1. The document summarizes seaweed taxonomy, morphology, ecology, and commercial uses. It discusses the three main groups of seaweeds - green, brown and red algae - and their key characteristics like pigments, cell walls and reproduction. 2. Seaweeds are found globally and have a variety of uses including food, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and biofuels. The global seaweed industry is valued at over $5 billion annually, with China being the largest producer. 3. Seaweeds play an important ecological role by providing habitat and food for other marine organisms. They also help regulate carbon and oxygen cycles through photosynthesis in the oceans.

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SEAWEED AND ITS POTENTIAL USES: A SHORT REVIEW
D.D.T.T. Darshana Senarathna1, T. Vithushana2, K. H. D. Namal Abeysooriya3*
1Department of Aquaculture and Fisheries, Faculty of Livestock Fisheries & Nutrition, Wayamba
University of Sri Lanka, Makandura, Gonawila (NWP), Sri Lanka.
2Department of Livestock and Avian Science, Faculty of Livestock Fisheries & Nutrition, Wayamba
University of Sri Lanka, Makandura, Gonawila (NWP), Sri Lanka.
3Environmental Science Degree Programme, Faculty of Science, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya
20400, Sri Lanka
ABSTRACT
Seaweeds are taxonomically diverse group of marine plants from which the land plants
diverged over fifty crore years ago, which are found in the coastal region between high tide to
low tide and in the sub-tidal region up to a depth where 0.01 % photosynthetic light is
available. Plant pigments, light, exposure, depth, temperature, tides and the shore
characteristic combine to create a different environment that determines the distribution and
variety among seaweeds. It contains photosynthetic pigments and with the help of sunlight
and nutrient present in the seawater, they photosynthesize and produce food which have
several health benefits and uses. The important to know about the ecology and distribution of
seaweed and to distinguish the different algal groups based on their characteristics. In recent,
the utilization of seaweed increased due to various available properties.The different usages
are food, beauty enhancer, organic manure, fertilizer, feed complement, medicines, water
treatments. This review is an attempt to highlights the seaweed with all the relevant
application and uses.

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INTRODUCTION
Overview
Two thirds of the world are covered by the oceans, whose upper layer is widely inhabited by
different types of photoautotrophic organisms. There are several forms of life in the large
ocean realm, beginning from unicellular simple organisms to multi-cellular complex
organisms who flourish, multiply and disintegrate. According to the studies it is believed that
the first living organism that was appeared on the Earth has emerged from the ocean. In all its
form, the life has started to develop from the growth of mono-cellular algae. As well as it has
been found that about 90% of the marine plant species are algae and about 50% of the global
photosynthesis is done by algae. Simultaneously, every second a molecule of oxygen we
inhale comes from these algae and algae reuse every second a molecule of carbon dioxide we.
The marine algae are in different shapes and sizes. Thereby the microscopic algae are known
as phytoplankton and macroscopic ones as seaweeds.
Seaweeds can be simply defined as marine algae, saltwater-dwelling, simple organisms, that
are categorized into three main groups due to their color such as red, brown, and green algae.
Within the coastal ecosystems, seaweeds have been identified as a group of organisms of
vital importance for ecosystem functions. Seaweeds are usually found in the coastal region
between the high tide to low tide and in the sub-tidal region up to a depth of 0.01 %
photosynthetic light is available. Type of plant pigments, light availability, exposure time,
depth, temperature, tides and the shore characteristic amalgamate to create different
environment that determine the distribution and variety among seaweeds.
Seaweeds contain photosynthetic pigments as in terrestrial plants and with the help of
sunlight and nutrient present in the seawater, they photosynthesize while producing food. The
ability of tapping the solar energy by terrestrial plants have been considerably limited due to
the frequent change in land use pattern, degraded forests, unsustainable agriculture, and
pollution like factors. But the oceans provide an unlimited space for capturing solar energy
by marine algae through photosynthesis. As well as they are acting as a sink of carbon
dioxide through photosynthesis to control some biogeochemical cycles in the ecosystem.
Apart from the photosynthesis, they provide habitats and breeding areas for vast number of
different organisms including fishes, mussels and crustaceans as they form large underwater
forests of considerable size with the structure of terrestrial forests. They are an important
food source for numerous herbivores, such as sea urchins, chitons, gastropods, and some
filter feeders and zooplankton, who feed on degraded seaweed biomass and on large

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quantities of spores released from seaweeds. Marine seaweeds and seagrasses both are
considered as macrophyts that cover only a small area of the world’s oceans while their
production amounts is estimated around 5–10% of the total oceanic production. It has been
found that the carbon assimilation of kelps, large brown algae is with around 1.8 kg carbon
m-2
per year that similarly high as a dense terrestrial forests and higher than the ten time of
primary production of marine phytoplankton.
Seaweeds are importance not only in ecology, but also in economy. Although the interactions
between human and seaweed seem to date back to the Neolithic period (Dillehay et al., 2008;
Ainis et al., 2014) the earliest written records of their human usage originates about 1700
years ago from China (Yang et al., 2017). For centuries, a wide variety of seaweeds has been
harvested by coastal populations. Initially, the seaweeds have been most often used for
domestic purposes such as food and animal fodder, whereas later, industrial uses such as
different gels and fertilizers were emerged.
Now a days dried seaweed thalli are directly used as human, animal food and as organic
fertilizers. Some specific seaweed species and extracted seaweed substances are used in food
industry, cosmetics, pharmaceutical industry, water treatment industry and biotechnology as
stabilizers, stiffeners and absorbents. It is expected that in near future, aquaculture of
seaweeds will be certainly strongly intensified, especially in integrated multi-trophic
aquaculture systems similar to aqua phonic systems where making the use of the waste
products generated by other organisms in the system. Industrial use of the seaweeds will also
be strongly increased as basis for CO2-neutral production of ethanol and methanol as
biofuels.
Taxonomy
Generally, the seaweed is one of the several groups of multicellular algae including red, green
and brown. They don’t have a specific common multicellular ancestor and form a
polyphyletic group. Therefore some blue green algae (Cyanobacteria) are considered to be a
seaweed. According to the molecular phylogeny (gene sequencing) and other characteristics
of seaweed, they belong to three kingdoms such as the Kingdom Plantae (chlorophytes and
rhodophytes), the Kingdom Chromista (phaeophytes), and the Kingdom Bacteria
(cyanophytes).
Scope of the seaweed industry
There are wide variety of products of seaweeds available in the market and it is estimated that
the total annual value of these products related to seaweed industry is around US$ 5.5–6

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billion. This is mainly involved with the seaweed food products for human consumption
which costs around US$ 5 billion. A large part of the rest of the billion dollars are earned
through the substances that are extracted from seaweeds – hydrocolloids while smaller,
miscellaneous uses, such as fertilizers and animal feed additives, make up the rest. Around
145 species of seaweeds are used for food and 110 species for phycocolloid production
approximately. The global seaweed resources have been estimated as 1460 million tons (fresh
weight) of brown algae and 261 million tons (fresh weight) of red algae. The total seaweed
production has been estimated to be around 1721 X 10 tons (fresh weight) annually
(Michanek, 1978). The annual requirement of wet seaweed for the production industry is
around 7.5–8 million tons. This amount is harvested from both naturally growing (wild)
seaweed and cultivated (farmed) seaweed. The cultivation of seaweed has expanded now as
the demand is rapidly increasing while the natural resources are inadequate to fulfill that
requirement. Worldwide, there are about 42 countries involve with the commercial seaweed
activities and around 221 species of seaweeds are utilized commercially mostly between the
Northern and Southern Hemispheres, in waters ranging from cold, through temperate, to
tropical.
China holds the first rank in seaweed industry and about 90% of seaweed productions comes
from culture based practices, with Laminaria species are accounting for most of its
production. China is followed by North Korea, South Korea, Japan, Philippines, Chile,
Norway, Indonesia and USA (Valderrama et al., 2013). Globally the production of seaweed
through aquaculture was 11.66, 16.83 and 19.9 million tons fresh in 2002, 2008 and 2010
respectively while seaweed biomass accounted for 23.0% of the world aquaculture output in
2007 (FAO, 2012). However, world aquaculture production of seaweeds was 23.78 million
tons fresh in 2012 (FAO, 2014). Kappaphycus alvarezii production in the world was recorded
as 1, 83, 000 tons (dry weight) in 2010 (Bixler et al., 2011). During the last few decade, the
seaweed products (Phycocolloids) industry has grown rapidly and this rapid growth is due to
the wide application of seaweeds and their products in various industries such as food,
pharmaceuticals, textiles, paper, agriculture, etc., China, Korea, Japan, Philippines, Indonesia,
Chile, Taiwan, Vietnam, Russia and Italy are the top 10 countries producing seaweeds
through aquaculture in the world (Bixler et al., 2011).

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Source; Maggy Wassilieff, 'Seaweed - What is
seaweed?', Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand,
http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/photograph/4583/the-
different-parts-of-seaweed (accessed 9 August 2019)
Anatomy and morphology
• Thallus: algal body
• Lamina or blade: flattened structure that is somewhat leaf-like
• Sorus: spore cluster
• Fucus, air bladder: a flotation-assisting organ on the blade
• Kelp, float: a flotation-assisting organ between the lamina and stipe
• Stipe: stem-like structure, may be absent
• Holdfast: basal structure providing attachment to a substrate
• Haptera: finger-like extension of the holdfast that anchors to a benthic substrate
• The stipe and blade are collectively known as the frond.
Although the seaweeds are somewhat similar in form with the higher vascular plants, the
body structure and function of the different parts significantly vary from the higher plants.
Figure 1.1, shows that the seaweeds do not have true roots, specified stems and leaves and
whole body of the plant is called together as thallus that consists of the holdfast, stipe and
blade.
Ecology of seaweeds
Seaweed ecology is dominated by two main environmental requirements such as seawater or
brackish water availability and light sufficiency for supporting photosynthesis. In addition to
those two requirements, a base for attachment is also an important requirement, although
Source; Climate of Change Part IV: The Future of Aquaculture Seaweed
vs Plants Developed by the Island Institute, Rockland, Maine,
https://teachmefoodandfarms.org/dev/wp-content/uploads/MH-Lesson-4-
Seaweed-vs-Plants-.pdf
Figure 1.1: Morphology of seaweed

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some genera such as Sargassum and Gracilaria have species that do not need. Seaweed most
commonly inhabit the littoral zone, and within that zone on rocky shores more than on sand
or shingle.
Seaweed occupy different ecological niches. At the surface, they get wetted only by the tops
of sea spray, while they may attach to substrates in several meters deep. Sometimes, the
littoral seaweed can extend few miles out to sea which depends on the nature of the area.
Some species of red algae are living in the deepest sea.
Other species have adapted to inhabit in tidal rock pools where the seaweed must have to
withstand rapidly changing temperature and salinity and occasional drying (Crisp, 1965).
Classification of seaweeds
There are different criteria to distinguish different seaweed groups based on their recent
biochemical, physiological and electron microscopic studies of photosynthetic pigments,
storage food products, cell wall component, fine structure of the cell and flagella.
Accordingly, seaweed have been classified into three main groups such as Green algae
(Chlorophyta), Brown algae (Phaeophyta) and Red algae (Rhodophyta).
Table 1.1: Division of Algae and their characteristics
Classes
Common
Name
Major Pigments
Stored
Food
Cell wall Flagellar
Chlorophyceae
Green
algae
Chlorophyll a, b Starch Cellulose
2– 8,
equal,
apical
Phaeophyceae
Brown
algae
Chlorophyll a, c
Fucoxanthin
Mannitol,
Laminarin
Cellulose
& algin
2,
unequal,
lateral
Rhodophyceae Red algae
Chlorophyll a, d
Phycoerythrin
Floridean
starch
Cellulose Absent
Green algae (Chlorophyta)
Morphology
Green algae are found in both fresh and marine water habitats. They are available from
unicellular to multi-cellular or microscopic to macroscopic forms. Their thalli vary from free
filaments to exactly shaped forms. The photosynthetic part of the thalli is moderately or

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highly calcified. It is appearing in different of forms like feather like, fan shaped segments or
star-shaped branches with teeth or pinnules and clavate or globose branchlets.
Anatomy
The cell wall is thick and stratified as it consists of an inner cellulose layer and thick outer
pectin layer. Calcium carbonate is the main compound available in pectin layer in all
Dasycladales and in many Siphonales. The most of the chlorophyceae species have uni-
nucleated cells and multi-nucleated cells in Cladophorales and Siphonales, while they are
producing their reproductive units.
Pigments
Green algae consist of Chlorophyll a and b as major photosynthetic pigments, they are
contained in a special cell structure called chromatophores. Chloroplasts can be found in
varying shapes and sizes. It has a double membrane envelope and an endoplamic reticulum is
not available. In many forms pyrenoids or specific sub-cellular micro-compartments are
present in the chloroplast, which take responsible for the starch formation.
Reproduction
The reproduction of green algae shows great diversity. As in most seaweed species, green
algae can reproduce both sexually and asexually. The sexual reproduction is done by forming
flagellate or non-flagellate spores while the asexual reproduction is done by vegetative
propagation through fragmentation.
Brown algae (Phaeophyta)
Morphology
Brown algae are exclusively marine forms. They can be found in different forms from simple
to highly differentiated forms. Branches are usually erect and arise from prostrate basal
filaments held together by mucilage forming a compact pseudo-parenchymatous aggregation
of filaments into prostrate crust or erect branched axis or leaf like blades exhibiting the
haplostrichous condition. Many of the species contain large massive thalli with special air
bladder, vesicles or float to make them buoyant.
Anatomy
Two layered cell wall can be observed where the outer layer is mucilaginous and sticky due
to the presence of alginate. The inner layer contains cellulose (microfibrils). The cell is uni-
nucleate with one or two nucleoli. The nuclei of Phaeophyta are usually large and possess a
large and readily stained nucleolus with a delicate network having little chromatic material.

8. 8
The chromosomal organization is much advanced. The chromo centers on the chromosome of
unknown function are characteristic of Phyaeophyta. Cytoplasm contains organelles like
mitochondria, golgi bodies, ER, chromatophores, vacuoles and fucosan vesicles. The
chromatophores are invariably parietal. The photosynthetic cells in the majority of brown
algae contain numerous small discoid chromatophores. Chromatophores show movement to
changes in the intensity and direction of illumination.
Pigments
Brown algae vary in coloration from yellow to deep brown. The coloration is due to the
accessory carotenoid pigment and fuxoxanthin. The amount of fucoxanthin varies in different
species of brown algae. Dictyota, Ectocarpus, Laminaria etc. are rich in fucoxanthin, while
species of Fucus are poor in fucoxanthin. Most of the littoral brown algae are rich in
xanthophyll and fucoxanthin. The algae rich in fucoxanthin exhibit a much higher rate of
photosynthesis in blue light than the algae with poor fucoxathin.
The other photosynthetic pigments of the brown algae are Chlorophyll a & c, Beta carotene
and xanthophyll. The photosynthetic products of the brown algae are Laminarian and
Mannitol. Laminarian is dextrin like polysaccharide, a food reserve, arise from the simple
sugar of photosynthesis. Mannitol appears to be non-widely distributed and presence of such
alcohols may account for extreme scarcity of free sugars as they undergo immediate
conversion into alcohol and polysaccharides.
Reproduction
This group reproduces sexually and asexually. Several species of this group are reproduced
vegetatively by fragmentation. Members of this group produce biflagellate neutral spores
found within one celled or many celled reproductive organs.
Red algae (Rhodophyta)
Morphology
Majority of red seaweeds are exclusively marine. They are vary in size and shape. They are
either epiphytes, grows as crust on the rocks or shells as a large fleshy, branched or blade like
thalli. The thallus is basically filamentous, simple or branched, free or compacted to form
pseudo parenchyma with uni or multiaxial construction. They inhabit intertidal to subtidal to
deeper waters.

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Anatomy
They contain eukaryotic cells where the inner cell wall is of cellulose and outer cell wall with
amorphous matrix of mucopolysaccharides. Cells are uninucleate /multinucleate with a large
centric vacuole. The cross wall separating neighboring cells exhibit a distinct features - the
pit r connection or pit plug. The viscosity of cytoplasm is high and there is often a very firm
adhesion to the wall which penetrates to the inner most layer of the membrane. The cells of
Rhodophyta are always uninucleate except in the older cells that are multinucleate. The
nuclei exhibit a prominent nucleolus and a well-developed network with numerous chromatin
grains. The chloroplast varies from single, axial, stellate in primitive taxa to parietal and
discoid forms in non-advance taxa.
Pigments
The coloration of Rhodophyta is due to water-soluble pigments, the red phycoerythrin and
blue phycocyanin. Other pigments present are chlorophyll a & b, carotene etc. The
photosynthetic product of this group is Floridian starch. Phycoerythrin pigment is found to
be in the greater quantity in seaweeds of deeper water and freely illuminated forms which
also show increase ratio of phycoerythrin to chlorophyll. The accessory pigments that
resemble those found in Myxophyceae are of proteins and show characteristic similar to those
of globulin. Red algae carry on apparently more photosynthesis in feeble light than brown
and green algae.
Reproduction
This group seldom reproduces asexually. All the members of this group produce one or more
kinds of non-flagellated spores that are either sexual or asexual in nature. Sexual reproduction
is very complicated involving several structures after fusion of gametes.
Distribution of seaweed
Distribution of seaweed in an ecosystem can be expressed as horizontal distribution and
vertical distribution. The horizontal distribution can be separated into different groups due to
the zonations such as supra tidal (supra littoral), intertidal (littoral) and subtidal (sub littoral)
regions of the seas and oceans. Common green seaweeds such as Ulva (sea lettuce),
Enteromorpha (green string lettuce), Chaetomorpha, Codium, and Caulerpa are most
commonly found in the intertidal zone. Common brown seaweed species of Sargassum,
Laminaria, Turbinaria and Dictyota inhabit in the tidal or upper subtidal zone. As well as,
common red seaweed species such as Gracilaria, Gelidiella, Eucheuma, Ceramium and
Acanthophora are commonly found in subtidal waters.

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USES OF SEAWEED
Seaweed as a food
Seaweeds have been used as a human food from 600 to 800 BC. In some Asian countries like
China and Japan, seaweeds had been used as a stable diet for a very long period. Fresh, dried
and processed seaweeds are utilized for human consumption. In some countries seaweed
foods are very popular. Different types of seaweeds are used as food in Japan, China,
Philippines and other countries of Indo pacific region. They are usually eaten as salad, curry,
soup, and jam or mixed with other native dishes as additives (Chapman et al., 1980; ‘T.
Levring et al., 1969)
Seaweeds are traditionally consumed in Asia directly as “sea vegetables”, but in most of the
western countries, they use seaweeds as a source of gelling or thickening agents (some
extractions). However, the western countries have begun to enjoy the taste and nutritional
value of these vegetables. Seaweed recipes are easy to prepare and most of the time use in its
raw form that are added into some finished foods – soups, curries, vegetables, dishes and
salads. Seaweeds used in China, Korea and Japan are purchased as a dried product. However
there is also a market for some varieties of fresh seaweeds which are used as a salad
vegetable or as garnishes for other dishes such as fish. Species of Caulerpa, Eucheuma and
GacilaIria are used for this purpose, especially in some of the warmer Southeast Asian
countries such as the Philippines, Malaysia, Thailand and Indonesia. Usually naturally
growing seaweed species are collected and sold as fresh products in local markets (McHugh,
2003).
Some seaweed has a good dietary content, mainly protein, carbohydrate and vitamins (A, B,
B2 and C). In addition to that, a lot of trace elements and minerals are available, the most
prominent one is iodine. As well as they are very suitable for all kind of vegetarians and low
in calories. Protein content in brown seaweeds is around 5% to 15% while in red and green
ones it is 10% to 30 % of dry weight. However in Palmaria palmata (dulse) and Porphyra
tenera it is 35% and 47% of dry matter respectively (Arasaki and Arasaki, 1983). Ulva
petrusa contains 20% to 26% and is consumed under the trade name “Aonori” by Japanese
(Indergaard and Minsaas, 1991). Ulva contains 10% to 26% of protein among the Indian
seaweeds (Parthiban et al., 2013). Currently, approximately 15 - 20 of edible seaweeds are
marketed in Europe.
Seaweeds like Ulva sp., Enteromorpha sp., Caulerpa sp., Codium sp., Monostroma sp.,
Sargassum sp., Hydroclathrus sp., Laminaria sp., Undaria sp., Macrocystis sp., Porphyra

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sp., Gracilaria sp., Eucheuma sp., Laurencia sp. and Acanthophora sp. are the common types
of seaweeds widely used in the preparation of soup, salad and curry (Kolanjinathan et al.,
2014).
Nutritional value and biochemical composition of seaweed
The minerals like sodium, calcium, magnesium, potassium, chlorine, sulphur, phosphorus and
micronutrients such as iodine, iron, zinc, copper, selenium, molybdenum, fluoride,
manganese, boron, nickel and cobalt are plenty in different species of seaweed. Apart from
that, it’s a good source of iodine generally highest in brown seaweed. The calcium and
protein content varies from species to species but has low-fat content. Generally, green and
red seaweed has high protein content (up to 30%), whereas lower (up to 15%) was found in
brown seaweeds (Kolanjinathan et al., 2014). This may also be varied depending on the
habitat and according to the depth. Protein content varies among different genera and also in
different species of the same genus. Green algae generally have high carbohydrate content
than red and brown agae (Parthiban et al., 2013) but this may also vary according to the
species type and habitat. For example; the maximum carbohydrate content was recorded in
the green seaweed E. intestinalis 28.58 % and the minimum was found to be 10.63% in
brown seaweed of Dictyota dichotoma (Parthiban et al., 2013). In green seaweed of U.
lactuca (35.27%) and E. intestinalis (30.58%) also contain higher carbohydrate content
(Chakraborty and Santra, 2008).
Table 2.1 : Seaweed nutrition compared to other common foods
Per 100 grams Seaweed Chicken Milk Broccoli Beef
Calcium (mg) 372 14 119 47 8
Cholesterol
(mg)
0 83 7 0 85
Fibre, dietary
(g)
5.6 0 0 2.6 0
Folate (mcg) 337 4 5 63 8
Iron (mg) 24.95 1.06 0.03 0.73 2.97
Protein (g) 31.84 29.55 3.27 2.82 29.63
Vitamin A
family (mcg)
185 56 110 392 0
Vitamin B
complex
74.59 85.86 16.54 19.70 120.16
Vitamin E
(mg)
5 0.27 0.04 0.78 0.14
Vitamin K
(mcg)
25 0.3 0.2 101.6 1.5
Zinc (mg) 3.9 1.01 0.42 0.41 6.72
Source: Vera (2010), The Secrets of Seaweed Nutrition and Your Health, Available at; https://www.health-
supplements.com.au/seaweed-nutrition

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Seaweed as beauty enhancer / Cosmetics
Algotherapy is one of the beauty treatment methods since 19th and the beginning of the 20th
century in several southern and western locations. Seaweed baths were a widespread feature
of seaside resorts in tourism industry. Seaweed baths were used as a treatment for arthritis,
rheumatism and other aches and pains too. Many companies producing a seaweed powder
(made mainly from Medicinal and pharmacological properties of Ascophyllum nodosum) for
beauty and body care products containing seaweed extracts. A number of compounds
extracted from seaweeds are thought to be of value in various cosmetic applications and some
are now becoming commercially important (Pati et al., 2016).
Now a days, “extract of seaweed” is often found on the list of ingredients on cosmetic
packages, particularly in face and body creams or lotions. The use of seaweeds themselves in
cosmetics, rather than extracts of them, is rather limited. Milled seaweed, packed in sachets,
is sold as an additive to bath water, sometimes with essential oils added. Bath salts with
seaweed meal are also sold. Thalassotherapy has come into fashion in recent years, especially
in France. Mineral-rich seawater is used in a range of therapies, including hydrotherapy,
massage and a variety of marine mud and algae treatments. One of the treatments is to cover
a person’s body with a paste of fine particles of seaweed, sometimes wrap them in cling
wrap, and warm the body with infrared lamps. It is said to be useful in various ways,
including relief of rheumatic pain or the removal of cellulite. Paste mixtures are also used in
massage creams, with promises to rapidly restore elasticity and suppleness to the skin. The
seaweed pastes are made by freeze grinding or crushing. The seaweed is washed, cleaned and
then frozen in slabs. The slabs are either pressed against a grinding wheel or crushed,
sometimes with additional freezing with liquid nitrogen that makes the frozen material more
brittle and easier to grind or crush. The result is a fine green paste of seaweed. There appears
to be no shortage of products with ingredients and claims linked to seaweeds: creams, face
masks, shampoos, body gels, bath salts, and even a do-it-yourself body wrap kit. The efficacy
of these products must be judged by the user. One company recently pointed out that the
lifetime of cosmetic products has reduced over the years and now rarely exceeds three or four
years. Perhaps the seaweed products that are really effective will live longer than this
(Dhargalkar and Pereira, 2005).
Medicinal and pharmacological properties
As Medicine, Seaweeds were considered to be of medicinal value in the orient as early as
3000 B.C. The Chinese and Japanese used them in the treatment of goiter and other glandular

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diseases. Romanians used the seaweeds for healing the wounds, burns and rashes. In Europe
and North America, many claims have been made for the effectiveness of seaweeds on
human health. The seaweed extracts and its products are effective nutritional supplements.
Apart from the nutritional support it has also used against various biological diseases like
antimicrobial, antiviral, antifungal, anti-allergic, anticoagulant, anticancer, antifouling and
antioxidant activities (Pooja, 2014).
Antioxidant activities
It has been found that the seaweeds have good antioxidant properties, which play a major role
against various diseases like cancers, chronic inflammation, atherosclerosis and
cardiovascular disorder and ageing processes (Pooja, 2014). It also prevents the rate of cancer
cell formation (Richardson, 1993).
To control heart disease and stroke
Sea weed has a potential to reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases by reducing the plasma
cholesterol (Jiménez-Escrig and Sánchez-Muniz, 2000).
Antimicrobial and antifungal activity
The methanol crude extract of Gracilaria corticata has a good action against the
antimicrobial and antifungal activities. Among different solvent extracts like methanol,
acetone, chloroform, and hexane-ethyl acetate, methanol has shown the highest antibacterial
activity against different pathogenic bacteria such as Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus
pyogenes, Streptococcus epidermis, Bacillus subtilis and Bacillus cereus (Kolanjinathan and
Saranraj, 2014). The Gracilaria corticata, Sargassum wightii and Turbinaria ornate also can
be taken as good sources of antimicrobial agents (Vijayabaskar et al., 2012). Similarly,
ethanol extract showed maximum antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus species as
compared to methanol extracts against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus sp. and Proteus sp.
Anti-inflammatory property
Methanol extracts of the seaweeds Undaria pinnatifida and Ulva linza have indicated a better
inflammatory activity when tested against mouse ear edema and erythema. Edema was
strongly dormant by the seaweeds Undaria pinnatifida and Ulva linza. These two seaweeds
also showed the greatest suppression of erythema (Khan et al., 2008).
Seaweeds as anticancer agents
Seaweeds are the most important reservoirs of new therapeutic compounds for humans.
Different types of seaweed extracts have been experimentally proved to reduce or to destroy

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the effectiveness of cancer. The dietary intake of seaweed has also been implicated as a
potential protective agent in the etiology of breast cancer (Teas, 1981). The brown algae
Fucus spp. has shown activity against both colorectal and breast cancers (Moussavou et al.,
2014). In ancient times, Chinese has used Laminaria sp. in the treatment of cancer and it has
also been recorded in ancient ayurvedic texts. Seaweed in a diet plays an active role in
reducing the risk of breast cancer and another type of cancers. A series of mechanism in
which; cancer could be reduced or retards its rate of growth. It includes reduction of plasma
cholesterol, binding of biliary steroids, anti-oxygenic activity, binding of toxic materials,
induction of apoptosis, inhibition of cell adhesion, the addition of important trace minerals to
the diet.
Antidiabetic activity
Aqueous extract of Ulva fasciata has shown a good remarkable difference while treated
against diabetic rats as compared to other standard medicine. It has been found that the
pretreatment with aqueous of Ulva fasciata can significantly decrease the blood glucose and
glycosylated hemoglobin level.
Antiviral activity
A scientist from many countries of the world showed antiviral activities against human
infectious diseases like human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), Herpes simplex virus (HSV)
types 1 and 2 and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) by using Aghardhiella tenera and
Nothogenia fastigiata sp. (Witvrouw et al., 1994; Damonte et al., 1994). All marine algae
seem to have antiviral sulfated polysaccharides. Carrageenans, fucoidans and sulfated
rhamnogalactans have substantial antiviral activity against enveloped viruses, such as herpes
and HIV.
Antibiotic activity
The presence of antagonistic or chemical compounds in algae makes them functional as
antibiotics. These compounds are useful against various diseases such as viral, bacterial and
fungal (Hoppe, 2013). Several experiments and patents were carried out in ancient times by
researchers to find out these chemical compounds which basically fall in categories of
phaeophyceae, chlorophyceae and rhodophyceae. The compounds include fatty acids,
bromophenols, tannins, phloroglucinol, terpenoids and halogenated compounds.

15. 15
Cellular growth activity
The compound derived from Eucheuma serra have been successfully implemented on mouse
lymphocytes using lectins to stimulate non-dividing cell of mitosis (Smit, 2004).
Effects on fertilization and larval development
The lectin diabolin which was isolated from Laminaria diabolica has affected to the
development of a fertilized envelope around unfertilized eggs of the sea urchin
Hemicentrotus pulcherrimus, thus preventing cleavage (Nakamura and Moriya, 1999).
Terpenoids are also considered for their effects on fertilization and subsequent various
seaweed-derived compounds affect fertilization and larval or embryonic development in both
invertebrates and vertebrates.
Vermifuge activity
In addition to the antibiotic effect of algal extracts, certain marine algae have been identified
as vermifuges who kills intestinal worms, such as Ascaris. (Hoppe, 2013). The kainic acid
produced from the extract of Digenea (red alga) act as an efficient vermifuge activity against
Ascaris worm without causing any side effects to the patient.
Antitumor activity
Compounds extracted from several species of marine blue-green algae have been successfully
tested against lymphocytic leukemia and Ehrlich ascites tumor in mice (Kashiwagi et al.,
1980).
Anti-ulcer wound healing and hepatoprotective activities
It has been discovered that some species like Gracilaria crassa, Laurencia papillosa and
Turbinaria ornata have a good antiulcer, wound healing and hepatoprotective activities.
Goitre treatment
Goitre disease is caused due to the low concentration of iodine in food which results in
physical retardation in people. It can be overcome by the use of marine algae as they are
tremendous sources of iodine. Vitamin deficiency can also be prevailing by use of seaweed
supplements in the diet (Michanek, 2013).
Industrial use
The cell wall of several seaweeds contain very interesting group of complex polysaccharides
called phycocolloids. Among these various phycocolloids, Agar, Algin and Carrageenan are
the most common and important products. International demand for these three types of
phycocolloids has been increasing day by day, because of their use in various industries

16. 16
(food, pharmaceuticals, textile, and beverage). The phycocolloid industries have expanded
rapidly only after the Second World War. In 2009 about 86,100 MT of hydrocolloids were
traded comprising 58% of carrageenan, 31% Alginates and approximately 11% Agar. World
carrageenan production exceeded 50,000 MT in 2009 with the value of over US $527 million.
About 10,000 MT with a value of $175 million of agar has been extracted worldwide (Bixler
and Porse, 2011). About 32,000 MT to 39,000 MT of alginic acid per annum has been
extracted worldwide from approximately 50,000 MT (wet weight) annual production of kelp
(Lin, 2006).
Agar
Agar is the most important phycocolloid from other types of phycocolloids which is obtained
from red seaweeds. Agar has been produced by most of the countries comprise Argentina,
Canada, Chile, China, France, India, Indonesia, Japan, Madagascar, Mexico, Morocco,
Namibia, New Zealand, Peru, Portugal, Russia, South Africa, Spain, Thailand, and the USA.
In the world commonly used red seaweeds for agar production include species of Gelidium,
Gracilaria, Gelidiella acerosa, Pterocladia capillaca, Pterocladia lucida, Ahenpeltia plicata,
Acanthopheltis japonica, Ceramium hypnoides and Ceramium boydenii (McHugh, 2003).
Agar gels are stronger and resistant at low concentrations (1 to 1.5%) with only water and
withstand even above 100 °C (good sterilization) and may be used in wide range of pH (5 to
8). Agar gels could be repeatedly gelled (excellent reversibility) and melted without losing its
property. The agar gels are superior to alginate ones because they are stable, not causing
precipitation in the presence of cations as is observed in alginates with calcium. FAO/ WHO
Codex Aluminates have permitted the use of agar in human food industry in countries such as
United Kingdom, Germany, Russia, France and Poland. Food and Drug Administration
(FDA) of United States (US) assigned agar as a grading of Generally Recognized as Safe
(GRAS) (FAO 2003). Agar is used in various applications in food industries as thickening
agents in the preparation of fruit salads, fruit jellies, yogurt, bakery products, as a
preservative in canned foods and meat industry and in liquor industry to increase the
viscosity. Higher concentration of agars is also used in fabricating molds for sculpture,
archeological and dental impressions (McHugh, 2003). Agar tends to decrease the
concentration of blood glucose and exerts an anti-aggregation effect on red blood cells and
effects on absorption of ultraviolet rays (Murata and Nakazoe, 2001).

17. 17
Agarose
Agarose also a polysaccharide obtained by the fractionation of agar (and the other fraction
being agaropectin) produced from Gelidium, Gelidiella and Gracilaria species (Duckworth et
al., 1971; Izumi, 1973). It is also directly produced from Gracilaria dura (Meena et al.,
2007). The applications of Agarose include immune - diffusion and diffusion techniques,
conventional electrophoresis, reverse electrophoresis, immune electrophoresis or electro
focusing, chromatographic techniques in gel chromatography, ion exchange chromatography,
affinity chromatography or chromate focusing, bioengineering applications and microbiology
and tissue.
Alginate
Alginate is also another most important polysaccharide extracted from brown seaweeds such
as Laminaria, Macrocystis, Sargassum and Ascophyllum. Laminaria sp. are very common
and popular in Japan and Korea (Chapman et al., 1980). In Scotland, Norway and France,
Laminaria is collected from the natural stock. In Chile and Australia, Durvillea lessonia and
species of Ecklonia are collected and exported to US and UK alginate industries (Bixler and
Porse, 2011). The polyelectrolytic property and the viscosity of alginates make them more
suitable as an excellent stabilizing agent in the food industry. The alginate (propylene glycol
alginate) has been approved as a food additive for use as emulsifier, stabilizer or thickener in
USA. The Joint Expert committee of Food additives of the Food and Agricultural
organization of UN/ World Health Organization (WHO) has issued specifications for
alginates and recommended an acceptable daily intake of 50mg alginic acid per kg body
weight and 25mg propylene glycol alginate per kg body weight (McHugh, 2003). Alginate is
also used as stabilizing and emulsifying agent, gelling agent, in film forming (binding and
glazing agent), in medicinal applications, in textile products, in bio – engineering as well as
in food, dairy, paper and rubber products (Bixler and Porse, 2011; McHugh, 2003). Alginic
acid decreases the concentration of cholesterol and exerts anti hypertension effect. It prevents
absorption of toxic chemical substances and serves as a dietary fiber for maintenance of
health in animals and humans (Murata and Nakazoe, 2001). Alginate containing drugs like
Graviscon (sodium alginate, sodium bicarbonate and calcium carbonate) suppress acidic
refluxes, binding of bile acids and duodenal ulcers in humans. Alginates also have anti-cancer
properties (Murata and Nakazoe, 2001).

18. 18
Carrageenan
Carrageenan is a complex sulphated polysaccharide. It is also a commercially important
seaweed extract as same as agar and alginate, derived from various red seaweeds. The name
carrageenan is derived from a small thcoastal town in Ireland, where commercial harvests of
Chondrus crispus (Irish moss) were made in 19 century. It is the third most important
hydrocolloid in the world after starch and gelatin and occurs as cell wall matrix material in
various species of red seaweeds (McHugh, 2002). Carrageenans are sulphated galctans
classified according to the presence of 3, 6 –anhydrogalctose on the 4 –linked residue and
based on the number and position of sulphate group they are of four types: kappa, iota, beta
and lambda. Kappa carrageenan is extracted from Kappaphycus alvarezii, iota carrageenan
from Eucheuma denticulatum, beta carrageenan from Betaphycus gelatinae and lambda
carrageenan from Acanthophora spicifera. Commonly, the carrageenan industry mainly
depends on warm water seaweeds such as Kappaphycus alvarezii and Eucheuma
denticulatum. Cold water red seaweed species like Gigartina skottsbergii, Sarcothalia
crispata and Chondrus crispus are used to extract special carrageenans that cannot be
supplied by warm water Kappaphycus and Eucheuma (Bixler and Porse, 2011). Other
carrageenan yielding seaweeds include Iridaea and Hypnea (Chapman et al., 1980)
Carrageenan makes use of its both hydrophilic and anionic properties. Anionic property of
carrageenan influences the hydrophilic nature. Carrageenan applications are increasing day
by day due to its wide range of properties. More than 250 applications are identified in
different fields such as food products and processing, pharmaceutical industry, cosmetics,
etc., (Bixler and Porse 2011; Mc Hugh 2003). The carrageenan market is worth US$ 527
million with most carrageenan used as human food grade semi refined carrageenan (90%)
and the rest going into pet food. From human health perspective it has been reported that
carrageenan has antitumour and antiviral properties (Skoler-Karpoff. et al., 2008).
Carrageenan gels from Chondrus crispus could block the transmission of the HIV virus as
well as other STD viruses such as gonorrhea, genital warts and the herpes simplex virus
(HSV) (Luescher-Mattli, 2005). In addition, they are good candidates for their use as veginal
microbicides as they do not exhibit significant levels of cytotoxicity or anticoagulant activity
(Buck et al., 2006). The most active carrageenan has approximately one fifteenth the activity
of heparin. The hypoglycaemic effect of carrageenan may be useful in the prevention and
management of diabetes. The use of carrageenan for food applications started almost 600
years ago. Due to its long and safe history of use, it is generally recognized as safe (GRAS)
by experts from US Food and Drug Administration (21 CFR 182.7255) and is approved as a

19. 19
food additive (21 CFR 172.620). The World Health Organization (WHO) Joint Experts
Committee of Food Additives has concluded that it is not necessary to specify an acceptable
daily intake limit for carrageenans (Van De Velde and Kiekens, 2002). Carrageenan with not
less than 5mpas viscosity of at 1.5% concentration and 75A C (US Food and Nutrition Board
1981) had been demonstrated to be safe.
Seaweed as feed complement for farm animals
In many countries, raw or processed seaweeds are regularly fed to farm animals like cow,
goat, horses, etc. In Iceland, fresh seaweeds are commonly used as food for sheep, cattle, hen
and horses. Seaweed forms almost the only food for certain animals, though it is sometimes
given along with hay. Horses prefer basal or youngest parts of the fronds of Laminaria
saccharina. Seaweeds are fed regularly to the sheep in Norway, Iceland and Europe, Pelvetia
sp, Rhodymenia palmate, Alaria sp., Fucus sp., Chondra filus, Ascophyllum sp., Macrocystis
sp., Palmaria sp. and Laminaria sp. are the major genera of seaweeds used as fodder in
various countries. When used in animal feed, cows have produced more milk and chicken
eggs became better pigmented, Horse and other pet animals become healthier (White and
Keleshian, 1994). Tocopherol and Vitamin E in seaweeds increased the fertility rate and birth
rate of animals. Feeds supplemented with seaweeds and Spirulina to layer chicks (White
Leghorn) increased the number of eggs, their size and color of the yolk. In Japan, Germany,
UK and Norway, feeding trials in farm animals were done with seaweeds as supplementary
animal feed. Cattle fed with Laminaria sp based diet have gained more natural resistance to
diseases such as foot and mouth. Ulva lactuca, Enteromorpha compressa, Padina pavonica
and Laurencia obtusa are potential sources of dietary protein and lipid for fishes.
Kappaphycus alvarezii and Gracilaria heterocladia in dry powdered form as diet, showed
highest survival rate in the prawn, Penaeus monodon (Kotiya Anil et al., 2011). The rare
breed of primitive sheep on North Ronaldsay, Orkney (Schotland) survived under extreme
conditions on the beach shore of North Ronaldsay with seaweed as virtually their sole feed
source. Seaweed treated pasture forages have increased immunity in pigs and chicks. Some of
the popular and commercialized seaweed based feed are: 1. Tasco 14 – a feed derived from
Ascophyllum nodusum, benefits overall immunity of cattle. 2. Acadian – a kelp meal
marketed by Mangrove Holsteins Limited proved to boost the immune system. 3. Pedigree –
a carrageenan based dog feed marketed by MARS Company. Several macro algae such as
Ulva, Undaria, Ascophyllum, Porphyra, Sargassum, Polycavernosa, Gracilaria and

20. 20
Laminaria are widely used in fish diets and their effects on growth of fishes have been well
documented (Nakagawa et al., 2007).
Seaweed used as organic manure
Seaweeds have been initially connected directly or indirectly with human beings as a source
of food, fodder and manure from time immemorial (600BC) especially in densely populated
countries. They are rich in potassium salts, micro and macro nutrients as well as growth
hormones, adding manure value essential for major agricultural crops. The seaweeds are
used as bio- fertilizers because of their benefits as soil conditioners and green manure. The
potential of seaweeds is known not only for the macro nutrients such as Nitrogen,
Phosphorus, Potassium, Calcium, Magnesium and Sulphur but also for its trace elements like
Zn, Cu and Mn and plant growth regulators namely Auxins, Gibberellins and Cytokinins.
Major Brown seaweeds used for fertilizer are Ascophyllum, Macrocystis, Laminaria,
Ecklonia, Durvillaea, Cabophyllum, Himanthalia, Sargassum and Turbinaria and red
seaweeds include Pachymenia, Lithothamnion, Phymatolithon. The value of seaweeds as an
agricultural fertilizer has been demonstrated, especially by coastal farmers with ready access
to seaweeds. Seaweed fertilizers have been found to be superior to chemical fertilizers
because of the high level of organic matter, which aids in retaining moisture and minerals in
the upper soil level making available to the roots. Seaweed fertilizers from various seaweeds
on various crops have been studied and the results have shown increased yields. Seaweeds
directly used as fertilizer on coconut, palms and coco plants have resulted in better yields.
Seaweed extracts have been used in sweet corn, tomato, okra and sweet potato, peanuts and
sweet potatoes (Tseng, 1947), green chilies and turnip. Phaseolus vulgaris (Featonby-Smith
and van Staden, 1984), Maize, green gram, black gram and rice, cucumber and tomato giving
optimum yields.
Wastewater treatment
Removal of excess nutrients
In modern times the seaweeds are used in the treatment of sewage and some agricultural
wastes to reduce nitrogen and phosphorus containing compounds before the release of these
treated waters into rivers or oceans. Eutrophication is the enrichment or excess deposition of
nutrients in terms of minerals, nitrogen and phosphorus containing materials. Eutrophication
can occur naturally, but it can be accelerated by allowing water, rich in dissolved fertilizers,
to seep into nearby lakes and streams, or by the introduction of sewage effluent into rivers
and coastal waters. This will lead to the unwanted and excessive growth of aquatic or marine

21. 21
plants. Another important feature of many types of seaweed is their ability to take up more
phosphorus than they require for maximum growth. Intertidal and estuarine species are the
most tolerant, especially green seaweeds such as species of Enteromorpha and Monostroma.
In aquaculture, the red seaweeds Gracilaria verrucosa have the higher efficiency to remove
BOD and COD level whereas green seaweed Ulva fasciata has more efficiency for removal
of ammonia (Sasikumar and Rengasamy, 1994).
Removal of toxic metals
The other application is for the removal of toxic metals such as copper, nickel, lead, zinc and
cadmium from industrial wastewater. Metals come either from natural sources or from
mining or disposal of industrial wastes. Brown seaweeds such as Sargassum, Laminaria and
Ecklonia and the green seaweeds Ulva and Enteromorpha have more efficient to accumulate
of toxic metals. So it’s a biological indicator of heavy metal pollution (Pati et al., 2016).
Type of seaweed Treatment
process
Pollutant
removed
Efficiency
Protonated or Ca-form Sargassum
seaweed biomass
Bio sorption Trivalent and
Hexavalent
Chromium
70%
Sargassum binderi (Brown seaweed) Batch sorption Basic yellow
11
99%
Enteromorpha Adsorption Malachite
green
94.74%
Amphiroa foliacea (Red seaweed) Bio sorption Reactive blue
4
94%
Caulerpalentillifera (Green seaweed) Batch sorption Acid yellow 70%
Ascophyllum nodosum Anaerobic
batch digestion
Copper 76%
Mixed algae Adsorption Hexavalent
Chromium
85%
Figure 2.8: Potential usage of seaweeds in waste water treatment process
Source: Vijayaragavan G (2015) Potential usage of seaweeds in waste water treatment process, Available from;
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Potential-usage-of-seaweeds-in-waste-water-treatment-
process_tbl2_292695418

22. 22
Biomass for fuel
Remaining unused seaweed biomass can be utilized for the production of biogas through
anaerobic digestion to methane. Anaerobic digestion of biomass has been practiced for
almost a century and is very popular in many developing countries such as China and India.
The biogas is a reasonably clean burning fuel, which can be captured and put to many
different end uses such as cooking, heating or electricity generation. Biomass currently
supplies 14% of the world's energy needs. Most present day production and use of biomass
for energy is carried out in a very unsustainable manner resulting in a great many negative
environmental consequences. If biomass is to supply a greater proportion of the world's
energy needs in future, the challenge will be to tap various resources and to produce biomass
sustainably. Technologies and processes available today will make biomass-based fuels eco-
friendly unlike fossil fuels. More work is necessary to find better methods for the conversion
step, biomass to methane, on a large scale, although the bench-scale work already done
indicates that net energy can result from bioconversion, with good yields of methane.
Methane from marine biomass is a long-term project and research and development have
been scaled down, probably to be revived when a crisis threatens in natural gas supplies
(2016).
Role of seaweeds in marine ecosystem
Apart from these above uses, seaweeds play a major role in maintenance and balancing of
marine food chain. It provide nutrients and energy for marine animals either directly when
fronds are eaten or indirectly when it decompose into fine particles and are taken up by filter-
feeding animals. Beds of seaweed provide shelter and habitat of coastal animals for whole or
part of their lives. They are important nurseries for numerous commercial species such as the
rock lobster, abalone and green-lipped mussel.

23. 23
CONCLUSION
Seaweeds are macroalgae, lives in the littoral zone which can be of many different shapes,
sizes, colours and composition and it possess excellent survival strategies to withstand the
many environmental stresses that they are exposed to. This review article involved a thorough
study of different literatures from world scenario. Seaweed research has been carried out for
more than seven decades by many research workers and many number of research works
have been done on seaweed and their uses from many parts of the world in different aspects
accordingly to the need with special reference to its nutritive value, medicinal property,
pharmaceutical, pharmacology and industrial uses.
The main objective of this review is to provide information in all fields related to the seaweed
uses and application both in past and current scenario. This is an attempt to provide
information in the field of science and awareness for a common man about such a great noble
resources and highlights all the relevant application and uses of seaweeds with a broad
concept to make the common man to know and aware about such a great living resource
which is present in and around us.

24. 24
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