1. STRUCTURALISM AND POSTSTRUCTURALISM:
A JOURNEY OF THEORIES OF LITERATURE
By
Alfian Rokhmansyah, S.S.
Abstract
Within a century, the development of literary theories seems growing rapidly. When
they firstly emerged, literary theories dwelt only on the structure of literary work called
theories of structuralism. Structuralism theory is a theory which existed since the days
of Aristotle, but has continuously been renewed until the beginning of the 20th century.
The mobilizations of the groups who rejected the structuralist tradition are the main
result of the development of literary theories. The development of literary theory began
with the theories of structuralism whose view suggests that literature is an autonomous
structure. In further developments, the theory of structuralism began to be abandoned
and some new poststructuralist theories which reject as well as escape from the
structural bindings emerged. Theories of poststructuralism attempt to provide literary
theories which do not dwell only on the structure of the text, but also on the extrinsic
structure and literary relationship with the environment. Some structuralist theories are
classified into Russian formalism, new criticism, structuralism dynamic, genetic
structuralism, narratology, and semiotics while poststructuralist are postmodernism,
postcolonialism, deconstruction, literary reception, intertextual, literary feminism, and
naratologi poststructuralist theories. The theory of structuralism and poststructuralism
can be used to analyze classic and modern literature. This is because literary theories
can be adjusted in an attempt to understand the different objects. In addition, the
development of literary theories is also caused by the need for new theories which can
support the studies of literature. Thus, this becomes the cause of the emergence of
interdisciplinary theories in the literature.
Keywords: literary theory, structuralism, poststructuralism.
INTRODUCTION
In a discipline of science, word theory is a common term. Theory can be regarded
as an ingredient while the science itself is the cuisine. In general, what is meant by
theory is a scientific system or systematic knowledge that defines the relationship
between the arrangement pattern of symptoms observed. The theory contains a concept
or a description of the general laws of science an object from a particular viewpoint. A
theory can be logically deduced and verified the truth or denied their validity on an
object or phenomenon which is being observed.
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2. Literary theory is the study of principles, categories, criteria that can be referenced
and made as the point of departure in the study in the field of literature while the study
of a concrete work is called literary criticism and literary history. Three of them are very
closely related. There is no way we formulate the theory of literature without literary
criticism and theories of literature, literary criticism without theories of literature, and
history of literature (Wellek and Warren 1989: 38–39).
At the beginning of its appearance, literary theory dwelt on the literary structure,
which was often called the period of structuralism. Theories of structuralism is that the
genesis of the theory has existed since the days of Aristotle, but has continuously been
updated throughout its history until the early 20th century (Ratna 2009: 5). The
development of structuralism theory since the days of Russian formalism to
poststructuralism through many changes were made to the bearers. This shows that
literary theory has been greatly developing. Virtually, all literary theories since the time
of Aristotle have stressed the importance of understanding the structure in the analysis
of a literary work. But the critique of structuralism in particular the term refers to the
practice of literary criticism which bases its analysis on the model of modern linguistic
theory.
Theories of structuralism and poststructuralism can be used to analyze classic and
modern literature. This is because literary theory can be modified in an attempt to
understand the different objects. According to Ratna (2009: 15–16) the rapid
development of literary theory up to date has been triggered by several causes. They
are; 1) the medium of literature is the language that has a large problem, (2) literature
involves various dimensions of culture containing various problems; (3) the major
theories in the field of literature has evolved since Aristotle’s era who has matured in
various disciplines, (4) the difficulties in understanding the literary phenomenon
triggers the scientists to find new theories, and (5) the range of literature is growing at a
dynamic and requires different ways of understanding.
SUMMARY OF THE THEORIES OF MODERN LITERATURE
Theories of Structuralism
The development of literary theory was started since the beginning of the 20th
century. The development of literary theories is in line with the development of literary
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3. genres. This shows that the more development of a literary genre the newer literary
theories are required. During that period, structuralism was widely used in analyzing
literary works.
Before the structuralism theories emerged, a theory was developing in Russia,
namely the theory formalism which was carried by Russian Formalism group.
Formalism theory emerged as a result of refusal on positivism paradigm of the 19th
century who firmly held the principles of causality and as the reaction towards the study
of biography. Russian Formalism is generally regarded as a pioneer for the growth and
development of theories of structuralism.
The main author of formalist is Roman Jakobson who later helped establishing the
Linguistic Circle of Prague in 1926. The formalists began producing literary theory
concerned with the technical skills and job skills of the author’s hand (Selden 1993: 2).
The main purpose of formalism is the scientific study of the literature. They believe that
their study will enhance the ability of readers to read literary texts with an appropriate
trust. Perception through artistic form improves awareness of the world and generates a
lot of things (Nuryatin 2005: 3).
After many authors who rejected formalist theory, some new theories arise because
of the dissatisfaction with the formalism, namely the theory of structuralism. Although
structuralism is still related to Russian formalism, structuralism is generally regarded as
the development of the formalism. Prior to development of structuralism, in the United
States develops a theory and model of the flow of new literature, namely the New
Criticism. The term new criticism was first raised by John Crowe Ransom in his book
The New Criticism (1940) and supported by I.A. Richard and T.S. Eliot. This flow
appeared as a reaction against previous literary criticism that too much focused on those
aspects of life and psychology of the author and literary history. The new criticism
accused science and technology for eliminating the values of humanity and of society
and made them one-sided. According to them, science is inadequate in reflecting human
life. On the other hand, literature, especially poetry, is a kind of knowledge, namely
knowledge through experience. The task of literary criticism is to show and maintain the
peculiar, unique, and comprehensive knowledge as those offered to us by great literature
(Van Luxemburg et al, 1988: 52–54). Structuralism is actually a philosophical
understanding that views the world as a structured reality. It is applied in the literature
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4. that considers work of literature is an autonomous structure. In the theories of
structuralism there is an inter-relational concept which states that literary work is a
structure consisting of elements that relates one to another. The elements can only have
meanings in relationship, both associate or opposite relations. Relationships that can be
learned are relating to microtext (words, sentences), a wider form (verse, chapters), and
the intertextual (other works within a certain period).
Structuralism attempts to provide a scientific basis for the theory of literature, as
required by other scientific disciplines. As object of the research, literary works are
identified as a beautiful art object because of its use of a particular language. The object
of study is then placed in a system or relational arrangement for easy management. With
this system, we collect and discover the relationships that exist in reality being
observed. In a further development of the theory of structuralism, some groups
emerged; the theories of dynamic structuralism, genetic structuralism, narratology
structuralism, and semiotics. These theories have their own characteristics which are
used in the research of literature. Dynamic structuralism (Ratna 2009: 93), which was
firstly put forward by Mukarovsky and Felik Vodicka, is based on the weaknesses of
structuralism as alleged as the development of the formalism. Dynamic structuralism
aims to improve the structuralism which prioritizes the intrinsic elements of literature
only.
Genetic structuralism is in line with dynamic structuralism that developed on the
basis of a rejection of pure structuralism analysis, i.e. analysis of the intrinsic elements.
Structuralisme dynamic and genetic structuralism reject literary language functions as a
distinct language. But within the scope of literary communication, dynamic
structuralism confines to the role of writers and readers of literature, while the genetic
structuralism goes further into the social structure. The main author in the genetic
structuralism is Lucien Goldmann. Genetic structuralism has more implications in
relation to the development of human sciences in general. A structure, for Goldmann,
must be refined to have meaning, in which each symptom has a meaning when it is
associated with a larger structure, and so on until every element sustains its totality
(Ratna 2009: 121–122).
In the development of structuralism, there are groups of structuralism narratology.
Narratology is also called the theory of narrative text. Both narratology and theories of
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5. discourse (text), narrative is defined as a set of concepts about stories and storytelling.
Narratology is developed on the basis of linguistic analogy, as a model of syntax, as the
relationship between subject, predicate, and as the object (Ratna 2009: 128). In the early
stage in the development of narrative theory, there are some founding authors, such as:
Aristotle Poetica (story and text), Henry James (the characters and story), Forster
(figures round and flat), Percy Lubbock (narrative technique), Vladimir Propp (roles
and functions), Claude Levi-Strauss (the structure of myth), Tzvetan Todorov (historie
and discours), Claude Bremond (structure and function), Mieke Bal (fabula, story, text),
Greimas (grammar and structure of narrative actants), and Shlomith Rimmon-Kenan
(story, text, narration). In general, the structuralist periods are involved in the
dichotomy and sjuzhet fabula (story and plot).
There is term semiotic theory in the theories of structural period. Structuralism and
semiotics are generally from different theoretical frameworks. In fact, literary semiotics
is not a stream of literature. Various flows like structuralism and sciences could be
called semiotic linguistics literature (Van Luxemburg et al, 1984: 44–46). This differs
from Culler’s opinion (in Ratna 2009: 97) which states that structuralism and semiotics
are two theories that are similar, whereas structuralism focuses on the work of semiotics
at the sign. While Selden (1993: 55) revealed that structuralism and semiotics are the
same two areas of science so that both can be operated simultaneously. Semiotic
analysis is a follow up from an analysis of structuralism.
Theories of poststructuralism
In the late 1960s, a new understanding was born which was considered as a
complement and follow up of poststructuralism. Poststructuralist thoughts have found
an essential unstable nature of meaning. Post-structuralism emerged due to the
weaknesses of structuralism, such as (1) model of structuralism analysis is considered
rigid because it is only based on the structure and particular system, (2) structuralism is
more paying attention to literary work as an autonomous system, so that it forgets the
author and readers, and (3) the results of the analysis are as if just for the sake of literary
works and ignore the interests of society. The birth of poststructuralism was intended to
anticipate the various distortions semantic system so that literature may function well in
society.
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6. In poststructuralist area, there appeared some theories that are developing up to
today, such as the theory of postmodernism, postcolonialism, reader response,
intertextual, literary feminism, deconstruction, and poststructuralist narratology. The
emergence of poststructuralist automatically ignore and will deconstruct the structure so
that poststructuralism is generally referred as deconstruction. Deconstruction is a kind
of literary theory which pays little attention to the structure of literary works. According
to Ratna (2009: 222), deconstruction, pioneered by Jaques Derrida, denies the existence
of logosentrism and fonosentrism which deliver binary oppositions and other ways of
thinking that is hierarchically dichotomous.
Abrams said that deconstruction is essentially a way of reading the text that
subverts the assumption that says a text has a foundation, the system applies the
language to clarify the structure, integrity, and meaning that has been erratic. This
theory rejects the notion that language has single, absolute, and constant meaning like
the views of classical structuralism (in Nurgiyantoro 1998: 59).
According Endraswara (2008b: 167–168), poststructuralist can be considered as
postmodernist period. This is caused by the fact that postmodernists is the opposite of
modernism that still utilizes the structural theories of literary analysis. The analysis of
modernism that was brought by the modernists would stop at the structural study of
literature. The main characteristic is the postmodernist’ rejection of the existence of one
central, absoluteness, major narratives, metanarrative, the monolinier movement of
history. Postmodernists subverts the uniformity, homogeneity, and totality by giving
intensity on the differences, relativity, and pluralism.
Narratology that develops in the poststructuralist period generally deconstructs the
dichotomy of parole and langue, fabula, and sjuzhet with the characteristics of narrative
nonliteral, interdisciplinary, including feminists and psychoanalysis. The founders
among them are Gerard Gennet (sequence, duration, frequency, mode, and voice),
Gerald Prince (narratee structure), Seymoeur Chatman (narrative structure), Jonathan
Culler (competency literature), Roland Barthes (kernels and satellits) Mikhail Bakhtin
(polyphonic discourse), Hayden White (discourse history), Mary Louise Pratt (action
words), Umberto Eco (discourse and lies), Michel Foucault (discourse and power),
Jean-Francois Lyotard (metanarasi), and Jean Baudrillad (hiperealitas, pastiche). (Ratna
2009: 242)
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7. In the poststructuralist period, the theories of reader response and intertext are
growing rapidly. The reader response gives attention to the reader, while intertext on the
relationship between one work with others. In broader term, the reader response is a text
processing, the way of making meaning of literary works. In the world of literature,
theory of reader response which is widely used is the theory of Hans Robert Jauss’s
reader response (horizon of expectation) and Wolfgang Iser (implicit reader). In the
development, hovewer, some new authors emerged such as Jonathan Culler with his
convention reader theory.
Intertext theory will not escape from the theory of the hipogram Riffaterre concept.
According Riffaterre (in Endraswara 2008b: 132) hipogram is the main capital in the
literature that will give birth the next literary work. So it can be interpreted that
hipogram is a literary work that will be the background of the next literary masterpiece
called transformation. The basic principle of intertextuality is a literary work can only
be fully understood if the meaning is in relation with other texts that became hipogram.
In subsequent developments, poststructuralist theories also received contributions
from contemporary theories in the 1960s, and the feminist theory pioneered by Virginia
Woolf (Ratna 2009: 183). The concept of feminism is to reverse the paradigm that
women are under the domination of men, women are complementary, and women as
being second. In line with this concept, the study of feminism in literature is a literary
study of women, women writers, women readers, women leaders, and so forth.
Poststructuralist theory that can be considered new is the theories of
postcolonialism. Postcolonial theory can be defined as a critical theory that tries to
reveal the effects caused by colonialism (Ratna 2008: 120). The analysis using
postcolonial theory can be used to trace the hidden aspects in order to know how a
power works and to dismantle the discipline, institution, and its underlying ideology. In
this context, language, literature, and culture may play a role in all three symptoms
because it contains a discourse intended by the colonialists (2008: 104). Postcolonial
theory was originally devoted to examine countries that were directly used to be
colonies. But in its development, postcolonialism is considered to have an global effect.
Interdisciplinary Theories
The development of interdisciplinary theories arose as a result of the needs of the
researchers of literature on the theories of other disciplines that can be utilized in the
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8. study of literature. In fact, interdispliner theories have been discussed since the time of
structuralists named Wellek and Warren in Theory of Literature book. In the book, they
show the relationship between literary works with other fields, namely literature and
thoughts, literature and psychology, literature and society, literature and biography. The
relationship between literature with psychology and life are growing today. Most of
interdisciplinary theories found in literature are the theories of psychology, sociology,
and anthropology literature. In practice, these interdisciplinary researches use the
theories of structuralism and poststructuralism in addition to the theories of other
disciplines.
Literature in psychology is an interdisciplinary field of humanities with the science
of psychology. Sigmund Freud’s theory of psychoanalysis is one of some widely used
theories. Other examples are Carl Gustav Jung (psychology of personality), Hurlock
(developmental psychology), and so on. In its application in the study of literature,
psychology can be used to analyze the psychology of the author, character’s and
reader’s psychology.
The field of sociology of literature is an interdisciplinary field of humanities with
the social science theories. Social science theories widely used in the study of literature
is the theory of hegemony that was brought by Antonio Gramsci, the theory of genetic
structuralism by Lucian Goldmann, Marxist theories of Karl Marx, the theory of
ideology, theory trilogy of author-reader’s work, and the theory of dialogical (Ratna
2009: 339).
Antropology of literature is an interdisciplinary field of literature with the science
of anthropology, particularly the study of cultural anthropology. In this field, there are
studies that utilize the theories of structuralist and poststructuralist
narratology.Generally, anthropological theories are used to analyze the folklore
literature, both oral and written ones. In its development, anthropology literature is also
evolved into the ethnography and cultural studies in the literature. This suggests that the
anthropological literature has relevance to local patterned literature. According to Ratna
(2009: 353), anthropological literature tends to focus attention on an ancient society.
Literary works with the conflicts of myth and language full of archaic words are used as
the objects of anthropological study of literature.
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9. CLOSING
Within a century, the development of literary theories seems growing fast. It is also
influenced by the contribution of the theories of other disciplines. The mobilization of
those who reject the structural habit is the main cause of the development.
The differences of opinion about literary theories would never end, and need not to
be ended. With the advent of poststructuralist theories, it does not mean that the
structuralist theory is no longer relevant and should be abandoned. There are many of
the research literature that combine the two different theories today which result deeper
analysis on the objects. Literary theories that exist now will have developed if the
researchers are able to adjust the literature theories towards literary works in the future.
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Media Pressindo.
_________. 2008b. Metodologi Penelitian Sastra. Yogyakarta: Media Pressindo.
Faruk. 1999. Pengantar Sosiologi Sastra. Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar.
Nurgiyantoro, Burhan. 1998. Teori Pengkajian Fiksi. Yogyakarta: UGM Press.
Nuryatin, Agus. 2005. Formalisme Rusia: Mengolah Fakta dalam Fiksi. Semarang:
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_________. 2006. “Teori Sastra I”. Modul. FBS, Unnes.
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Rachmat Djoko Pradopo. Yogyakarta: UGM Press.
Sugihastuti. 2005. Kritik Sastra Feminis. Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar.
Teeuw, A. 1988. Sastra dan Ilmu Sastra. Jakarta: Dunia Pustaka.
Todorov, Tzvetan. 1985. Tata Sastra. Jakarta: Penerbit Djambatan.
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