Concept Theories of learning: Behavioral perspective Classical conditioning Operant conditioning Cognitive perspective Observational learning Insight learning Application of learning theories: Shaping behavior Positive reinforcement Negative reinforcement Punishment Extinction Schedule of reinforcement Behavior modification

1. PRESENTATION
Members :
SAMIKSHA MAINALI KRISHNA GUPTA
RANJANA YADAV Rupesh Niraula
Vhawana parajuli Yadav Adikari
Shakuntala Rauniyar

2. LEARNING
DATE :2071/03/19

3. Contents:
o Concept
o Theories of learning:
• Behavioral perspective
 Classical conditioning
 Operant conditioning
• Cognitive perspective
 Observational learning
 Insight learning
o Application of learning theories:
• Shaping behavior
 Positive reinforcement
 Negative reinforcement
 Punishment
 Extinction
• Schedule of reinforcement
• Behavior modification

4. Concept
Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavioral tendency
and is the result of reinforced practice.

5. Characteristics of learning
 Learning is a continuous process.
 Learning is a key process in human behavior.
 Without learning, life becomes meaningless and
colorless.
 Learning shapes our thoughts, language, motivations,
emotions, personalities and attitudes.
 It ranges from simple to complex.
 It is influenced by the learning, stimulus, and
environmental factors.

6. Theories of learning
Behavioral
perspective
Classical
conditioning
Operant
conditioning
Cognitive perspective
Observational
learning
Insight
learning

7. A. Classical conditioning:
 Russian physiologist and scientist Ivan P. Pavlov developed
the conditioning technique known as ‘Pavlovian’
conditioning’.
 He conducted much of his research on dogs, and example
of classical conditioning can be found in many human
behaviors.
 Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which a
neutral stimulus comes to bring about a response after it is
paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that
response.
1. Behavioral perspective

8. BASIC ELEMENTS OF CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING
1. Neutral stimulus: A stimulus that before conditioning, does
not naturally bring about the response of interest.
2. Unconditioned stimulus: A stimulus that naturally brings
about a particular response without having been learned.
3. Unconditioned response: A response that is natural and needs
no training.
4. Conditioned stimulus: A neutral stimulus that have been
paired with an unconditioned stimulus to bring about a
response formally caused only by the unconditioned stimulus.
5. Conditioned response: A response that, after conditioning,
follows a previously neutral stimulus.

9. Experiment based on classical conditioning

10. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING
 Extinction: A basic phenomenon of learning that occurs when a
previously conditioned response decreases in frequently and
eventually disappears.
 Spontaneous recovery: The reemergence of an extinguished
conditioned response after a period of rest and with no further
conditioning.
 Stimulus generalization: A process in which, after a stimulus
has been conditioned to produce a particular response, stimuli
that are similar to the original stimulus produce the same
response.
 Stimulus discrimination: The process that occurs if two stimuli
are sufficiently distinct from one another that one envokes a
conditioned response but the other does not; the ability to
differentiate between stimuli.

11. Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1904-1990)
pioneer of the operant conditioning.
Skinner developed a “behavioral
technology “that enabled him to teach
pigeon, animals, and human a desired
behavior.
“All we need to know in order to
describe and explain behavior is this:
actions followed by good outcomes are
likely to recur , and actions followed by
bad outcomes are less likely to recur.”
(Skinner, 1953)

12. B. Operant conditioning :
It is derived from the word ‘operate’.
Skinner used the term operant to refer to any "active behavior
that operates upon the environment to generate
consequences" (1953).
Operant conditioning is a method of learning that occurs through
rewards and punishments for behavior through operant
conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and
a consequence for that behavior.

13. Key Terms:
Operant Conditioning
Learning through
voluntary behavior
and its subsequent
consequences;
reinforcement
increases behavioral
tendencies, whereas
punishment
decreases them.
Reinforcement
Strengthens a
response and makes
it more likely to
recur.
Punishment
Weakens a response
and makes it less
likely to recur.

14. Experiment based on classical conditioning
Let’s have a look on experiment conducted by B.F
Skinner..learninghyperlink folderAn example of a Skinner Box.mp4

15. Consequences are Key!

16. 2. Cognitive perspective
A. Observational learning

17. 1. Shaping Behavior
Shaping is an experimental process used in operant conditioning
by which successive approximations of a target behavior are
reinforced.
This method relies on the :
 Use of behavioral reinforcement
 Use of behavioral punishment
Application of learning theories:

18. Shaping
Reinforcement Positive
reinforcement
Negative
reinforcement
Extinction
Punishment

19. Reinforcement
Procedure that:
 increases the likelihood that the response will occur &
 strengthen behavior
It is the application or removal of a stimulus to increase the
strength of a specific behavior.
There are two types of reinforcement:
 Positive reinforcement
 Negative reinforcement

20. Positive reinforcement
 It strengthens responses that precede occurrence of stimulus.
 It involves the impact of positive reinforces.
 Positive reinforces - event or stimuli that increases the probability that
the responses will occur again in the future.

22. Factors influencing Positive reinforcement
 Timing
 Consistency in providing reinforcement
 The reinforcer must be reinforcing

23. Negative Reinforcement
 It strengthens responses that permit the escape or avoidance of
stimulus.
 It involves the impact of negative reinforcers.
 Negative reinforcers- event or stimuli that strengthens responses
that lead to their termination or avoidance.

25. Types of Negative reinforcement
Escape conditioning:
Behavior is reinforced by the elimination of expected event from happening.
Avoidance conditioning:
Behavior is reinforced by preventing an expected event from happening.

26. Punishment
 A punishment has the opposite affect, decreasing the
likelihood, or rate of responding to a target response.
 Punishment, when appropriately used, can be a valuable
tool for discouraging inappropriate behavior.
 Punishment is also positive and negative.

27. Factors influencing Punishment
 The punishment should be applied immediately after the undesired
responses that is to be eliminated.
 The punishment should be strong enough to make a real difference.
 Punishment should be applied uniformly.
 Provide alternative desired reinforcer for the person.

28. Extinction
 Extinction refers to the systematic withholding of the
reinforcers which had previously maintained a behavior.
 Ignoring a behavior is an example of extinction if that
behavior has been maintained by the attention of the
person doing the ignoring.

29. Extinction is likely to work effectively under
these conditions:
 If the person has previously received continuous reinforcement for the
behavior.
 If reinforcement has occurred only a few times.
 If the person is not excessively deprived of the reinforcer.
 If the behavior requires a great deal of effort.
 If it is possible to withdraw all the reinforcers.
 If extinction can be combined with punishment, reinforcement of an
alternative behavior, or modeling.

30. 2. Schedule of reinforcement
Reinforcement is anything that increases the likelihood that a
response will occur. A schedule of reinforcement is basically a
rule stating which instance of a behaviour will be reinforced.
In operant conditioning ,schedules of reinforcement are an
important component of the learning process when and how
often we reinforce a behaviour can have a dramatic impact on
the strength and rate of the response.

31. Certain types of reinforcement may be more
effective in specific situations
A. Continuous reinforcement:-
It is a conditioning principle where the subject is rewarded
every time it does the appropriate action.
A. Partial reinforcement:-
Partial reinforcement is when an individual is rewarded on
some but not all, trials. There are four kinds of partial
reinforcement:-
 Fixed –ratio schedule
 Variable ratio schedule
 fixed interval schedule
 variable interval schedule

32. 3. Behavior modification
 A formalized technique for promoting the frequency of
desirable behaviors & decreasing the incidence of unwanted
ones
 It is a great way to address a variety of behavior problem,
 The techniques are often applied in every life
 tries to stimulate & maintain desired & extinguish undesired
behavior
 targets specific behaviors that require change
 Also know as Applied behavior analysis (ABA)
It cosisits of four components ie
 Positive reinforcement
 Negetive reinforcement
 Positive punishment
 Negetive punishment

33. Steps of Behavior Modification
Identifying goals & target behaviors.
Designing a data recording system & recording
preliminary data.
Selecting a behavior change strategy.
Implementing the program.
Keeping careful records after the program is
implemented.
Evaluating & altering the ongoing program.

34.  Mr Arjun Rai
 All the Viewes
 And all the Group members