Data Collection

1. Tools & Techniques for
Data Collection…
Dr D P Singh School of Research
Methodology, TISS

2. Some Techniques are…
 Interview
 Questionnaire
 Focus Groups
 Observation
Dr D P Singh School of Research
Methodology, TISS

3. Methods of Interview…
 Self administered questionnaires
 Face-to-face interviews
 Telephonic Interview
 Through the Internet
Dr D P Singh School of Research
Methodology, TISS

4. Interview
Types of Interviews
Informal Unstructured
Semi Structured &
Structured
Dr D P Singh School of Research
Methodology, TISS

5. Interviewing
 Unstructured Interviewing-
 Get people to open up and express
themselves in their own terms at their own pace.
 Excellent for building initial rapport before
moving to more formal interviews
 Often no formal written tool is used
Dr D P Singh School of Research
Methodology, TISS

6. Interview
 Semi-structured Interviewing-
 An Interview Guide used- This is a written list
of questions and topics and need to be covered
in a particular order.
 Structured interviewing-people are asked
to respond to as nearly identical a set of
stimuli as possible.
 Interview Schedule used with a written list of
questions used with the question order and
structure being followed exactly for each
interview.
Dr D P Singh School of Research
Methodology, TISS

7. Different Components…
 The Interviewer
 The Interview Schedule/Interview Guide
 The Researched/Respondent
Dr D P Singh School of Research
Methodology, TISS

8. The Skill of Interviewing
 Assure people of anonymity and
confidentiality
 Explain that you simply want to know what
they think, and what their observations are
 Encourage them to interrupt you during the
interview with anything they think is
important.
 Always ask for permission to record personal
interviews and to take notes.
Dr D P Singh School of Research
Methodology, TISS

9. Framing the Questions…
 Questions must be unambiguous and clear.
 The vocabulary or words used must be appropriate to the
respondents.
 There must be a clear purpose for every question.
 Use of open and closed ended questions
 open ended questions –respondent gives own answer (used
for qualitative data, sensitive information)
 Closed ended questions-choice of answers, respondent picks
the most appropriate one.
 Never use loaded or double-barreled questions.
 Always pre test
 See if the questions elicit the information needed to test the
hypothesis or answer research questions
Dr D P Singh School of Research
Methodology, TISS

10. Sequencing the Questions…
 Ask general questions or about some facts
before personal questions
 Get respondents involved in the interview
 Intersperse fact-based questions throughout
the interview to avoid long lists of fact-based
questions
Dr D P Singh School of Research
Methodology, TISS

11. Sequencing the Questions
 Ask questions about the present before
questions about the past or future.
 The last questions might be to allow
respondents to provide any other information
they prefer to add and their impressions of
the interview
Dr D P Singh School of Research
Methodology, TISS

12. Skills in Interviewing
 Probing
 Silent Probe
 Echo Probe
 ‘Uh-huh’ Probe
 ‘Tell Me-More’ Probe
 Long-Question Probe
Dr D P Singh School of Research
Methodology, TISS

13. Carrying the Interview
 Ask one question at a time.
 Attempt to remain as neutral as possible.
Encourage responses
 Be careful about the appearance when note
taking.
 Provide transition between major topics
 Don't lose control of the interview
Dr D P Singh School of Research
Methodology, TISS

14. After the Interview…
 Verify if the tape recorder, if used, worked
throughout the interview.
 Make any notes on your written notes
 Write down any observations made during
the interview
Dr D P Singh School of Research
Methodology, TISS

15. Points to Note….
 Importance of Language
 Pace of the Study
 “Being Yourself”
 The “little things”!!
 Using a Tape Recorder (recording equipment
etc)
 Taking Notes
Dr D P Singh School of Research
Methodology, TISS

16. “Response Effects”
 Response effects refer to measurable differences in the
interview data that are predictable from the characteristics of
respondents, interviewers and/or the environment.
 Age, sex, culture, comfort level of the respondents impact
responses
 The “Deference” Effect
 “Threatening” Questions
 “Social Desirability” Effect
 Accuracy of responses-(inability to recall, misleading)
Dr D P Singh School of Research
Methodology, TISS

17. Types of Interviews
 Face to face
 Telephone
Dr D P Singh School of Research
Methodology, TISS

18. Advantages of Face to Face
Interviews
 Can be used for all types of people- illiterate, bedridden,
old etc
 It is possible to clarify if the person does not understand
the meaning (noting such questions where explanation
was needed)
 Use of different techniques is possible-open ended
questions, visual aids, graphs, etc.
 Long interviews are better in a face to face situation
 Can get only one question at a time so cannot flip through
the next page to see what’s coming
 Possible to observe the body language
Dr D P Singh School of Research
Methodology, TISS

19. Disadvantages of Face to face
Interviews
 They are intrusive and reactive
 Costly in terms of time and money
 Limits the sample size for a single
investigator as you have to finish the data
collection in a short time (should not exceed
a year)
 Training is needed for multiple investigators
and there can be some error
Dr D P Singh School of Research
Methodology, TISS

20. Telephone Interviews
Advantages:
-Have the impersonal quality of the questionnaire.
- Inexpensive, need less time and energy
- Can reach everyone who has a phone
- Less influence of the interviewer’s personality
Disadvantages:
- Not useful for people without a telephone connection
- Cannot be a long schedule
- Data can be false if investigators are not monitored
properly Dr D P Singh School of Research
Methodology, TISS

21. Questionnaire
 Include a brief explanation of the purpose of
the questionnaire.
 Include clear explanation of how to complete
the questionnaire.
 Include directions about where to provide the
completed questionnaire.
 Note conditions of confidentiality
Dr D P Singh School of Research
Methodology, TISS

22. Advantages of Self Administered
Questionnaires
 Can be administered in various ways including- mail, drop and
collect; administered online and collected through email or
administered to a group of people sitting in a room
 Single researcher can collect data from a large sample in a
short time
 Relatively cheaper
 No interviewer bias
 Possible to include questions with long list of categories/long
battery questions
 Possible to ask sensitive/difficult to answer in face to face
interview
Dr D P Singh School of Research
Methodology, TISS

23. Disadvantages of Self Administered
Questionnaires
 No control over how people interpret the
questions
 Response rate can be poor
 Prone to serious sampling problems
 The sequence may not be followed/cannot
avoid flipping through
 Not useful for illiterate or visually impaired
population Dr D P Singh School of Research
Methodology, TISS

24. When to Use What
 No method is perfect
 On an average interview method can ensure
82% of fully filled schedules as against 68%
by questionnaire method
 Short schedules for a population having
telephone connections, telephone interviews
are possible
Dr D P Singh School of Research
Methodology, TISS

25. Dillman’s Total Design Method to Improve
Response of Mail and Telephone Surveying
 Mailed questionnaires must look professional (size and
colour of the paper, font size, layout)
 Front and back covers- No question on either covers-
interesting title, name and return address
 Question order – start with questions related to the
topic and end with questions on personal data
 Formatting- Careful use of font and case, spacing
Dr D P Singh School of Research
Methodology, TISS

26. Dillman’s Total Design Method to Improve
Response of Mail and Telephone Surveying
 Length should not be more than 10 pages and 125
questions
 The covering letter – brief and specific, guarantee
confidentiality
 Inducement- some monetary incentives for responding
ca also be thought of
 Contact and follow up – Sending the questionnaire after
prior intimation and follow up after mailing.
 Sending a second cover letter and questionnaire to non
respondents
Dr D P Singh School of Research
Methodology, TISS

27. Focus Groups
 Interview through the group process
 Focus groups typically have 6-12 members, plus a
moderator
 Discussion ‘Focused’ around a specific topic or theme
 Homogenous group preferred
 To the extent possible, participants should not know
one another
 Focus groups have to be supportive and non-
judgemental
Dr D P Singh School of Research
Methodology, TISS

28. Focus Group Discussion
 Develop five to six questions
 Major goal of facilitation is collecting useful
information to meet goal of meeting.
Carefully word each question before that question is
addressed by the group.
 Facilitate discussion around the answers to each
question, one at a time.
 After each question is answered, carefully reflect back
a summary of what you heard
 Ensure even participation.
 Closing the session
Dr D P Singh School of Research
Methodology, TISS

29. Observation
 Observation is a data collection strategy involving the
systematic collection and examination of verbal and
non verbal behaviours as they occur in a variety of
contexts” It includes both human activities and the
physical settings in which such activities take place.
 Observation methods are also used to extend or validate
data collected by other data collection methods.
Dr D P Singh School of Research
Methodology, TISS

30. Observation
 Observation also has relevance in research studies
where the respondents are unable to communicate for a
variety of reasons for e.g. either they are infants or they
could be adults who may not be able to articulate
complex emotions or certain life situations in an in-
depth manner.
 Even in studies with direct interviews, researchers use
observational techniques to note body language and
other gestures to get an insight into the words spoken
by the persons being interviewed.
Dr D P Singh School of Research
Methodology, TISS

31. Observation…
 The purpose of observational research is to
record group activities, conversation and
interaction as they happen and to ascertain
the meanings of such events to participants”.
 Observation may take place either in
laboratory settings, designed by the
researcher or in field settings that are the
natural habitat of selected activities.
Dr D P Singh School of Research
Methodology, TISS

32. Types of Observational Research
Three types of observational research-
 a)“Descriptive” observation generates a large quantum
of data as it involves the description of all details by an
observer
 b) “Focused” observation as the name indicates entails
looking at only specific pertinent material relevant to
the area of study
 c)“Selective” observation would mean identifying
specific areas from a more general category.
Dr D P Singh School of Research
Methodology, TISS

33. Types of Observation
 Observation-in-person (participant observation and
non participant observation)
 Video recordings.
 Structured or Unstructured.
In majority of research, efforts are usually made to
observe participants in as natural a setting as possible.
Dr D P Singh School of Research
Methodology, TISS

34. Participant Observation
 Usually involves field work
 It a strategic method that lets you collect any kind of
data –qualitative as well as quantitative, narrative or
numbers.
 It can be in the form of life histories, attending rituals,
talking about sensitive issues, It is about immersing
yourself I a culture, process and documenting it.
 Can be ethically problematic if not done properly
Dr D P Singh School of Research
Methodology, TISS

35. Two Different Roles as Participant Observer
 Complete Participant- Becoming a member
of the group without disclosing your role as a
researcher
 Participant Observer- Can be an insider who
observes and records some aspects of life
around him/her or can be an outsider who
participates in some aspects of life and
records whatever is possible
Dr D P Singh School of Research
Methodology, TISS

36. Advantages
 It makes it possible to collect different types
of data
 It reduces the problems of reactivity or
change in behaviour because they are being
studied
 It helps to formulate sensible questions
 Gives an intuitive understanding of a culture
Dr D P Singh School of Research
Methodology, TISS

37. Non participant Observer
 Direct observation
 Video recording and then analysing
Dr D P Singh School of Research
Methodology, TISS

38. Data Collection from Secondary
Data
 Books
 Reports
 Published compilation
 Computerized records
Researcher can search through collection of information
with a research question and variables in mind
Reassemble the information in new ways to address the
research question
Dr D P Singh School of Research
Methodology, TISS

39. Sources of Data Collection from Secondary
Data
 Any topic on which information has been
collected and is publicly available can be
selected
 Existing statistics can also provide data for
the study such as govt. records, census data,
 Assembly proceedings, biographical
information
Dr D P Singh School of Research
Methodology, TISS