seating areas.
Because of the decisive effect of the subdivision pattern on circulation route planning. management must be
consulted at an early stage on how the seating areas in the stadium are to be split up.
In single-tier stands the division lines may run from top to bottom, with policed 'sterile zones' separating the two
blocks of *home' and 'away*
fans. This pattern has the advantage of flexibility (the sterile zone can easily be shifted from side to side to allow
for a greater or smaller number of fans in a particular area) but the sterile zones represent a loss of revenue. and the
problem of ensuring access to exits, toilets and catering facilities for everyone needs careful planning.
In two-tier stands the top-to-bottom division is again a possibility: alternatively one group of fans can be put in the
upper tier and the other in the lower tier. If the 'away' fans are in the upper tier there is no risk of pitch invasion, but
there is a real possibility of missiles being hurled on to the 'home* fans below. and any kind of trouble is difficult to
deal with because of the relative inaccessibility of the upper levels. If the 'away' fans are put in the lower tier
trouble is easier to deal with, but there is a risk of pitch invasion, thus calling for large r police numbers or more
intensive stewarding.
Access between Zone 4 and Zone 3
Ideally. and if space allows, a modern stadium should be surrounded by an outer perimeter wall or fence some
distance from the stadium, separating Zones -3 and s. Such a perimeter barrier should ideally be at least 20 m from
the stadium, strong enough to withstand crowd pressures, high enough to prevent people climbing over, and
containing several types of entrance and exit Gates:
• public entrances leading to the main seating terraces,
• private entrances giving players. concession holders and VIA ticket holders separate access to their particular
areas:
emergency service access for ambulances, etc.: flood exits for emergency emptying of the grounds.
These are now dealt with in turn.
Public entrances
In some stadia, checking of tickets coming into the Grounds is made at this perimeter point: in others it is made at
the stadium entrances between Zones 3 and 2; in yet others by some combination of the two.
Circumnavigation between gates
If control is exercised at the perimeter, and if each entrance gives access only to some parts of the stadium (either
by physical design, or by subsequent management policy) then circulation routes should be provided in Zone 4,
outside the perimeter barrier. People who have come to the wrong entrance gate should be able to circumnavigate
to the correct one while still remaining ;n the same Zone. Conversely, if there will be no control on seating
positions at the perimeter then there is no need for such circulation routes. as spectators may enter the stadium
59

60. via any turnstile. These matters should be clarified beyond doubt with management at briefing stage if faulty
design is to be avoided.
Congregation space outside gates
Outside all perimeter access points in Zone 4 there should be sufficient space provided to allow the congregation
of spectators before entering through gates or turnstiles. This congregation space should be sized and posi tioned
so as to avoid congestion and allow a free flow of spectators when the gates or turnstiles are opened. See also the
notes on crowd control blarricrs under Section
Other safety measures
In all cases public entry doors should be used o nly for the purposes of entry, and all public exit doors only for the
purposes of exit. The simultaneous use of any gateway for both entry and exit can create risk. If such two -
directional gates are used they must be additional to the exit gates required for emergency outflow as calcu:ated
in Section 13.6.? ('timed exit analysis').
Amenities such as ticket offices, toilets, bars or restaurants should always be located a safe distance away from
the nearest entrance or exit to allow a congregation of people without risk of a crush.
Number of gates
There are several ways of allowing spectators into the stadium, but most fall into the two broad categories of
gates and turnstiles. Gates are cheap, and an open gate can allow approximately 2000 spectators to pass through
per hour whereas turnstiles are expensive and will only pass through 500 to 750 spectators per hour. Detailed
design notes are given in Section
Location of gates
The location of entrance gates in the perimeter barrier will depend on three factors which may to some degree
conflict with each other, requiring an early decision on priorities:
• To avoid congestion entrances should be spaced at regular intervals around the circumference.
• If mutually hostile fans must be kept apart it is again desirable for entrances to be widely separated.
• But management may want entrances to be grouped closely together for convenience of staffing and security.
Any conflicts between the above requirements must be resolved before design commences, by obtaining a very
clear statement of design priorities from management at the briefing stage.
Segregation of fans
It is necessary here to say more about the second factor mentioned above whether to allow for the enforced
segregation of certain groups of spectators before they enter the stadium.
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61. Where the anticipated spectators are known to be 'game-orientated' rather that 'team-orientated', and to behave
peacefully, there is no need for special provisions. Spectators at tennis, rugby or athletic events tend to fall into
this class. So, perhaps for different reasons, do American football and baseball' crowds: because distances
between competing clubs in the USA are so great, there are seldom large numbers of 'away fans present at
matches.
The case is generally different with football crowds in Britain and Europe (princi pally the Netherlands. Italy and
Germany) and in South America. These fans tend to be strongly partisan and attend matches primarily to support
their home teams. Supporters of competing sides may be hostile and aggressive, in which case they cannot be
allowed to mix freely and must be separated all the way from their arrival in Zone 4 to their seats.
Provision must then be made for systems of barriers (preferably movable) in Zone 4 which will funnel groups of
spectators to widely separated entrances, which in turn lead to separate parts of the stadium. This causes two
problems for designers:
• Separate turnstiles and horizontal and vertical circulation spaces. perhaps also with separate toilets etc., could
lead to expensive duplication of facilities.
• It will be necessary to visualize al this stage ho" the stadium May be divided between seating areas for 'home'
and 'away' supporters, and the entrances and routes must be so designed that rigid separation can be main tained
at some matches, while freedom of movement is possible at others.
and the public road network (Zone 4) for fast and unimpeded ingress and egress by ambu lances, fire engines or
other emergency service vehicles. Widths and gradients must allow for this.
Private entrances
These entrances are for players. VIPs, directors, sponsors and the media. They should be close to a special VIP
parking area, with a sheltered connecting route, and should be well separated from the public entrances.
Access should be by open gate rather than turnstile, with a higher level of security staff present. and lead to a secure
route all the way to the scat. Quality of design and finishes must be markedly superior to the rest of the stadium.
with the ambience of a superior hotel.
Emergency service access
Provision should be made in the perimeter barrier for emergency service access between Zones 4 and 3. These
access points must be stewarded constantly and will be opened only in exceptional circumstances. They should
connect directly between the stadium interior (Zone 1)
Flood exits
Apart from the gates and turnstiles described under Public Entrances above there must be separate and additional
flood exits, allowing a stadium that may have taken three hours to fill, to empty within a matter of minutes.
61

62. These exits should be located at regular intervals around the perimeter so that every seat is within a reasonable
distance from an escape, and preferably in a direct line with the vomitories and staircases in Zone ? to allow
spectators a clear, direct and continuous line of egress from the building (though this is not always possible). The
gates must open outwards and have a sufficient clear width to allow the prescribed number of people to pass
through safely. A width of 1100 mm is acceptable in the UK but the authors recommend 1200 mm.
Access between Zone 3 and Zone 2
Stand entrances
First ticket checks and, if necessary, body searches will probably have been made at the outer entrances (see Section
13.3.1 above). Second ticket checks are made at the stand entrances, which may be either gates or turnstiles. These
checks are more informal than those at the outer entrances, and more of a customer service than a stringently
applied safety measure.
The same basic rules apply as for outer entrances: there must be enough space t o avoid all risk of a crush
developing and public facilities such as ticket offices, toilets (except those for people queuing to get in), bars and
restaurants must be located a safe distance away.
Overall design for inward movement
Clarity of routes
People enter the stadium from the area outside ( Zone 4) and must then thread their way through a succession of
turnstiles, corridors, circulation passages and doorways to the individual seating or standing position (Zone 2) But a
large multilevel stadium can be a very confusing place and a spectator may rapidly become exasperated if he
cannot, for example. find his way from tile entrance gate to block 12, row K, seat 275 and must repeatedly double
back to try another route. There are four methods for minimizing or avoiding this problem:
• keeping choices simple (so that people are never faced with complex or difficult decisions),
• ensuring clear visibility of the whole stadium ( so that people always know where they are in relation to exits);
 clear signs;
 good stewarding.
Good stewarding is a matter for management rather than design and will not be pursued here; but detailed notes
follow on the three design measures listed above.
Simple choices
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63. As far as possible the visitor should never be :-iced with an interchange where many routes are open to him only
one of which is right. It is easy make a mistake at the best of times and moving along in a crowd, perhaps under
pressure or in conditions of haste, almost guarantees getting it wrong.
The ideal is to provide the spectator with a series of simple Y or T junctions as he moves from the entrance gate to
his seat, facing him in each case with an elementary choice of 'yes' or no'. He must be confronted with one (and
only one decision at a time, in such a way that when
has taken the final decision he has arrived at his -seat. Six typical decisions are:
1 Am I a 'home' or `away' supporter? At stadia where intergroup conflict is possible (e.g. football) these two
groups should be segregated before they have even entered the stadium (see Section 13.3.1).
' Am I a seated or standing ticket holder? ? Am I seated in the upper or lower tier? 4 Am I in the blue or red
section?
5 Is my scat in rows 1 to 10, or 11 to ?0? 6 Where is my seat in the row?
The flow diagram (Figure 13.1) shows in schematic form a typical circulation pattern where choices have been
reduced to 'yes* and 'no' decisions both when entering the stadium and when leaving. In this example there are
several main entrances. each giving access to a different part of the stadium, thus making it possible for
management to segregate 'home' and 'away' fans even before they have entered the stadium simply by allocating
separate entrance gates to each.
The above straightforward principles are complicated by two practical requirements. First, there may be a need
(already mentioned in Section 13.3.1) to separate the entrances used by 'home' and `away' supporters. If so, this will
tend to conflict with the desirability of keeping all entrances close to the administration centre, and therefore close
to each other.
Second, while the primary circulation route should lead the spectator in the correct direction in deterministic
fashion as described above, there should also be a secondary route allowing the spectator who has end ed up in the
wrong place to find his way back. This secondary 'correcting route' is almost as important as the primary circulation
routes.
Clear visibility
Sports stadia are not the place for clever architectural games relying on tight, disorient ing passageways opening into
great public spaces to create a sense of spatial drama (as do some highly acclaimed theatres, concert halls and
cinemas). Clarity is the First priority at every stage of entering or leaving the stadium, and ' designers should try to
make the stadium as open as possible. so that crowds are visually
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64. in this Figure Spectator flow from gate to seat.
Movement will be smoothest and safest if the spectator is faced with a sequence of simple choices, as
shown.
aware at all times of where they are, and that alternative means of escape are open to them if needed.
It is desirable that spectators should be able to see from one exit stair to another and be aware that there is an
alternative route. This helps prevent them panicking.
The need for maximum visibility is especially important in the case of sudden changes in direction, in width of
"corridor, in surface level. or in lightness and darkness. Such abrupt changes can be dangerous and should in
general be avoided; but if that is impossible then the stadium-user should see them clearly in advance so that he
does not stumble upon the transition unprepared.
An awareness of the layout of the stadium may be enhanced by carefully-judged changes
in level. For instance, spectators can be made aware that they are about to enter a different area, and must adjust
their pace, by a short upward ramp. Or their sense of' where they are and what lies ahead can be improved by
enabling them to see over the heads of those in front, by means of a downward ramp or stair.
Figure 13.2 shows a beneficial change of level of this kind, through a vomitory. Entering the seating tier via a ramp
or a short flight of stairs serves two purposes: on entry, forward pushing by the spectators into t he relatively narrow
seatways is reduced by the preceding rise in level: and on leaving, spectators can see over the heads of those in
front of them and are therefore much
more aware of the circumstances
ahead. This 'awareness' is important
as
In this Figure Changes of level can
be beneficial if carefully designed.
The short stair helps slow down
incoming Spectators, and enables
those leaving to see over the heads of
the people in front. Provision for
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65. people in Wheelchairs has to be handled separately.
IT is the unknown which creates anxiety in a crowd and can lead to panic.
Clear systems of signs
Clarity of stadium layout should be reinforced by an equally logical system of signs if spectators are to find their
way about easily, dependably a nd safely.
A comprehensive sequence of signs should begin off the site, directing traffic and pedestrians first to the correct
part of the ground, then to their particular entrance, and then stage by stage to every individual part of the building.
The direction' signs leading people along their route must be supplemented at regular intervals by information' signs
which give information on the location of different seating areas, catering outlets. toilets and other amenities. All
signs should be designed for ease of reading, placed high enough to be seen over people's heads and located in a
consistent way so that people know
where to look as they hurry through the building. Control should be exercised during the entire lifetime of the
stadium to ensure that signs remain compatible with the overall design of the stadium and its landscaping. The
needs of people in wheelchairs must constantly be borne in mind.
To make things easy for the customer, signs should be colour-coordinated with the areas to which they lead. and
with the tickets for those areas (for example red signs and tickets for the red seating area) and they should provide
information in easy stages. For example, a spectator heading for scat K27 in block 12. section 7 would find the
following sequence of 'staged' signs easy to understand and follow:
SEATING BLOCKS 6 to 12 followed by:
SEATING BLOCK 12, SECTIONS 6 to 10 Followed by
SEATING SECTION 7 ROW'S 13 to 27
The alternative combined sign shown below would be much more difficult to grasp, leading to dangerous
hesitations and contra-flows in the traffic:
SEATING BLOCK 6 to 12, SECTIONS 6 to 10, ROWS I to 36
In addition to signs, large clear maps, above head level, are vital at all key points, particularly to help people who
have difficulty with the local language. They should he oriented so that 'up' on the map points in the same direction
as the reader's view of the stadium (otherwise the viewer must go through mental contortions correlating directions
on the map with those in the stadium) and each map should have a You are here arrow.
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66. SAFE AREAS
While clarity and simplicity of circulation routes will do much to promote safe, comfort table spectator movement,
it should be recognized that on entering or leaving an area some people will inevitably change the ir minds and
decide to head for the opposite direction instead. This happens for many reasons. from forgetting a coat to wanting
to visit the toilets or wishing to see friends. Such changes of direction can have a disrupting effect on the natural
flow of the remainder of the crowd.
We recommend that indecision of this kind be planned for. in as much as it is impossible to change human nature.
Quiet or sate areas should be provided off the sides of the circulation routes much as l ay-bys are provided beside
motorways. These lay-bys enable people to stop and take stock of the situation without obstructing others, and then
head off in the opposite direction if they wish.
Lay-by areas of this kind can be used as a method y of stepping out the sides of the circulation route. to widen it
towards the exits (Figure 13.3). This has the advantage of increasing the flow space outwards. while at the same
time providing safe areas for
people who want to stop and
think, or turn round.
Figure Lay-by areas on the main
circulation routes allow people to
stop and think without blocking
the traffic flow.
Distancing of facilities from circulation routes
Many ancillary facilities must be provided in a stadium if spectators are to fully enjoy an event: programme sales
kiosks, bars, cafeterias, child care centers and the like. These should be eye -catching and pleasing, but off the main
circulation routes so that queues of people do not disrupt the primary circulation now. Such facilities should always
be located at least 6 m away from entrances or exits.
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67. Overall design for outward movement
Normal egress from stadium
This layout should follow the same pattern as :he branching of a tree. Tracing the route back -,-he the individual
scat to the exit gate, one may say that the individual twigs lead to small branches, which lead to larger branches,
which :fad ultimately to the trunk which is the public -")ad. The twigs or smaller branches should never be
connected directly to the trunk as this may cause the flow on the branch line to hesitate, causing congestion and
aggravation and (if the stadium is being emptied in conditions of emergency) serious risk.
Signs and maps should work bath ways - for -coming spectators trying to find their way to : their seats, and also for
spectators trying to find
their way back to the exits. Exit signs must be particularly clearly visible, possibly illuminated, and will be
governed by safety legislation in most countries, which means that the design team should check with the local fire
and safety authorities.
Emergency egress from stadium
In the UK the UK Guide to Safety at Sports grounds(the so-called Green Guide) recom mends that the escape time
from any seat, in all
stadia constructed of concrete and steel, must be no more than eight minutes. Unfortunately it does not specify
where the escapee should be after eight minutes.
The requirement in Italy is that it must be possible to clear the seating areas of all spectators in five minutes, and
then to clear the entire building structure of spectators in a further five minutes.
The above examples serve to indicate the kind of rules which may apply, and are illustrative only. Each country will
have its own national and /or local regulations, and all regulations change over time, therefore the current situation
Should always be checked with the local fire and safety authorities before design commences.
In many cases such rules will specify evacuation of a stadium simply in terms of a number of minutes, but this is
not a completely adequate yardstick for safety. The true requirement is that spectators must be able to move from
their seats to a temporary safety zone, and thence to the permanent safety zone (see Section 13.?) in a specified
time. From this requirement may be calculated both the maximum allowable distances from spectator seats to
intermediate places of safety, and thence to exits, and the minimum allowable widths of all the passageways and
doorways along those routes. The calculation that should be made is that known as `timed exit analysis' (TEA).
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68. TIMED EXIT ANALYSIS
This is a step-by-step computation of the time it takes spectators to move from their nearest vomitory (the journey
from seat to vomitory being ignored far the purposes of this calculation) to a place of permanent safety. It proceeds
as follows:
1 Take the 'worst case' in each subdivision of the stadium. This will be the vomitory furthest from the exit in the
section under review.
2 Calculate the distance in metres from that
vomitory to the 'temporary safety zone and thence to the 'permanent' safety zone. Level areas and ramps must be
measured separately from staircases.
3 Assume that spectators move along the level floors and ramps at 100m per minute, and down stairw ays at 30 m
per minute. Further assume that 40 people per minute can pass
through one `exit width' (600 mm for corridors and also for doorways, gates, etc.).
4 Add up the walking times for the 'worst case' spectator selected above, all the way from his v omitory to Zone 4.
5 Subtract this time from the 'escape period' required by regulation, or in case of doubt from eight minutes.
6 Calculate widths of all passages and doorways or gateways along these routes in units of 600 mm (i.e. a passage
that is 600 mm wide is `one unit exit width', one that is 1200 mm wide is 'two exit unit widths'. Now check that the
total number of spectators seated or standing in a particular section can actually exit in the time calculated above,
and if they cannot then widths must be increased.
7 Repeat the above 'distance' and
`width' calculations for each
subdivision of the stadium, so
that no spectator sealing or
standing area has been missed
out, and revise the stadium
layout if necessary until the
entire stadium complies with
safety requirements.
Figure 13.4 The use of 'timed
exit analysis' to design escape
routes that will allow spectators
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69. to move from their seat to a place of safety within a specified time. Minimum evacuation times will increasingly be
laid down by law as societies become more safety conscious.
CROWD CONTROL
General
Control of crowds and separation of spectators from participants has been a problem faced by designers since the
First time real difficulties were experienced by stadium managers during Roman times. A group of people corning
together to enjoy an event is a 'crowd' and must be carefully managed from the moment they enter the zone of
influence of the stadium. Sometimes very little encouragement is needed for that crowd to become a 'mob' and
eventuallv that mob to become a 'riot'. The managing of people must be considered from the very beginning of a
stadium project if this adverse encouragement is to be minimized. The majority of people place great importance on
the way they are treated by staff' at a venue with 92 per cent indicating in a survey in the USA that customer service
should be the number one priority of management. It is this 'customer service' together with the architecture of the
venue which will serve to maintain the goodwill of the spectators.
The Colosseum and similar Roman amphitheatres developed their own type of separation in the form of a
surrounding wall - possibly designed more to protect the spectators from the activities taking place in the arena than
the other way round. Bullrings in Spain and Southern France developed along similar lines with a change in height
between the first row of seating and the bullring, essential to ensure the safety of the audience. In the latter part of
the twentieth century the roles have been reversed, with the boundary serving to protect the activity area from the
spectators.
There are three commonly-used design techniques for separating the activity area from the spectators: perimeter
fences, moats and changes of level.
Perimeter fences
Advantages
There are two good reasons for having a robust fence (Figure 6.1) between spectators and pitch. The First is
protection of players and officials from hostile spectators. The second is the protection of a natural grass pitch
surface from compaction of the subsoil by spectators' feet.
Disadvantages
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