This article discusses the responsibility of K-12 principals in improving the academic achievement of African American children through effective teacher induction and mentoring programs. The article reviews literature showing that both school-level factors like segregation and lack of resources, as well as ineffective teachers, contribute to the achievement gap between white and black students. The No Child Left Behind Act aimed to close this gap by providing high-quality teachers and induction support to all schools, but research shows these programs are often lacking or nonexistent in schools with mostly black and low-income students. The article then describes a study that analyzed survey responses from new teachers in a predominantly black school district to identify teaching conditions that could help or hinder academic achievement for black children.

1. NATIONAL FORUM OF APPLIED EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH JOURNAL
VOLUME 26, NUMBERS 1 & 2, 2013
17
Improving the Academic Achievement of African American
Children:The Roles of Principals in Teacher Induction and
Mentoring
Vivian Gunn Morris, PhD
Professor
University of Memphis
Curtis Morris, MS
Memphis City Schools-Retired
_____________________________________________________________________________
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to present the responsibility of K-12 principals in improving the
academic achievement of African American children via the roles that principals must play in
high quality induction and mentoring programs for novice teachers in their schools. Research
data were gathered from an induction and mentoring program conducted in a large, urban,
predominately African American school district in the southeast. The primary research question
was: What are some of the teaching and learning conditions new teachers communicated were
present in their school environments, during their first year of teaching, which could assist in
ensuring that African American children achieve at high academic levels? To answer this
question, the researchers analyzed the responses to two, open-ended questions from a larger
survey that addressed teaching and learning conditions in the 35 schools where 67 first-year
elementary teachers were employed: (a) what are the most valuable features of your support
program? and (b) at your site, what are the most challenging working conditions? Results were
summarized and related to findings in the literature relative to the changing roles of principals in
induction and mentoring programs and the connection to improving the academic outcomes of
African American children. Findings indicated the presence of teaching and learning conditions
in the target schools that could assist in promoting positive academic outcomes, while other
conditions may interfere with improving the educational outcomes of students enrolled in K-12
classrooms.
Keywords: African American children, instructional leadership, induction and mentoring,
teaching and learning conditions, achievement gap, roles of principals
______________________________________________________________________________
The purpose of this article is to present the responsibility of K-12 principals in improving
the academic achievement of African American children via the roles that principals must play in
high quality induction and mentoring programs for novice teachers in their schools. This article
is based on research data gathered from an induction and mentoring program conducted in a
large, urban, predominately African American school district in the southeast. The primary
research question was: What are some of the teaching and learning conditions new teachers

2. VIVIAN GUNN MORRIS and CURTIS MORRIS
18
communicated were present in their school environments, during their first year of teaching,
which could assist in ensuring that African American children achieve at high academic levels?
To answer this question, the researchers analyzed the responses to two, open-ended questions
from a larger survey that addressed teaching and learning conditions in the 35 schools where 67
first-year elementary teachers were employed:
What are the most valuable features of your support program?
At your site, what are the most challenging working conditions?
This article is organized into four major sections. First, the related literature includes
information on the responsibility for the achievement gap between white and African American
children, the promises of NCLB to eliminate the achievement gap, and the roles of principals in
induction and mentoring programs. Second, a description of the study is presented and third, a
summary of findings and discussion. The final section of the paper presents conclusions and
recommendations.
Related Literature
The Achievement Gap between White and African American Children: Who is
Responsible?
The blame game of responsibility for the achievement gap (based currently on
standardized achievement tests) that exists between white children and African American
children and other children of color in this country has shifted between families, teachers and
colleges of education. First, it was the African American family background that was the primary
cause of school failure of their children. This belief had widespread approval (and still does)
among policymakers, researchers, administrators and the public following the publication of the
Equality of Educational Opportunity study or Coleman Report in 1966. So the conclusion was
that African American families needed to change in order to improve the educational outcomes
of their children. The Coleman study influenced the widespread belief that, ―a student‘s family
background is far more important than school social composition and school resources for
understanding student outcomes‖ (Borman& Dowling, 2010, p. 1201). However, research
studies conducted primarily by African American scholars over the past three decades, reveal
that during both the slavery and legal segregation periods in our country, African American
families sacrificed life and limb to educate their children. And in many cases family and
community efforts were very effective in educating their children well (Anderson, 1988; Celeski,
1994; Dempsey &Noblit, 1996; Edwards, 1996; Foster, 1997; Morris, 2008; Morris & Morris,
2000, 2002, 2005; Sowell, 1976; Walker, 1996, 2000).
Using a new model for analyzing the original data from the Coleman study, Borman and
Dowling (2010) arrived at some different conclusions that refute the findings of the Coleman
study. Instead, they report that schools do matter in achievement outcomes based on the
characteristics of the schools attended. Their research suggests that: ―going to a high-poverty
school or a highly segregated African American school has a profound effect on a student‘s
achievement outcomes, above and beyond the effect of individual poverty or minority status‖ (p.
1202). They also state that:

3. VIVIAN GUNN MORRIS and CURTIS MORRIS
19
Rather than the all-too-familiar summary of the Coleman‘s report findings that ―schools
don‘t matter,‖ this analysis suggests that both within-school interactions among students
and educators and racial segregation across schools deny African American children
equality of educational opportunity. (p. 1242)
Research conducted by Konstantopoulos and Borman (2011) underscore these findings. They
report that: ―both racial and socioeconomic segregation is associated with poorer academic
performance. High minority and poor schools explain a great deal of the between school
variation in achievement‖ (p. 124).
While families continue to be blamed for their children‘s failure in schools, a great deal
of the blame has shifted to classroom teachers with the once yearly high-stakes, standardized test
score used as the primary tool for making the decision to hire or fire a teacher and/or to
determine whether a teacher is effective. Policymakers, administrators and government officials
are using the findings from reports like those completed by the National Commission on
Teachers and American’s Future (Darling-Hammond, 1997; Report, 2003, 1996) and other
research studies (Rivkin, Hanushek, &Kain, 2005; Sanders & Rivers, 1996) to justify using
upwards of 50% of teachers‘ annual evaluation based on the standardized test scores of children
enrolled in their classrooms. While teachers matter very much, principals, superintendents, and
central office personnel (and teachers who do not teach reading or mathematics) are not presently
subject to such high-stakes accountability. Wahlstrom, Louis, Leithwood, and Anderson (2010),
noted that:
Leaders in education—including state-level officials, superintendents and district staff,
principals, school board members, teachers and community members enacting various
leadership roles—provide direction for, and exercise influence over, policy and practice.
Their contributions are crucial, our evidence shows, to initiatives aimed at improving
student learning. (p. 5)
Wahlstrom et al. further argue that: ―leadership is second only, to classroom instruction among
all school-related factors that contribute to what students learn at school‖ (p. 6). Support for this
finding related to principals and academic achievement was also found in a study by Brown,
Benkovitz, Muttillo, and Urban (2011). Equitable achievement outcomes are
better in schools where principals support, model, and monitor a teamwork approach, a
balanced approach, a strong sense of purpose, and an insistent disposition to assure that
all students are served well and that all are encouraged to perform at their highest level.
(p. 58)
Baker et al. (2010) point out that there are multiple sources related to student learning
(and tests scores). Education is both a cumulative and complex process, and makes it impossible
to distinguish the influences of students‘ other teachers, school conditions and out-of-school
learning experiences on their learning at home. They further noted that the types of supports that
are available to children within the school environment can also have significant impact on
achievement outcomes. ―A teacher who works in a well-resourced school with specialists
supports may appear to be more effective than one whose students do not receive these supports‖

4. VIVIAN GUNN MORRIS and CURTIS MORRIS
20
(p. 9).
Because African American children and other children of color are more likely to attend
poorly-resourced schools lacking needed materials, books, equipment and resource people,
teachers are less likely to be drawn to these schools initially or to remain in these schools once
they are hired. These are teaching and learning conditions that serve as disincentives for teacher
to work with students who are often in need of the most effective teachers (Baker et al., 2010).
Colleges of education across the country are being challenged by individuals outside of
teacher education who state that teacher preparation programs are responsible for the school
failures of P-12 children because they are not effective at training teachers (Ballou, &Podgursky,
2000; Barnett &Amrein-Beardsley, 2011; Butin, 2004; Darling-Hammond, 2000). In some
instances, the standardized test scores of students enrolled in the classes of their graduates are
being used by some as the single measure of colleges‘ effectiveness in preparing good teachers,
often with little or no consideration of the impact of teaching and learning conditions in the
schools where graduates are employed. However, Cherian and Daniel (2008) reported there is
evidence to support the fact that ―new teachers are more influenced by the context and support in
their initial school settings than by teacher preparation programs‖ (p. 2).
Perhaps, instead of shifting blame from one institution or entity in our community to
another, we should use our efforts to work together to build on what each already does
effectively. Families and communities, school personnel, teacher preparation programs, local,
state and national policymakers and philanthropic organizations have a collective responsibility
to use what we already know--and we know a lot-- and are able to do in creating effective
schools for all of our children. We have the potential to lose too many children if we do not,
especially African American children and other children of color.
Currently, many African American children and other children of color attend large,
segregated, urban schools where they are in the majority. A recent report (Orfield, Kucsera, &
Siegel-Hawley, 2012) indicated that segregation of schools for African Americans and Latinos
has increased dramatically ―since a 1991 Supreme Court decision made it easier for school
districts and courts to dismantle desegregation plans‖ (p. 7). The sentiment of some principals
and veteran teachers in these schools create a culture that is antithetical to encouraging academic
optimism within the school community. The remarks that were made by a new teacher, based on
messages communicated by administrators, including principals, and veteran teachers in her
school building, may be more typical than we want to admit.
Low turnout for back-to-school night was seen as evidence that families in this
community didn‘t value education. When she spoke with colleagues about calling a
student‘s parent, she was advised that it would be a waste of time and could even cause
more trouble—she was told that many parents were drug abusers or alcoholics and were
likely to beat their children. Many African-American parents were described as hostile,
disinterested, and unhelpful. She soon picked up the subtext used to describe the
community as uneducated, lazy, and dangerous. The media reinforced these perceptions.
Teachers were encouraged to drive straight to school, lock away their belongings, and
leave immediately after the last bell rang. (Fletcher, Watkins, Gless, & Villarreal-
Carman, 2011, p. 58)

5. VIVIAN GUNN MORRIS and CURTIS MORRIS
21
The Promises of the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) to Close the Achievement Gap
The authors of NCLB Act proposed the following actions that have the potential to make
a positive impact on the academic achievement of African American children: meeting the
educational needs of low-achieving children in our nation‘s highest-poverty schools; closing the
achievement gaps especially between minority and nonminority students; making resources
sufficiently available to local educational agencies and schools where needs are the greatest;
making enriched and accelerated educational programs for all children; increasing student
achievement by providing Highly Qualified teachers, principals and assistant principals in every
school; providing mentoring for teachers, professional development and reduced class schedules
(No Child Left Behind, 2001).
One of the provisions was to provide ―Highly Qualified‖ teachers, principals and
assistant principals in every school. However,
African American students are twice as likely as white students to be assigned to the least
effective teachers, the most inexperienced teachers, and teachers who are likely to be
uncertified and teach subjects in which they are not qualified to teach. (Irvine & Irvine,
2007, p. 301)
In addition, African American children are more likely to be enrolled in schools where there is a
high rate of teacher turnover. A recent study
suggests that teacher turnover has a significant and negative impact on student
achievement in both math and ELA (English Language Arts) and teacher turnover is
particularly harmful to the achievement of students in schools with large populations of
low-performing and black students. (Ronfeldt, Loeb, &Wyckoff, J., 2012,p. 21)
Other promised efforts to improve the improvement of academic achievement of all
children by 2014 included providing mentoring to teachers, professional development, and
reduced class schedules. One of the most significant and powerful strategies for providing
effective professional development for new teachers is via a high-quality induction and
mentoring program which encompasses the features noted by Wei, Darling-Hammond, and
Adamson (2010). A recent comprehensive longitudinal study (Glazerman et al., 2010) revealed
the significant impact of effective mentoring on student outcomes. Based on findings from this
study, Goldrick (2010) stated that ―beginning teachers who received two years of comprehensive
induction support produced greater student learning gains—equivalent of a student moving from
the 50th to 58th percentile in math achievement and 50th to 54 percentile in reading
achievement‖ (p. 1). Wei et al. (2010) stated that: ―Teachers in suburban schools were
significantly more likely to participate in an induction program than teachers in urban and rural
schools,‖ and ―teachers in schools with the highest proportions of minority enrollment were
significantly less likely to participate in induction and mentorship programs than all other
schools‖ (p. 30). Haycock (2012) noted that : ―An awful lot of our teachers—even brand new
teachers—are left to figure out on their own what to teach and what constitutes ‗good enough‘
work‖ (p. 122 ). In addition to some new teachers not having the benefit of an induction and
mentoring program for their first critical years, few induction programs provide data about the
quality of the programs that they do have (Darling-Hammond, Wei, Andree, Richardson,

6. VIVIAN GUNN MORRIS and CURTIS MORRIS
22
&Orphanos, 2009). The most recent Met Life Survey (2012) indicated that 63% of the teachers
surveyed reported that class sizes have increased in the last year instead of class loads being
reduced, one of the promises of the NCLB Act (Markow&Pieters, 2012).
The NCLB Act promised to make resources sufficiently available to local educational
agencies and schools where needs are the greatest. Baker et al. (2010) remind us that because
African American children and other children of color are more likely to attend poorly-resourced
schools lacking needed materials, books, equipment and resource people, teachers are less likely
to be drawn to these schools initially or to remain in these schools once they are hired. These are
teaching and learning conditions that serve as disincentives for teachers to work with students
who are often in need of the most effective teachers.
This discussion included a few of the actions proposed by the NCLB Act in order
toaccomplish the goal requiring all public school students to be proficient in reading and math by
2014. It appears that many of these actions have not taken place in schools inhabited by a large
majority of African American children and other children of color in this nation nor have many
of these students benefitted from these actions, even if they were enrolled in schools where they
were not in the majority. Our public schools are continuing to fail to provide African American
and other children of color an equal education.
While lawmakers, national and state officials, and educators and policy makers raved at
the potential of the NCLB for ensuring a quality education for all students, in 2012, states are
standing in line seeking waivers from the law because they now realize that the United States is
not close to the law‘s original goal of getting children to grade level in reading and math by
2014. According to a report of the Center on Education Policy, more schools are failing to meet
requirements under the law with nearly half not doing so in last academic year. By February
2012, 37 of the nation‘s 50 states had applied for waivers to be relieved of meeting the mandates
of NCLB by 2014 (Feller &Hefling, 2012; ―26 More States,‖ 2012). It is expected that most of
the remaining 13 states will follow this same pattern of requesting waivers before the end of the
year. Haycock (2012) reminded us that when compared to the other 33 OECD (Organisation for
Economic Cooperation and Development) countries in education, the only place that we rank
high is in inequality.
The Changing Roles of Principals in Induction and Mentoring Programs
In today‘s schools, ―the principal‘s role has changed from ‗bells, buildings, and buses‘ to
one of instructional leadership‖ (―Teaching and Leadership,‖ 2012, p. 19). Findings from a two
year study in Seattle indicate that the ―school principal is critical in ensuring academic
achievement, especially for black and low-income students‖ (Andrew &Soder, 1987, p. 8). They
further noted that ―teacher perceptions of the principal as an instructional leader are critical to the
reading and mathematics achievement of students‖ (p. 11).
In a study of schools with small achievement gaps (SG) between whites and African
American students as compared with schools with large achievement gaps (LG), the researchers
reported that SG principals ―were directly involved in offering the teachers instructional
feedback and support‖ (Brown, Benkovitz, Muttilo, & Urban, 2011, p. 13). Brown et al. further
noted that:
These principals viewed teaching as a continuous endeavor and modeled this by
participating in and/facilitating professional developing opportunities on-site via staff

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23
meetings. One principal explained, ―I think when I attend a workshop, that says to the
staff, that I think learning is important. …I participate, and I sit side-by-side with them
and learn with them‖ (SGS2-P). In order for principals to be instructional leaders and
provide teachers with specific feedback, they have to not only know the curriculum but
also understand the instructional methods that teachers use to ensure students are
learning. (p. 13)
These actions are very different from what many principals practice in their own buildings. Too
often, they are far removed from the professional development in which their teachers are
involved whether it‘s on-site or at large impersonal sessions offered for all teachers by the school
district.
Induction and mentoring programs are typically professional development programs
provided for beginning teachers for one to three years. The major responsibility for induction and
mentoring programs often lies with the principal who in some cases may delegate ongoing
activities within the school building to veteran teachers. What then does high quality professional
development look like for both new and veteran teachers? Wei et al. (2010) reported that high
quality professional development is:
focused on specific curriculum content and pedagogies needed to teach that content
effectively; offered as a coherent part of a whole school reform effort, with assessments,
standards, and professional development seamlessly linked; designed to engage teachers
in active learning that allows them to make sense of what they learn in meaningful ways;
presented in an intensive, sustained, and continuous manner over time; linked to analysis
of teaching and student learning, including the formative use of assessment data;
supported by coaching, modeling, observation, and feedback; and connected to teachers‘
collaborative work in school-based professional learning communities and learning
teams. (pp. 1-2)
Susan Moore Johnson and her associates at the Harvard Project on the Next Generation
of Teachers (Johnson &Birkeland, 2003; Johnson et al., 2007) revealed that there are several
teaching and learning conditions, including mentoring, that must be present in order to retain
new teachers in the profession. School leaders must ensure that new teachers have: an
appropriate assignment, a manageable workload, sufficient resources with which to teach,
principals and fellow teachers that maintain a stable and orderly work environment, and advice
and support from principals and colleagues (or mentoring). Principals have great influence over
many of the teaching and learning conditions noted by Johnson and Associates. Many of these
teaching and learning conditions were addressed in the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001
(NCLB).
Description of Study
Methods and Analysis
The study was guided by one major research question: What are some of the teaching and
learning conditions new teachers communicated were present in their school environments,

8. VIVIAN GUNN MORRIS and CURTIS MORRIS
24
during their first year of teaching, which could assist in ensuring that African American children
achieve at high academic levels? To answer this question, the researchers analyzed the
responses to two, open-ended questions from a larger survey that addressed teaching and
learning conditions in the target schools:
What are the most valuable features of your support program?
At your site, what are the most challenging working conditions?
The respondents were 67 first-year, elementary teachers from 35 different schools,
employed in a predominately African American school district, who completed an anonymous
survey near the close of their first year of teaching. Eighty-nine percent were female, 56% were
African American, and 41% were white. These teachers received induction and mentoring
support through a school district-university partnership located in the southeastern United States.
Five exemplary veteran teachers, trained as full-time mentors/coaches, provided on-site support
for 15 teachers (in the classrooms of the mentored teachers) for approximately two hours per
week. In addition, mentors scheduled a once per month group seminar on topics identified by the
new teachers in the partnership.
The findings from this study are discussed within a framework outlined by Johnson and
Birkeland (2003) related to the kinds of teaching and learning conditions that must be present in
the school environment in order for new teachers to be successful in increasing the academic
achievement of children enrolled in their classrooms. A constant comparative method of data
analysis was used to analyze the responses from the two opened questions, from the original data
set, to determine the themes that emerged.
Findings and Discussion
Teaching and Learning Conditions for First Year Teachers
Most valuable aspects of support program.The overwhelming responses made by first
year teachers about the most valuable aspects of the support program were related to the services
provided by the full-time release mentors. The first year teachers reported that the mentors: 1)
provided emotional support; 2) were readily accessible to them to meet their needs; 3)
encouraged them; 4) and provided professional expertise.
Emotional support.It appears that the mentors in this study had built trusting
relationships with the new teachers and had assured them of confidentiality in their relationship.
This was evident when new teachers reported that emotional support was one of the most
valuable aspects of their program. Some teachers made short remarks such as: ―Just having
someone to talk to about your problems‖; ―she is the only person that has helped me get settled
in Metro Schools,‖ ―Having someone who can help prevent problems before they happen and
someone who can guide you through your first year‖; and ―Some days I just needed to hear that I
am not the only one that has had a rotten first year.‖
Many new teachers expressed having a great deal of stress and anxiety because of the
unexpected and overwhelming responsibilities they experienced during their first year. Some
teachers in this study made responses that indicated that the work of the mentor was very

9. VIVIAN GUNN MORRIS and CURTIS MORRIS
25
important in relieving stress that they were experiencing. One teacher‘s response was simply
―Being able to talk to my mentor and distress‖ was the most valuable aspect of the support
program.
Accessibility.When new teachers (or any teacher) need assistance, they want that
assistance delivered in a timely manner, not weeks or months after requested or even when a
professional development workshop is already scheduled for six months or next year. New
teachers‘ responses in this study appear to indicate that the mentors were readily accessible to
meet their needs. Several teachers mentioned that the weekly meetings or conferences were
important aspects of the support program. Teachers said teacher said: ―She has availed herself to
me outside of the classroom should I need assists,‖ and ―when I needed help all I had to do was
call or e-mail.‖
Encouragement.During the first few months of teaching, new teachers often feel that
they are merely surviving from day-to-day and could profit from encouragement from seasoned
teachers and administrators. One teacher said that the most valuable aspect of her/his support
program was: ―Encouragement, ability to bounce ideas off one another, team collaboration.‖
Another teacher was encouraged by: ―Having available a knowledgeable, neutral party at my
fingertips to discuss my many concerns.‖
Professional expertise.New teacher responses related to the professional expertise that
mentors shared with them included: collaboration; assistance with classroom management and
organization; sharing resources and materials, educational information, and teaching strategies;
individualized support; and model instruction. One teacher noted the importance of: ―learning
classroom management skills, instructional strategies, and having someone to vent my
frustrations to who understands my position,‖ ―my mentor saved my job and kept me from
drowning in problems.‖
Most challenging working conditions. The findings from responses of new teachers to
the question: ―At your site, what are the most challenging working conditions‖? The responses
made by new teachers in this study are primarily related to several teaching and learning
conditions noted by Johnson and her associates. They are: (a) student behavior; (b) advice and
support from principals and colleagues; (b) principals and fellow teachers that maintain a stable
and orderly work environment; and (c) sufficient resources with which to teach.
Behavior of students.New teachers mentioned most often that the most challenging
condition at their school site was related to discipline or behavior of their students. Teachers
reported that the students were unruly and they lacked respect. For example one teacher reported:
―having a child in my classroom that was physically, verbally, and emotionally abusive towards
the teachers and peers,‖
Principals and fellow teachers that maintain a stable and orderly work environment.
Related to the behavior of students was the inability of principals and fellow teachers to assist in
maintaining an orderly work environment. Teachers in this study reported they received little
advice or assistance by the school administration and veteran teachers to change this condition.
Teachers also communicated a lack of parental involvement and support to assist in improving

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26
the unruly behavior of students, as well. For example, teachers noted that: ―my principal has
been absolutely no help to me,‖ and ―there isn‘t much support or help from the parents.‖ In some
instances, new teachers felt that principals actually were instrumental in creating a negative
school environment.
Advice and support from principals and colleagues. The area that received the second
highest number of responses from the new teachers was related to advice and support from
principals and colleagues including both the lack of assistance in improving student behavior and
the lack of sufficient resources with which to teach. New teachers noted that principals
communicated with them in a negative manner, seasoned teachers in their building and/or grade
level were unwilling to provide needed advice, and they did not receive critical information on
school procedures.
Sufficient resources with which to teach. Many new teachers in this study appeared to
lack a number of materials, supplies and equipment with which to teach. Some of the items they
mentioned included tables and chairs, teaching manuals, subject-matter kits, books, and overhead
projector. They also mentioned that in some cases the condition of the physical plant was poor
and unsanitary and resource people were not available to work with students at the times they
were assigned.
Conclusions and Recommendations
The overarching research question for this study was: What are some of the teaching and
learning conditions new teachers communicated were present in their school environments,
during their first year of teaching, which could assist in ensuring that African American children
achieve at high academic levels?Based on the responses made by first year teachers about the
most valuable aspects of their support program, it appears that support provided by the fulltime
mentors were teaching and learning conditions that could have assisted the new teachers in
ensuring that African American children in their classrooms to achieve at high levels, i.e., (a)
emotional support; (b) accessibility of mentors to meet their needs; (c) encouragement; and (d)
the provision of professional expertise.
On the other hand, the new teachers reported on the existence of teaching and learning
conditions in their buildings that interfered with their ability to provide high quality academic
programs for children in their classrooms, i.e., (a) their students were unruly, disrespectful, and
little assistance was offered by school administrators and veteran teachers (in their building) to
change this condition, and (b) lack of materials, supplies, and equipment with which to teach,
which generally fall under the responsibility of the principal. These findings are consistent with
what other researchers have reported (Baron, 2006; Fletcher, Watkins, Gless& Villarreal-
Carman, 2011; Johnson et al., 2007).
Many new teachers who are hired in low-income, urban schools today are only marking
time until they can transfer to a ―good school‖ while many will not last through the first year.
Teacher turnover is often great and teachers do not remain in the schools long enough to become
effective master teachers, the kind of teachers that children enrolled in such schools desperately
need. Cherian and Daniel (2008) agree that ―one of the most frequent reasons given for leaving
the profession is the poor quality of support from the school principal‖ (p.1). They also stated

11. VIVIAN GUNN MORRIS and CURTIS MORRIS
27
that ―principals, as instructional leaders, are responsible for ensuring that a culture of induction
as support is embedded within their schools‖ (p. 3). Principals may be more likely to provide
effective support and feedback to teachers when they participate in the same professional
development activities as their teachers (Brown et al., 2011). Many principals do not.
While principals are responsible for conducting high-quality induction and mentoring
programs and evaluation of teachers, they may also share this responsibility with teacher leaders,
mentors, and other veteran teachers in their buildings (Feiman-Nemser, 2003a, 2003b; Johnson,
S. M., Kraft, &Papay, 2012; Yusko, &Feiman-Nemser, 2008). Most new teachers, as the
teachers described in this study, will require some professional development in classroom
management in order to manage effectively the behavior of students enrolled in their classrooms.
Some activities that may be useful in getting teachers off to the right start might be: including
classroom management as a topic for new teachers in the building as part of their orientation and
having the mentors work with the new teachers in organizing their classrooms, assisting in the
development of classroom rules, and offering tips for instructional plans for the first weeks of
school.
As part of the orientation for new teachers, principals should communicate both the
challenges and opportunities (not only the negative) for gaining the involvement and support of
families and community in the life of the school. The principal might plan a bus tour of the
community served by the school for the new teachers, provide opportunities for beginning
teachers to make visits to the homes of their students prior to the beginning of school, and assist
new teachers in developing a card or letter to send to parents to introduce themselves and solicit
their assistance as partners in working with their children. The principal should work with both
new and veteran teachers throughout the school year to ensure that they perform within the scope
of the building‘s shared vision, mission, goals, and strategies for sustaining continuous
improvement. Many of these tasks may be shared with the mentor assigned to each teacher.
When principals serve as effective instructional leaders in their buildings, along with providing
other positive teaching and learning conditions, African American children and other children of
color are more likely to experience increased positive academic outcomes.
Table 1 provides some additional practical suggestions that may be useful for principals
to consider as they plan valuable support programs for beginning teachers in order to promote
effective teaching and learning conditions for their new teachers and the students enrolled in
their classrooms. Many of these ideas emerged primarily from research completed by Susan
Moore Johnson and her associates at the Harvard Graduate School of Education (Johnson et al,
2007) and the New Teacher Center at Santa Cruz (Hirsch, Sioberg, & Dougherty, 2011).
Valuable aspects of support programs for new teachers included in the chart are: (a) assigning
new teachers to teach subjects for which they are qualified; (b) providing a well-trained mentor
for each new teacher who is responsible for enhancing the professional practice of the beginning
teacher; (c) assigning new teachers an appropriate teaching and non-teaching duties; (d) making
certain that the classroom of new teachers are filled with sufficient resources and equipment
before they arrive at the school building; and (e) allocating school hours for observing, feedback,
professional development, and other tasks that are required to accelerate the professional practice
of new teachers.

12. VIVIAN GUNN MORRIS and CURTIS MORRIS
28
Table 1
Valuable Aspects of Support Programs for New Teachers Compared to Teaching and Learning
Conditions that May Interfere with Student Achievement Outcomes
Valuable Aspects of Support Programs Teaching and Learning Conditions that Interfere
with Student Achievement
Assign new teachers to teach subjects
For which they are qualified.
Require new teachers to teach subjects for
which they have insufficient training.
Provide an exemplary teacher who has
been enrolled in a high quality mentor
training program to serve as mentor to each
new teacher prior to the first day of classes
with students, one who can assist new
teachers in improving teacher practice.
Assign a ―buddy‖ veteran teacher for each
new teacher who provides primarily
emotional support and who may look in on
the teacher occasionally to ask ―how are
you doing?‖
Limit the number of teaching and non-
teaching assignments for which new
teachers are responsible; loads that are
different from those assigned to veteran
teachers.
Assign new teachers with excessive
teaching and non-teaching assignments that
interfere with time required to develop
instructional practice.
Work with veteran teachers (especially
those who teach same grade levels and
subjects) in the school building to ensure
that sufficient teacher resources and
equipment are available in the classroom of
the new teacher when he/she arrives at the
school building. This may include items
such as sets of classroom text books,
curriculum guides, varied curriculum
materials, and equipment that are in good
working condition.
Assign new teachers to classrooms where
veteran teachers have been allowed to
remove valuable required instructional
resources when it was learned that a new
teacher would be assigned to a specific
classroom in their building. Once the new
teacher is assigned he/she is forced to
scourge around to find the materials,
resources, and equipment that are needed
to provide quality instruction for her
students.
Allocate school hours for new teachers to:
be observed by their assigned mentor to
receive feedback; observe exemplary
teachers in his/her building; receive
feedback from principal on classroom
observations; attend professional
development activities that address the
needs identified by beginning teachers;
attend grade level meetings that allow
opportunities to develop lesson plans,
analyze student work; and to review the
results of students‘ assessments.
Require that the following activities must
take place during before or after-school
hours: feedback from mentors and
principals; additional professional
development activities; grade level
meetings and other activities designed to
enhance professional practice.

13. VIVIAN GUNN MORRIS and CURTIS MORRIS
29
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Authors
Vivian Gunn Morris holds the Ph.D. degree in Inner City Education, Early Childhood
Education Emphasis, from Peabody College, Vanderbilt University. She is Professor of
Education, Assistant Dean for Faculty and Staff Development, and Director of the New Teacher
Center in the College of Education, Health and Human Sciences, University of Memphis. Dr.
Morris is the recipient of college, university, and national awards in research, scholarship, and
service. Her research interests include educating African American children, family involvement
in education and early childhood education.
Curtis Morris holds the M. S. in Urban Affairs from Alabama A&M University and the B.S. in
Business Administration from the University of North Alabama. He served as Director of the
Huntsville AL Concentrated Employment Program and Associate Executive V. P. of the United
Way of Morris County, NJ. He is a retired Coordinator of School Improvement Planning for
Memphis City Schools and is anAdvancEDQuality Review Team Chair. He co-authored two
books and several articles on educating African American children.