Fertilizer has enormous potential to help Sub-Saharan Africa achieve food security. But its farmers use less fertilizer than anywhere in the world. So far it has proved too expensive for many smallholders, and in some cases its misuse has actually led to the deterioration of soil fertility. As this briefing explains, to reverse this trend and to encourage the optimum use of fertilizer, lessons must be learned from past experience. Link: http://digital.agripolicyoutreach.org/54545/IMPROVING-THE-EFFECTVENESS-EFFICIENCY-AND-SUSTAINABILTY-OF-FERTILIZER-USE-IN-SUB-SAHARAN-AFRICA/Policy-Brief

1. Briefing Paper Number 3 | 2012
GDN Agriculture Policy Series
Improving the Saa Dittoh
Olubunmi Omotosho
effectiveness, efficiency Adama Belemvire
and sustainability Margaret Akuriba
Khondoker Haider
of fertilizer use in
Sub-Saharan Africa
Fertilizer has enormous potential to help Sub-Saharan Africa achieve A man squats on a field looking
food security. But its farmers use less fertilizer than anywhere in over failed crops in the Kobo region,
Ethiopia. Sub-Saharan Africa has yet
the world. So far it has proved too expensive for many smallholders, to realize the potential of fertilizer
and in some cases its misuse has actually led to the deterioration for improving yields.
of soil fertility. As this briefing explains, to reverse this trend and frederic courbet | panos pictures
to encourage the optimum use of fertilizer, lessons must be learned
from past experience.
This briefing paper is one of the
Key messages 10-part Global Development
Network (GDN) Agriculture Policy
Fertilizer use in Sub-Saharan Africa is
p Policy formulation in the region has
p Series for its project, ‘Supporting
low because of poor inherent soil fertility, not always been based on critical Policy Research to Inform
agronomic and economic analyses Agricultural Policy in Sub-Saharan
poor extension services, constraints to Africa and South Asia’. It is based
fertilizer availability and limited availability of the advantages and disadvantages on a longer synthesis paper,
of complementary inputs. as well as opportunities and challenges Improving the effectiveness,
facing Sub-Saharan African farmers. efficiency and sustainability
The profitability of fertilizer use in
p of fertilizer use in Sub-Saharan
Agricultural policymakers in the Africa, which draws on extensive
the region is lower than elsewhere in the
region must move away from the published and unpublished
developing world, reflecting low crop research. The full paper
‘one-size-fits-all’ philosophy and
response to fertilizer, the region’s poorly can be downloaded at:
each country must implement policies www.agripolicyoutreach.org
developed marketing systems, its difficult
that consider the diversity of its will be of value to policymakers,
It
production environment (transport,
agricultural production system. experts and civil society working
distance to markets) and the unstable to improve agriculture in
prices of outputs. Fertilizer use can be improved by
p Sub-Saharan Africa.
increasing farmers’ knowledge and This project is supported by the
skills, by developing fertilizer distribution Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.
systems through the private sector
and nurturing current fertilizer subsidy
programs in Sub-Saharan African
countries to maturity.
Briefing Paper Number 3 Improving the effectiveness, efficiency and sustainability of fertilizer use in Sub-Saharan Africa 1

2. Overview
Mazire Odadi stores sacks of
fertilizer at her home in Dickson
village, Malawi. Smallholder
farmers like Mazire have benefited
from subsidized fertilizer.
jan banning | panos pictures
Fertilizer is part of the technological trinity Response to fertilizer policies has
(improved seed, irrigation and fertilizer) varied widely, ranging from Kenya’s
which created the Green Revolution largely successful market reform policies
in Latin America and Asia. Its adequate and in the mid-1980s and early 1990s
efficient use is one of the main ingredients to Malawi’s debatable ‘successful’
in achieving food security in the region, state intervention and subsidy policies
yet the average fertilizer use intensity in (see case study on pp4–5).
Sub-Saharan Africa is by far the lowest in
Fertilizer subsidy has been seen as
the world. Insufficient use of fertilizer has
an effective way to kick-start innovation,
hindered growth in agricultural productivity
stimulate rapid market development,
and to some extent jeopardized the
both at farm level and industry level,
quality of soil and its continued fertility in
and counteract soil fertility depletion.
a number of Sub-Saharan African countries.
Yet in practice the outcomes of
Over the years, government fertilizer the fertilizer subsidies have generally
policies have followed a general trend: not been satisfactory.
state interventions and subsidies in
With rising food security concerns, fertilizer
the 1960s and 1970s, the introduction
subsidies have re-emerged in recent years,
of liberalized markets and the removal
with innovative approaches introduced
of subsidies in the 1980s and 1990s, and
to address pitfalls from the past. Yet current
a return to a policy of moderate state
subsidy programs still face problems.
intervention in recent years.
The paper suggests that the contribution
of fertilizer programs to reducing poverty
Methods and hunger would be higher if they could
be designed and implemented so as to
This briefing analyzes the agronomic response (effectiveness),
target poor households, and areas where
profitability (efficiency) and sustainability of fertilizer use and presents
fertilizer will give positive net economic
fertilizer-related agricultural policy experiences of Sub-Saharan African
benefits, and to promote rather than
countries, as well as lessons learnt.
undercut the development of a commercial
It is based on a literature review and analysis of leading journals, fertilizer distribution system.
reports of institutions such as the World Bank, the International
Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) and the Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO), agricultural/fertilizer policy documents, published
and unpublished research materials from local sources such as
ministries, research institutions, universities and non-governmental
organizations (NGOs), and through discussions with farmers,
researchers, policymakers and politicians in several African countries.
2 Briefing Paper Number 3 Improving the effectiveness, efficiency and sustainability of fertilizer use in Sub-Saharan Africa

3. Boosting Africa’s agricultural
productivity The three criteria for a fertilizer
evaluation
In order to examine the effectiveness
of fertilizer use, it is necessary to Effectiveness: is the fertilizer achieving
question whether fertilizer is achieving its full agronomic purpose?
its full agronomic purpose. In examining
Efficiency: are the crop improvement
efficiency the review looked at
returns significantly greater than the
whether the returns on fertilizer use
cost of fertilizer?
are significantly greater than the
cost of fertilizer itself. This analysis Sustainability: will the fertilizer
discusses crop response rates, the ensure improvement of the soil and
price ratios of fertilizers to crop its sustainability?
outputs, the production risk (availability
of transport, distribution) and the
availability of credit to the small farmer.
Africa’s fertilizer use: the lowest in
Sustainability measures the extent
the world
to which fertilizer use will ensure that
agricultural production and productivity Numerous studies show that substantial
can improve and at the same time gains in agricultural productivity in
sustain soil quality for future generations. Sub-Saharan Africa can be achieved
by increasing the use of fertilizer
and improving its efficiency. Experiences
outside Africa also highlight the key
‘ e are not adopting the improved
W role of fertilizer in boosting agricultural
maize varieties because without productivity. Despite this growing evidence,
adequate fertilizer you will get nothing farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa still have
and we have very limited access to fertilizer.’ the lowest average fertilizer use at around
10 kg/ha.
Farmer in Zanlerigu
The profitability of fertilizer use to
Upper East Region, Ghana farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa is also lower
interviewed by research team
than elsewhere in the developing world,
reflecting the low crop response to
fertilizer, the region’s poorly developed
Fertilizer use in other regions marketing systems and its difficult
production environment (transport,
Asia 222 kg/ha storage). Studies using value–cost ratio
(VCR), i.e. the ratio of the technical crop
Oceania 160 kg/ha response to fertilizer use and the nutrient/
output price, are clear indicators of
South America 138 kg/ha Africa’s low profitability of fertilizer use.
The contrast between the limited
Source: Hernandez and Torreo (2011)
use of fertilizer in Sub-Saharan Africa
and its use in other developing regions
Increase in crop yields: 1962–2008
has stimulated a considerable number
of policy initiatives. During the Africa
South Asia 1 to 2.6 t/ha
Fertilizer Summit in 2006, African leaders
made a unanimous commitment to
East Asia 1.5 to 5.4 t/ha
take immediate action to solve Africa’s
fertilizer crisis.
Sub-Saharan Africa 0.8 to 1.5 t/ha
(due to low and
inefficient use
of fertilizer)
Source: Hunt (2011)
Briefing Paper Number 3 Improving the effectiveness, efficiency and sustainability of fertilizer use in Sub-Saharan Africa 3

4. The challenges in more detail
Subsidies: a checkered history However, recent food security concerns
have sparked renewed interest in fertilizer
Fertilizer subsidy has always been central
subsidies. Innovative approaches – including
to the fertilizer policy of countries in
input vouchers, demonstration packs,
Sub-Saharan Africa. All countries in the
matching grants, credit guarantees and
region have implemented fertilizer subsidy
weather insurance – have been piloted
schemes at some point, with the level of
to stimulate fertilizer use. Subsidies
subsidy varying from quite modest (20 per
should now address not only demand
cent or less) to as high as 90 per cent. In
and supply constraints but also function
practice the outcomes of fertilizer subsidies
in a transparent and cost-effective manner.
have generally not been satisfactory.
However, despite the innovations, existing
Empirical studies on their cost effectiveness
fertilizer subsidy programs are not immune
suggest that their high costs exceeded
to problems that beset them in the past,
their benefits.
such as the unsustainable burden on
government budgets, crowding out the
private sector and late delivery.
Kenya, Lake Naivasha. Grow trays
with combinations of compost
and fertilizer at Oserian Farm,
the biggest of its type in Africa.
steve forrest | panos pictures
Kenya: a successful transition
Kenya is one of the few countries that has successfully implemented
fertilizer market reform policy and substantially increased its total fertilizer
consumption. From the mid-1980s the government encouraged private
firms to enter the market while initially maintaining tight controls.
In 1993 the government completely withdrew from the fertilizer market
and abandoned price controls, ushering in successful market reform. Several
factors played a role in Kenya’s success. First, prior to the market reform
period, state-led fertilizer policies were successful in increasing fertilizer use
among smallholders. A great number of farmers learned about high-yielding
varieties of crops and inorganic fertilizers. Second, Kenya had a strong
cash crop sector which maintained a high and stable demand for fertilizer.
Fertilizer importers and distributors were, therefore, willing to make the
initial investments in facilities to import and store large amounts of fertilizer,
thus reducing its retail price. Third, farmers received fertilizer credits from
cooperatives and processing firms to apply fertilizer on their cash crops. This
combined to help Kenya make a smooth transition from the state-led fertilizer
system to a market-oriented fertilizer system that ultimately led to higher
fertilizer consumption.
For more information on this case study, see pp10–11 of the synthesis report,
Improving the effectiveness, efficiency and sustainability of fertilizer use
in Sub-Saharan Africa, available at: www.agripolicyoutreach.org
4 Briefing Paper Number 3 Improving the effectiveness, efficiency and sustainability of fertilizer use in Sub-Saharan Africa

5. Women working on farmland
in Mutumba, Burundi, belonging
to the Twitezimbere Abakenyezi
Association. Women in the
association learn about the
production of seeds, how
to produce manure, and how
to prevent soil erosion.
dieter telemans | panos pictures
Boosting domestic productivity
‘ ertilizer and drought
F of fertilizer
are not friends. If we Sub-Saharan Africa also produces
suspect that there the lowest levels of fertilizer in the world.
Due to limited availability of raw materials
will be drought (after and inadequate infrastructure, production
planting) it is not wise of nutrients in the region has been
to use fertilizers.’ concentrated in just four countries:
Zimbabwe, Senegal, Nigeria and Mauritius.
Burkinabe farmer The amount of nutrients consumed in
Burkina Faso the region is approximately 10 times the
amount produced and therefore many
Sub-Saharan African countries rely heavily
on imports. To improve fertilizer use
Malawi’s voucher program – can it be sustained? Sub-Saharan African countries must also
expand their domestic production capacity.
Malawi eliminated universal fertilizer subsidies for smallholders in
the mid-1990s, but reintroduced limited subsidies in 1998 through the Taking soil quality into account
Starter Pack program, which gave all farmers 10 to 15 kg of fertilizer
and enough improved seeds to plant 0.1 of a hectare. In 2000 the Another factor in the failure to achieve
program was converted into the Targeted Input Program (TIP), which the full potential of fertilizers is poor
distributed the packs to a targeted group of farmers. In 2005 the soil fertility. This is often a result of
program was again redesigned as the Agricultural Inputs Subsidy mismanagement of fertilizer at the
Program (AISP), a voucher-based universal subsidy program that allowed farm level and the failure of extension
farmers to buy 100 kg of fertilizer at about one fifth of the market services to inform farmers about
price, thus dramatically increasing both the quantity of fertilizer being appropriate technology, as well as poor
subsidized and the fiscal cost of the subsidy. The program led to availability of fertilizer and a lack of
significant increases in maize production and productivity, and resulted complementary inputs such as improved
in some economic growth and poverty reduction. The main driving seeds and irrigation.
force for the modest success story was the relatively good targeting African soils also pose particular challenges
of the program. However, the program resulted in a very heavy burden for agriculture in terms of their fertility,
on Malawi’s national budget. More than 60 per cent of the national acidity and drainage. Land use practices
budget was devoted to agriculture, mainly because of the subsidy. That and harsh climatic conditions over the years
alone is enough reason to question the sustainability and long-term have further degraded the soil through
impact of the program on smallholder welfare and the nation. nutrient mining by crops, leaching and
For more information on this case study, see pp12–13 of the synthesis report, inadequate erosion control.
Improving the effectiveness, efficiency and sustainability of fertilizer use in
Sub-Saharan Africa, available at: www.agripolicyoutreach.org
Briefing Paper Number 3 Improving the effectiveness, efficiency and sustainability of fertilizer use in Sub-Saharan Africa 5

6. Countries grouped by average Value-cost ratio
levels of losses of nitrogen, with 35 kg N/ha
phosphorus and potassium application in
(kg/ha per year), 2002–04 some East African
cropping seasons countries
Moderate/low Country Market access
Less than 30 kg/ha kg/ha High Medium Low Average
Egypt 9 Burundi 2.5 2.0 2.0 2.25
Mauritius 15 Kenya 2.75 2.25 1.5 2.25
South Africa 23 Rwanda 2.0 1.5 1.5 1.75
Zambia 25 Tanzania 3.25 2.75 1.25 2.5
Source:
Morocco 27 Uganda 3.0 2.0 1.75 2.0 Guo, Koo and Wood,
Algeria 28 Total 2.75 2.25 1.5 2.25 2009
Medium
30 kg/ha–60 kg/ha kg/ha The continuing diminishment of plant Increasing profitability
Libya 33 nutrients through leaching, erosion and
The profitability of fertilizer, as measured
Swaziland 37 nutrient mining can lead to irreversible
by its value-cost ratio (VCR), i.e. the
Senegal 41 soil degradation and soil infertility unless
ratio of the technical crop response
Tunisia 42 concerted and committed efforts are
to fertilizer use and the nutrient/output
Burkina Faso 43 made by actors from a variety of sectors.
price, depends on the crop price, fertilizer
Benin 44 Both private and public sectors, scientific
price and the response of the crop to
Cameroon 44 and policy organizations, and industrialized
fertilizer application. Profitability can
Sierra Leone 46 and developing countries can help to
be increased by:
Botswana 47 intensify future agricultural production
through the trilogy of seeds, fertilizer Selecting the most appropriate type
p
Sudan 47
and irrigation. This will help to conserve of fertilizer (percentages and types
Togo 47
the natural resource base and prevent the of nutrients).
Côte D’Ivoire 48
Ethiopia 49 further degradation that has characterized Using the most efficient application
p
Mali 49 African soil for generations. method (type, number and timing
Djibuti 50 of applications).
Mozambique 51 Improved water control
p
Zimbabwe 53 (e.g. smallholder irrigation).
Niger 56 Better management of the fertilized
p
Chad 57 crop (timely weeding, adequate pest
Nigeria 57 control, timely harvest and proper
Eritrea 58 post-harvest techniques).
Ghana 58
Fertilizer prices in Sub-Saharan Africa
High
Greater than 60 kg/ha kg/ha are generally high because of the low
volumes of production, poor infrastructure
Tanzania 61
for its storage and transport, low
Mauritania 63
population densities, and inadequate
Congo Republic 64
and costly financial services to allow
Guinea 64
52-year-old Jane Chisi stands in her small farmers to borrow for fertilizer
Lesotho 65
maize field in the community of on a future crop.
Madagascar 65 Ekwaiweni, Northern Malawi. Farmers’
Liberia 66 profits can be improved by selecting the Even if fertilizer achieves VCRs above
Uganda 66 most appropriate fertilizer. the minimum required (3–4), there
frederic courbet | panos pictures
Democratic Republic 68 is still no guarantee that a farmer will use
of Congo it. Highly volatile output prices from one
Kenya 68 season to another and production risk
Central Africa Republic 69 make it very difficult for farmers to assess
Gabon 69 the eventual benefit of fertilizer use.
Angola 70
Gambia 71 Studies using VCR are clear indicators
Malawi 72 of the low profitability of fertilizer use
Guinea Bissau 73 throughout the region.
Namibia 73
Burundi 77
Rwanda 77
Source:
Equitorial Guinea 83 Henao and Baanante,
Somalia 88 2006
6 Briefing Paper Number 3 Improving the effectiveness, efficiency and sustainability of fertilizer use in Sub-Saharan Africa

7. Recommendations
The following recommendations Stepping up production of fertilizer
p
indicate several areas where more focused Fertilizer-producing countries in
policies are required to increase the Sub-Saharan Africa should build
effectiveness, efficiency and sustainability production plants at locations close to
of fertilizer use. major consumption areas or input supply
Adapting to Africa’s diversity
p centers based on sound feasibility
studies. Such expansion should also be
The current ‘same fertilizer for all soils’
supported by better storage, handling
practice is a major contributor to both low
and transport facilities.
fertilizer use by farmers and ineffectiveness
in the region. The nutrient-supplying p Distributing fertilizer efficiently
capacity of soils must be taken into Fertilizer distribution through the private
consideration and appropriate mechanisms sector should be developed to ensure
should be developed to assess the location an efficient supply chain. Government
and crop-specific fertilizer requirements investment in transportation and market
based on soil types and agro-ecological infrastructure will reduce input costs
zones. This information, along with and secure improved producer prices.
crop-specific recommendations, should Development of market information
be disseminated to farmers through systems, institutions for contract
extension services. enforcement, and telecommunications
Information is crucial
p will attract new investments by
commodity marketing firms.
Extension services must be strengthened
to improve their responsiveness to the p Better targeted subsidy programs
needs of farmers. The contribution of fertilizer subsidy
Existing extension service system
p programs would be higher if they:
must be well equipped and adequately Target households with little ability to
p
staffed to cover the large number afford fertilizer.
of small famers.
Target areas where applying fertilizer can
p
Extension agents should receive
p actually give positive net economic benefits.
regular training so that they can transfer
Promote rather than undercut the
p
appropriate location and crop-specific
development of a commercial fertilizer
knowledge to farmers.
distribution system.
Extension agents, both public and
p Function in a transparent and cost-effective
p
private, should use participatory
manner, and follow an exit strategy
methods involving feedback from farmers.
Relationships should be established to Declare well in advance the allocation
p
exchange information and disseminate of fertilizer subsidies.
technologies which address current and Are run in conjunction with other long-term
p
longer-term farmer needs. agriculture development strategies, such
as investment in agricultural extension and
Fertilizer cannot do the job alone
p research service and infrastructure.
Fertilizer use requires complementary
Are nurtured to maturity, thus becoming
p
inputs such as investment in soil
unnecessary in the shortest possible time.
and water conservation for efficient
and optimal nutrient uptake. The public
and private sector should consider
a partnership to improve complementary
inputs, such as irrigation, soil conservation
and erosion control.
Briefing Paper Number 3 Improving the effectiveness, efficiency and sustainability of fertilizer use in Sub-Saharan Africa 7

8. Key references
The full paper Improving the effectiveness,
African Union (2006) Saweda Liverpool-Tasie, efficiency and sustainability of fertilizer
Abuja Declaration on Fertilizer for the Babatunde Olaniyan, Sheu Salau use in Sub-Saharan Africa is available for
African Green Revolution, Declaration and James Sackey (2011) download at www.agripolicyoutreach.org
of the African Union Special Summit ‘ Review of Fertilizer Policy Issues
A It was written by:
of the Heads of State and Government, in Nigeria’, Policy Note No. 28,
Prof. Saa Dittoh
Abuja, Nigeria Abuja: International Food Policy
University of Development Studies, Ghana
Esther Duflo, Michael Kremer and Research Institute
Prof. Olubunmi Omotosho
Jonathan Robinson (2003) Michael Morris, Valerie A Kelly, University of Ilorin, Nigeria
Understanding Technology Ron Kopicki and Derek Byerlee (2007)
Adama Belemvire
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Alliance Technology Development Assistance,
Kenya: Preliminary Results from Field Lessons Learned and Good Practice
Burkino Faso
Experiments, Cambridge, Mass.: Guidelines, Washington DC: World Bank
Massachusetts Institute of Technology Margaret Akuriba
M Mujeri, K Haider, S Shahana, University of Development Studies, Ghana
R E Evenson and D Gollin (2003) and T Chowdhury (2012)
Khondoker Haider
‘ ssessing the Impact of the Green
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University of Oxford, UK
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no 5620, pp758–762 Global Development Network and reviewed by
http://agripolicyoutreach.org Prof. T. S. Jayne
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African Agriculture Programme Paper: Mich.: Michigan State University you wish to reproduce or build upon this work,
If
AFP 2011/01, London: Chatham House Z Xu, Z Guan, T Jayne, and R Black (2009) please contact Global Development Network (GDN).
T Jayne, J Govereh, M Wanzala and ‘ actors influencing the profitability
F © Global Development Network
M Demeke (2003) of fertilizer use on maize in Zambia’,
‘ ertilizer market development:
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a comparative analysis of Ethiopia, pp437–446. panos.org.uk
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For
Policies on Maize Prices in Kenya’, response and profitability’, Policy Research to Inform Agricultural Policy in
Tegemeo Working Paper 15/2005, International Development Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia’ project visit:
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and Development Mich.: Michigan State University Supported by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation
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8 Briefing Paper Number 3 Improving the effectiveness, efficiency and sustainability of fertilizer use in Sub-Saharan Africa