1. A Short History of
U.S. Public Diplomacy
Tim Standaert, Deputy Cultural Attaché
U.S. Embassy
Kyiv, Ukraine
June 2011

2. Public Diplomacy
• The attempt by one country’s government by
communicating and interacting directly with audiences
– academics, NGOs, businesses, institutions, and even
the general public - in one or more foreign nations in
order to promote/protect its national interests and/or
serve the mutual interests of both sides.
• The aim of a country’s Public Diplomacy is to: 1)
influence how foreign citizens perceive that country; 2)
correct misperceptions about the nation’s policies and
values; 3) promote greater mutual understanding; 4)
and (perhaps) impact official relations with the foreign
government in a way that serves the country’s national
interests.

3. Public Diplomacy
Three Dimensions
According to Joseph
Nye, author of Soft
Power, there are 3
dimensions to PD
• Daily communications:
explaining decisions
and policies to the
media, the public,
elites, etc.

4. Public Diplomacy
Three Dimensions
• Strategic communications: focus on simple themes, with
symbolic events and activities planned over the year, at
times relying on individuals and groups outside
government.

5. Public Diplomacy
Three Dimensions
• Lasting relationships: With key individuals,
institutions, and organizations, through
exchanges, conferences, seminars, etc.

6. U.S. Public Diplomacy
Embassy Country Team

7. U.S. Public Diplomacy:
Some Basic Questions
• What is the aim of Public
Diplomacy? Is it simply
propaganda, or something
else?
• To what extent can the U.S.
Government really influence
foreign publics?
• If we “tell America’s story,” if
we clearly explain US policies,
society, and values, will our
relations improve with other
people? How does that help
better protect our nation’s
interests?

8. U.S. Public Diplomacy:
Continuing debates/tensions/questions
• Should the U.S. Government (USG) be funding cultural diplomacy at all? If so, how
much of the taxpayer’s money should be spent on it?
• Can/should Public Diplomacy help us promote our national interests?
• Does Public Diplomacy – both the information and cultural sides – belong under the
U.S. State Department? Or should an independent agency, like the U.S. Information
Agency, be brought back to manage these activities?
• What share of Public Diplomacy is should be carried out by foundations, educational
institutions (public and private), and other non-governmental partners?
• Is information more important than cultural programming, e.g., exchange programs,
libraries, etc?
• Should the USG aim for the elite in foreign countries, or the average citizen/broad
masses?
• How do you coordinate the Public Diplomacy of various government agencies, e.g.,
State, USAID, Peace Corps, U.S. military, etc? How do you also involve academia,
cultural institutions, NGOs, business, etc?
• How does new technology influence Public Diplomacy?
• How do you measure the effectiveness of Public Diplomacy? What are the metrics?

9. Soft Power
• Term coined by Joseph Nye,
former U.S. Assistant
Secretary of Defense, Dean of
Kennedy School of
Government (Harvard
University), etc.
– Watch Nye’s TED talk on global shift in
power at:
http://www.ted.com/talks/lang/eng/jo
seph_nye_on_global_power_shifts.ht
ml
• Definition: The ability of a
country or organization to
shape the preferences of
others, i.e., to get them to
behave in a way that supports
interests, without overt
tangible benefits coming to
them, i.e., without threats
(sticks) or
payments/inducements
(carrots).

10. Soft Power
• Three vehicles: According to Nye, Soft power rests
largely on: a country’s or organization’s culture (high
and low); its political values; and its foreign policy.

11. Soft Power
Africa and HIV/AIDS
• President's Emergency
Plan For AIDS Relief
(PEPFAR): Bush
commited $15 billion
over five years (2003–
2008, much of it going
to Africa.

12. Soft Power
Audience
• Soft power depends on the existence of willing
interpreters and receivers in a country or in
group.

13. Soft Power
Beyond Government’s Control
• The central government, at
least in liberal, democratic
countries, cannot (and
should not) control all levers
of soft power, e.g.,
television, movies, music,
sports, products,
companies/firms, groups
and individual citizens, etc.
• These other agents can
have a positive or negative
impact on a country’s soft
power.

14. Soft Power

15. Soft Power
Negative impact of Bhopal
•A subsidiary of Union Carbide was operating a
pesticide plant in Bhopal, India.
•On night of December 2-3, 1984, a leak of gas
and chemicals from the plant killed perhaps
3000 within the first week and 8000 more
since, plus over 550000 injuries, including
almost 40000 temporary or partially disabling
and almost 4000 severely and permanently
disabling.
•8 ex-employees were convicted in 2010.

16. U.S. Public Diplomacy:
Some historical background
• French Revolution: Appealing
directly to foreign publics to
promote a revolutionary
ideology.
• 1883: France creates Alliance
Francaise in wake of defeat
during Franco-Prussian War to
repair national prestige,
promote French language and
literature.
• Italy and Germany soon follow
suit.

17. Early U.S. Public Diplomacy (Exchanges):
Boxer Rebellion Indemnity Scholars
•1900 Boxer Uprising in China
•Qing Empire defeated, fined $333
million.
•U.S. share of indemnity: 7.32% (plus
interest)
•U.S. “Open Door” Policy toward
China – general opposition to
“spheres of interest”
•U.S. sets up program in 1909 using
indemnity funds for education.

18. Early U.S. Public Diplomacy:
Boxer Rebellion Indemnity Scholars
•In China:
•1909-1929: 1300 Chinese
students prepared to study at
American universities, most at
Tsinghua College, established in
Beijing in 1911.
•1929: Tsinghua College
expanded into a university, with
4-year undergraduate and post-
graduate school.
•In America:
•1926: China Foundation (later
the China Institute) founded in
New York. 5 groups of scholars
educated in U.S. before 1937
Japanese invasion of China.

19. Early Public Diplomacy:
Boxer Rebellion Indemnity Scholars
•Graduates:
•philosopher Hu Shih (later
Chinese ambassador to US);
•physicist Chen Ning Yang (Nobel
Prize-winner;
•mathematician Kai Lai Chung;
•linguist Yen Ren Chao;
•rocket scientist Tsien Hsue-shen.
•UK, France, Japan later follow suit,
set up similar programs.
•Boxer Rebellion Indemnity Scholars
Program became model for Fulbright
Program (established in 1946).

20. First World War:
Committee on Public Information (CPI)
• One week after U.S. enters war in
April 1917, President Woodrow
Wilson creates the CPI (Executive
Order 2594).
• CPI headed by George Creel,
editor of The Rocky Mountain
News.
• News articles, movies, lectures,
posters, signboards, wireless
cable service, foreign press
bureaus, film division, leaflet-
filled balloons.
• Propaganda? Psychological
warfare? Honest attempt to
counter German disinformation?

21. First World War:
Committee on Public Information (CPI)
• One week after U.S. enters war in
April 1917, President Woodrow
Wilson creates the CPI (Executive
Order 2594).
• Main purpose: build U.S. public
support for the war. But also had
offices in 9 foreign countries.
• CPI headed by George Creel, editor
of The Rocky Mountain News. Over
20 divisions and bureaus.
• News Division: Official Bulletin, an
8-pages (later 32 page) paper, with
positive news, distributed to all US
newspapers, post offices,
government offices, military bases.

22. First World War:
Committee on Public Information (CPI)
• Films Division: Three feature-
length films released.
• Division of Pictorial Publicity:
posters.
• Other activities: lectures,
signboards, leaflet-filled
balloons.
• Propaganda? (Creel said no.)
Psychological warfare? Honest
attempt to counter German
disinformation?
• CPI ends domestic work with
Armistice in November 1918,
Congress ends funding for
foreign operations in June 1919,
formally abolished by Wilson in
August 1919.

23. Franklin Roosevelt, the Good Neighbor
Policy, and Internationalism
•Uneasy relations with Latin America
before FDR – neglect, exploitation, and/or
intervention: War with Mexico (1848),
business deals, Panama Canal, etc.
•Good Neighbor Policy
•FDR’s speech at Pan American Union
(1933): need for mutual
understanding
•Montevideo Inter-American
Conference (1933): Announcement
of lower tariffs, plans to establish
cultural exchanges. (Buenos Aires
1936, Lima 1938.)

24. Franklin Roosevelt, the Good Neighbor
Policy, and Internationalism
•By 1937, U.S. (and Britain and France)
aware of threat German and Italian
propaganda and cultural diplomacy
•US State Department sets up Division of
Cultural Relations in 1938 to promote
exchanges, English language study, set up
libraries and reading rooms, translate
books, provide, technical assistance, etc.
•But Congress still does not want to fund
fully…

25. Second World War:
Coordinator for Inter-American Affairs
• August 1940 (before US
entry into WW2), FDR
names millionaire
Nelson A. Rockefeller to
position. Committed to
art and education.
• Responsibilities:
Coordinate cultural and
commercial relations
with Latin America.

26. Second World War:
Coordinator for Inter-American Affairs
• Rockefeller’s contributions:
– Promotion of American high
culture, including modern art
(though very controversial
Washington!)
– Position portrayal of Latinos in
Disney movies, e.g., Saludos
Amigos, Three Caballeros
– Assistance to Mexico’s railroad
industry
• But also mixed in business,
propaganda (paying for
placement of positive stories in
newspapers), and intelligence-
collecting. (Bad mix.)

27. Second World War:
Office of War Information (OWI)
• 6 months after Pearl Harbor,
President Franklin D. Roosevelt
(FDR) establishes Office of War
Information (OWI).
• OWI’s goal: Explain US policy to
domestic and foreign
audiences, public and media
through movies, leaflets,
magazines, and RADIO.
– Soviets had begun radio
broadcasts in 1926.
– Germany, Japan, Britain,
Holland follow suit.
– “Voice of America” (VOA)
inaugurated July 1942.

28. End of Second World War
Fulbright Exchange Program
• Sen. William Fulbright
(Democrat – Arkansas)
• Himself a Rhodes Scholar
• 1946: Sponsored legislation
to begin exchange programs.
• 1992: Fulbright Program
launched in independent
Ukraine:
– Over 700 Ukrainians
graduate students, young
faculty, and scholars have
take part in last 19 years.
– Over 400 American graduate
students and scholars have
come to Ukraine.

29. Cold War
• Rivalry between USSR
and U.S./West in many
areas, including Public
Diplomacy
• Information: Voice of
America, Radio Free
Europe/Radio Liberty
• Libraries, books, etc
• Obstacles/challenges
for U.S.:
– racism/segregation
– McCarthyism/Red Scare

30. Cold War
American Exhibit at Sokolniki in Moscow
• Soviet exhibit in New York City (June 1959)
• American exhibit at Sokolniki in Moscow (July 1959)
• YouTube video on Nixon-Khrushchev "Kitchen Debate”
(GWU)
• "Nixon, Khrushchev And A Story Of Cold War Love” (NPR)

31. Cold War
1959 American Exhibit at Sokolniki in Moscow

32. Jazz Diplomacy
• Promote better understanding of American
society, including musical heritage.
• Part of bilateral cultural exchanges with
Soviet Union and other nations.
• Also helps U.S. combat “image” problem
with racism and segregation.
• Parallel developments: Cold War, Jazz
Diplomacy, U.S. Civil Rights Movement.

33. Jazz Diplomacy
Cold War and Today

34. Cold War
Radio, Magazines, Publications

35. Peace Corps (PC)
• Peace Corps in Ukraine
– http://ukraine.peacecorps.go
v/projects.php
– Largest PC program in the
world
– 3 areas of activity:
• Teaching English as a Foreign
Language (TEFL)
• Community Development (CD)
• Youth Development (YD) Peace
Corps
– PC Volunteer (PCV) website:
http://www.pcukraine.org/

36. USAID

37. Other Cultural Diplomacy

38. Cold War
Libaries, Reading Rooms, Books

39. Exchange Programs

40. Other Programs