3. Observation
Meriam – Webster dictionary (2012) defines
observe as „to watch carefully especially with
attention to details or behaviour for the
purpose of arriving at a judgment.
Observation as the best way to answer some
research questions – observing how people act
and how things look.
4. Roles of a Researcher
Participant Nonparticipant
Observation observation
Overt Participant Participant-as-
Observer observer
Covert Participant Observer-as-
Observer participant
5. Figure 1 : Variations in Approaches to Observation
(Frankael, Wallen & Hyun (2012)
6. Naturalistic Observation
• It involves observing individuals in their natural
setting.
• No effort is required to manipulate variables or to
control activities, but simply observes and records
what happens.
• Example of naturalistic observer – Jean Piaget.
7. Simulations
Individual • You are a primary teacher and a
student of yours has been away from
school for more than two weeks. What
Role do you say to him when he suddenly
appears at school?
Playing
• The district is having an action song
competition and your school never
Team Role participate in the competition. As
new English teachers, all of you are
required to discuss on the reasons
Playing why the school did not participate in
that competition before. What will
be the outcome?
8. Observer Effect
• “ The presence of an observer can have a
considerable impact on the behaviour of those being
observed and hence, on the outcomes of the study”.
• Bernard (n.d), as cited in Frankel, Wallen and Hyun
(2012) suggests that “eventually, people just get plain
tired of trying to manage your impression and they
act naturally. In research, the trick is to catch a
glimpse of people in their natural activities before
they see you coming on the scene – before they have
the chance to modify the behaviour.
9. Curiosity aroused, resulted
in a lack of attention to the
task at hand, thus
producing other-than-
normal-behaviour.
If an
observer is
unexpected
The behaviour of those
who are being observed
might be influenced by the
researcher‟s purpose
10. Observer bias and
expectations
• Observer bias refers to the possibility that certain
characteristics or ideas of observers may bias what
they „see‟.
•This is influenced to some degree by past
experiences; how we see the world and the people
within it.
•Observer expectations refers to if the researchers
may expect a certain type of behaviour which may
not be how the subjects normally behave.
11. Coding Observational Data
• The coding scheme is a set of categories that an observer uses to
record the frequency of a person‟s or group‟s behaviour.
Figure 2 : The Amidon/ Flanders Scheme for Coding Categories of Interactions in the
Classrooms
(Amidon & Hough ,1967)
12. The Use of Technology
• Recording the behaviour of people using video or digital recording
devices permits the researcher to repeatedly view the behaviour of an
individual or a group and then decide how to code it at a later, usually
more relaxed and convenient time.
• To record observation perfectly
• Observation can be reviewed several times
• Experts or interested others can view and share
insights
• Permanent record of certain kinds of behaviours is
obtained for comparison with later or different
samples
• Good video requires some training and prior
experiences
• Several microphones can distort the participant
behaviour
• Prolonged recording can be expensive
• Audio – record only verbal behaviour
• Noise is difficult to distinguish specific speakers and
sometimes interferes with the understanding of the
content
13. INTERVIEWING
The second method for qualitative research.
The most important data collection technique a
qualitative researcher possesses (Fetterman)
The purposes:
* to discover the views, opinions and thought of the samples
(Patton)
* to discover the overlooked things during the observation
* to check the accuracy of data collection.
14. INTERVIEWING
Semi
Informal
structured
Structured There are
FOUR (4) types
of interviews
that can be used
in a qualitative
research;
15. TYPES OF INTERVIEWS
* verbal questionnaires
* are conducted in a formal manner.
Structure
d * are best conducted toward the end of the study
Semi * effective in testing the hypothesis of the research.
structured
* the most common type of interview
* no certain guidelines of asking the questions.
Informal * less formal/casual manner.
* the objective is to gain the views, thoughts and opinions of the samples.
* issues of ethics – too personal?
* applicable in various forms;
* structured, semi-structured or informal.
* the least favourable type of the interview
* requires the samples to recall and reconstruct of something that happened in the
past.
* there is a possibility that the data is not accurate thus unreliable for the research.
16. INTERVIEW STRATEGIES
There are FOUR (4) major
Informal
interview strategies 1 Conversation
al Interview
Interview
Guide
2 Approach
Standardized Closed, Fixe
3 Open-Ended
Interview
4 d-Response
Interview.
17. INTERVIEW STRATEGIES
Informal Conversational Interview Interview Guide Approach
1 2
Characteristics: Characteristics:
* the questions are not planned * The topics and issues are outlined in
* they are asked in accordance to the advance.
situation. * The questions and sequence will be
determined during the interview.
Strengths: Strengths:
* Individuality * systematic data collection
- the questions & the interview * The outline acts as a guidance
Weaknesses:
Weaknesses:
* vast different responses from one
* different responses from one sample to
sample to
another due to the flexibility in
another
developing the questions.
* the data could not be easy to analyse
* the data could not be easy to analyse
18. INTERVIEW STRATEGIES
Standardize Open-ended Interview Closed, Fixed-response Interview
3 Characteristics: 4
* The questions and sequence are Characteristics:
planned * The categories for the questions and
before the interview. responses are already prepared in
* The samples are asked the same advance.
questions * Responses are fixed.
by the researcher.
* The questions are in open-ended
format. Strengths:
Strengths: *The data becomes simpler and clearer
*the data could be easy to analyse to
be analysed and compared.
*Less time consuming
Weaknesses:
Weaknesses:
*limits the naturalness and relevance of
*Respondents might face difficulties in
the
responding to the questions
questions to the samples.
*Limited choice of responses
19. KEY-ACTOR INTERVIEWS
The term „key actor‟ derives from the term „key
informant‟.
Definitions:
Key informant
the individuals who know their culture and history
and are able to articulate better than others.
Key actor
The individuals who are knowledgeable and
informative.
Excellent source of knowledge
In a research context, researchers should take
some time to identify and build rapport with the
key actors of a population.
20. TYPES OF INTERVIEW
QUESTIONS
There are SIX (6) types of
basic questions
which
Feeling
are; questions
Knowledge Opinion
questions questions
Experience
questions
Background Sensory
questions questions
21. TYPES OF INTERVIEW
QUESTIONS
-Demographic questions
-feature questions related to respondents Backgroun
d questions
-For example; education level, age, income etc.
-feature questions related to the facts that the respondents know
-The information of the school , the graduation requirements, etc.
-For example; Knowledg
What is the graduation requirement in this school? e questions
-Behaviour questions
-To discover the respondents‟ experience, behaviour or activities that could not be
observed due to
several reasons such as;
Experience
*The researcher was not there questions
*It was happening in the past
-For example;
If I were to follow you through a typical day here at your school,
22. TYPES OF INTERVIEW
QUESTIONS
-Values questions
-Concern on the respondents‟ views, opinions and thoughts Opinion
-For example; questions
What do you think about ________________?
-Related to how respondents feel on certain things
-For example; Feeling
How do you feel about _____________?
questions
-Rely on the five senses;
-What is seen, heard, tasted, smelled and Sensory
touched by the respondents. questions
-For example;
When you enter your classroom, what do you see?
23. INTERVIEWING
BEHAVIOUR
There are a set of expectations of how the
researchers should behave during the interview.
be
natural
respect the
The
build rapport with
respondents and researcher the respondents
their culture
should;
etc
24. FOCUS GROUP
INTERVIEW
• a group of small people
• they are seated together and asked a series of questions to think
of.
• the objective is to identify what this group of people think
about the questions asked.
• not a discussion, problem-solving or
decision-making session.
25. FOCUS GROUP
INTERVIEW
knowledgeable
Characteristics
Roles
Facilitating interaction
Drawing out differing perspectives
Keeping sessions focused Facilitator
Challenge participants in bringing out
differing
opinions about a topic
Probe for more details
26. FOCUS GROUP
INTERVIEW
• There are 3 parts;
facilitator/moderator facilitator/moderator
•welcomes members •thanking and debriefing
•explains purpose, Closing participants
context and rules Opening
•giving them opportunity for
further input.
Middle
participants answer main research
questions
27. RECORDING DATA
involves
•Advantages:
To keep track the conscious and unconscious response of the respondents.
Facilitate later analysis, including locating important quotations from the
recording device
Indicate to respondents that what have been said was of importance.
28. ETHICS IN INTERVIEWING:
the necessity for informed consent.
• It is preferable to
request participants to
sign an informed
consent form.
• to preserve the rights
of both interviewers
and participants
• to avoid misunderstanding of any issues regarding the
interview.
29. CHECKLISTS I
A type of informational job aid used to
Comprehensive list of important or reduce failure by compensating for
relevant actions, or steps to be taken in potential limits of human memory and
a specific order. attention. It helps to ensure consistency
(http:/www. businessdictionary.com) and completeness in carrying out a task.
(Wikipedia)
General
Definitions
A list of items to be noted, checked and
A list of things you need to do or
remembered.
consider.
(The American Heritage@Dictionary of
(MacMillan)
the English Language)
30. CHECKLISTS II
Generally, it is as a tool or instrument for data collection
Ensures a more complete
The simplest of all the devices
consideration of all aspects of
for data collection
the object, act or task.
It consists of a prepared list of
Contain terms, which the
items pertinent to an object or
respondent understands
a particular task
Presence or absence of each
May be used as an independent
item may be indicated by
tool or as a part of a
checking „yes‟ or „no‟ or
schedule/questionnaire
multipoint scale
31. CATEGORIES
Checklist is divided in TWO (2) categories ;
Performance Checklists Self – checklists
most frequently used of all measuring List of several characteristics or
instruments activities presented to the subjects
of a study
Consists of a list of behaviours that
make up a certain type of Individuals place a mark opposite
performance. the characteristics they possess or
the activities they have engaged for
To determine whether an a particular length of time.
individual behaves in a certain
way when asked to complete a
Often used when
particular task
researchers want
No
students to diagnose or
subjective If particular behavior is present, to appraise their own
judgments a check mark is placed performance
32. THE PURPOSES
Enhance quality of research
proposals
As a guide to build skills in Provide formative evaluation for
writing research proposals that the success in the summative
involve human participants evaluation process
Outline necessary content for research proposals involving human
participants, and learning activities are intended to build application
skills
To guide evaluative feedback As a guide to evaluate previous
proposals, thus produces clear
Communicate important understanding of the criteria and
course content standards
33. FUNDAMENTAL
Brookfield‟s 5 Principles
• Explain Intentions Clearly is a guiding principle when distributing checklists.
Checklist clearly communicates performance expectations in terms of criteria and
P1 standards.
• Improve Clarity in Instructions – checklist specifically identifies what needs to be
P2 included in a proposal or what parts of a proposal may need revision.
• Sort Out Causes of Resistance – use of checklist at intervals help researchers build
confidence in their ability to develop a high-quality proposal that meets criteria and
P3 standards.
• Conduct Regular Formative Evaluation – in the form of troubleshooting, private
P4 feedback, buddy system, small group feedback sessions
• Overcome Fear in Public – checklists build confidence and eliminates errors before
P5 presenting a proposal, creating “success” experience.
