By
Dr.Thirunahari Ugandhar
Asst Prof of Botany
Govt. Degree College
Mahabubabad-506101
(T.S.)

• The term algae (Latin — seaweeds) was first
introduced by Linnaeus in 1753, meaning the
Hepaticeae.
• The algae comprise of a large heterogeneous
assemblage of plants which are diverse in habitat,
size, organisation, physiology, biochemistry, and
reproduction.
• It is an important group of Thallophyta (Gr. Thallos
— a sprout; phyton — a plant), the primitive and
simplest division of the plant kingdom.
• The orderly systematic study of algae is called
Phycology (Gr.phycos — seaweeds; logos — study or
discourse).

The algae are chlorophyll-containing primitive
plants, both prokaryotic and eukaryotic, with wide
range of thaifi starting from unicellular to
multicellular organisations.
Autophytic (which can manufacture their own food)
and thalloid plant bodies are also found in Bryophytes.
ఆల్గే క్ల
ోరోఫిల్ కలిగిన ప్రాచీన మొకక లు,
ప్రొకాఫిో టిక్ మరియు యూకారియోటిక్ రెండూ,
విస్తృత ప్రేణి థైఫీలు ఏకకణాల నెండి బహుళ
సెలుో లార్ స్ెంస్థల వరకు ప్రారెంభమవుతాయి.
 ఆటోలటిక్ (ఇది వారి స్వ ెంత ఆహారాన్ని
తయారు చేయగలదు) మరియు థాలాిడ్
మొకక ల శరీరాలు కూడా ప్రబయోఫైట్స్ లో
కన్నపిస్త
త ి.

Definitions of Algae:
The definitions of algae as given by some phycologists are:
1. Fritsch, F. (1935) defined algae as the holophytic organisms
(as well as their numerous colourless derivatives) that fail to
reach the higher level of differentiation characteristic of the
archegoniate plants.
2. Smith, G. M. (1955) defined algae as simple plants with an
autotrophic mode of nutrition.
ఆల్గే యొకక న్నరవ చనాలు: కెంతమెంది ఫైకాలజిక్ల
ులలు
ఇచ్చి న ఆల్గే యొకక న్నరవ చనాలు:
1. ప్రలట్స్, ఎఫ్. (1935) ఆల్గేన హోలోఫైటిక్ జీవులు
(అలాగే వాటి రెంగుల్గన్న ఉతప నాి లు) గా న్నరవ చ్చెంచారరు,
ఇవి ఆరిక గోన్నయేట్స మొకక ల యొకక అధిక క్ల
స్త
థ ి
భేదాతమ క లక్షణాన్ని చేరుోవడెంలో విఫలమవుతాయి. 2.
స్మమ త్, జి. ఎెం. (1955) ఆల్గేన ఆటోప్రటోలక్ మోడ్ ఆఫ్
న్యో ప్రటిషన్ ఉని స్తధారణ మొకక లుగా న్నరవ చ్చెంచారరు

DISTINGUISHING FEATURES:
 They are photoautotrophs
 They primarily inhabit aquatic habitats
 The vegetative body does not show any
differentiation into various tissue systems
 They show progressive complexity in
reproduction
 They do not develop embryo after fusion of
gamates during sexual reproduction
 Range in size from microscopic to single celled
organisms to large seaweed
 Many species occur as single cells others as
multicellular

 Algal cells are eucaryotic
 Study of algae is called phycology
 Cellwall is thin and rigid
 Motile algae such as euglena have flexible cell
membrane called periplasts
 Cell walls of many algae are surrounded by a flexible
gelatinous outer matrix
 A discrete nucleus is present
 Inclusions like starch granules, oil droplets and
vacuoles are present
 Chlorophyll and other pigments are present
 Chloroplasts may occur one,two or many per cell they
may be ribbon like ,bar like ,net like,or as discrete
discs

Characteristics of Algae:
1. Algae are chlorophyll-bearing autotrophic thalloid plant
body.
2. Almost all the algae are aquatic.
3. The plant body may be unicellular to large robust
multicellular structure.
4. The multicellular complex thalli lack vascular tissue and also
show little differentiation of tissues.
5. The sex organs are generally unicellular but, when
multicellular, all cells are fertile and in most cases the entire
structure does not have any protection jacket.
ఆల్గే క్ల
ోరోఫిల్-బేరింగ్ ఆటోట్రటోలక్ థాలాయిడ్ క్ల
ల
రో ిం్ బాడీ. 2. దాదాపు అన్ని
ఆల్గేలు జలచరాలు. 3. మొకక ల శరీరెం పెద్ద బలమైన బహుళ
సెలుో లార్ న్నరామ ణాన్నకి ఏకకణెంగా ఉెండవచ్చి . 4. బహుళ సెలుో లార్
కాెంపెరోక్్ థాలికి వాుక లర్ కణజాలెం ల్గదు మరియు కణజాలాల
యొకక చ్చని భేదాన్ని కూడా చూపిుతెంది. 5. లింగిక అవయవాలు
సాధారణింగా ఏకకణింగా ఉింటాయి, అయితే, బహుళ సెలుు లార్
అయినప్పు డు, అన్ని కణాలు సారవింతమైనవి మరయు చాలా సిందర్భా లలో
మొతతిం న్నర్భా ణాన్నకి రక్షణ జాకె్ ఉిండదు.

6.The zygote undergoes further development either by
mitosis or meiosis, but not through embryo formation.
7. Plants having distinct alternation of generations.
Both gametophyte and sporophyte generations — when
present in the life cycle are independent.
Occurrence of Algae:
The algae are ubiquitous (present everywhere) in
distribution, i.e., they are found in fresh water as well
as marine water, on soil, on rock, as epiphytes or
parasites on plants and animals,
in hot springs, in desert, on permanent snow-fields
etc. But they mainly dwell in aquatic environments.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS:
Thallus organisation
Cell structure
Algal flagella
Algal pigments
Algal nutrition
Food reserves
Reproduction

1) THALLUS ORGANISATION:
a)Unicellular algae:
 single cells, motile with flagellate
(like Chlamydomonas and
Euglena) or nonmotile (like
Diatoms).
 Occor in all groups except
carophycae of phylum chlorophyta
and pheophyta.
 Rhizopodial
 Flagellate
 Spiral fillamentous
 Nonmotile

b)Colonial algae:
Motile or non motile algae may form a colony by
aggregation of the products of cell division with in a
mucillagenous mass.

 Coenobial :
The colony is formed with a definite shape, size
and arrangement of cells.
Ex: volvox
 Palmelloid :
Irregular arrangement of cells varying in number
,shape and size.
Ex: Chlamydomonas , Tetraspora
 Dendroid:
Looks like microscopic tree due to union of
mucilagenous threads present at base of each cell.
Ex: Chrysodendron
 Rhizopodial colony:
Cells are united through rhizopodia
Ex: Chrysidiastrum

c)Filaments algae:
 Daughter cells remain attached
after cell division and form a cell
chain
 Adjacent cells share cell wall
(distinguish them from linear
colonies!)
 May be unbranched (uniseriate
such as Zygnema and Ulthrix) or
branched (regular mutiseriate such
as Cladophora or unreguler
mutiseriate such as Pithophora).
10
Pithophora
Cladophora

d) Coenocytic or siphonaceaous:
one large, multinucleate cell
without cross walls such as
Vaucheria
e) Parenchymatous:
mostly macro-scopic algae
with tissue of undifferentiated cells
and growth originating from a
meristem with cell division in three
dimensions such as Ulva

2)CELL STRUCTURE
 Eukaryotic characterised by presence of well organised
nucleus and membrane bound organelles like plastids
,mitochondria and Golgi bodies
 An intermediate form called mesokaryotic occurs in
Dianophyceae which shows both eukaryotic (nucleus with
nuclear membrane & chromosomes) and prokaryotic
characters( basic proteins are absent)
 Some do not has true cell wall Ex: euglena, gymnodinium &
possess a membrane called pellicle around cytoplasm
 Motile flagella possess a pigmented spot known as eye-spot or
stigma(swimming)
 Cell wall is with mixed carbohydrates and substances like
alginic acid , fucoidin , fucin & hemicelluloses present
 Mitochondria, Golgi complex , Endoplasmic reticulum
present.

3)ALGAL FLAGELLA
 Found in all algae except Rhotophyceae
 The main function is motility
 They are of 2 types
 Whiplash or acronematic-possess smooth surface
 Tinsel or pleuronematic-covered by fine filamentous
appendages called as mastigonemes or flimmers
 Tinsel is divided into 3 types
 Pantonematic-mastigonemes arranged in two
opposite rows or radially
 Pantocronematic-Pantonematic flagellum with a
terminal fibril
 Stichonematic-mastigonemes develop only on one
side of the flagellum

4)ALGAL PIGMENTS
-Distinct chlorplast, nuclear region
and complex organelles.
- Thylakoids are grouped into grana
pyrenoids are centers of carbon
dioxide fixation withinthe
chloroplasts of algae. Pyrenoids
are not membrane-bound
organelles, but specialized areas
of the
levels
plastid that contain high
of ribulose-1,5-
bisphosphate carboxylase /
oxygenase
granum with
a
Stack of
thylakoids
pyrenoid

 The pigments are within membrane bound organelles
called plastids
May be leucoplasts (colourless plastids) or chromoplasts
(coloured plastids)
 Chromoplasts- contain chlorophyll a and b
 Chromatophores -contain only chlorophyll a
 Types - Chlorophylls(5), xanthophylls(20), carotenes(5)
and phycobillins (7)
 Chlorophyll a present in all
 Xanthophylls(yellow/brown) present in chlorophyceae and
pheophyceae
 B carotene present in most algae
 Phycobillins are water soluble red(phycoerythrin) and
blue(phycocyanin) confined to rhodophyceae

5)ALGAL NUTRITION:
 Photo autotrophic and synthesis their own food
from carbondioxide and water
 Aquatic forms obtain carbon dioxide and water by
diffusion and osmosis
 Aerials obtain water from damp substratum and
carbon dioxide from air
 They also synthesis oil and protiens from
carbohydrates

6)FOOD RESERVES
 Food materials accumulated as polysaccharides
 True starch-seen in two algal divisions chlorophyta
and charophyta
 Floridean starch- found in rhodophyta
 Laminarin- found in brown algae
 Paramylon- found in euglenoids
 Leucosin-peculiar to xanthophyta ,
bacillariophyta & chrysophyta
 Fats occur as reserved food in appreciable
amounts in the cells of xanthophyta ,
bacillariophyta & chrysophyta

7)REPRODUCTION IN ALGAE
MOST REPRODUCE BOTH SEXUALLYAND
ASEXUALLY
 Most sexual reproduction is triggered by environmental
stress
 Asexual Reproduction
 Mitosis
 Sexual Reproduction
 Meiosis
 Zoospores
 Plus and minus gametes
 Zygospore

REPRODUCTION IN ALGAE
Vegetative
Cell
divisions/Fragmentation
=part of the filament
breaks off from the rest
and forms a new one.
Asexual Reproduction
.
Sexual-
Gametes

 ISOGAMY-Both gametes have flagella and similar in size and morphology.
 ANISOGAMY-Gametes have flagella but are dissimilar in shape and size. One
gamete is distinctly smaller than the other one.
 OOGAMY-gamete with flagella (sperm) fuses with a larger, non flagellated
gamete (egg).

•Monecious: both gametes produced by the same
individual
•Diecious: male and female gametes are produced by
different individuals
•Homothallic: gametes from one individual can fuse
(self-fertile)
•Heterothallic gametes from one individual cannot fuse
(self-sterile)
•Conjugation: a special type of reproduction. The entire
cell serve as a gametes and the cell content are
transported passively between two cells taking part in
sexual reproduction

REPRODUCTION IN MULTICELLULAR
ALGAE
 Oedogonium reproduction
 Antheridium -release flagellated
sperm that swim to the oogonium
 Oogonium - houses the zygote
which is a diploid spore
▪ The spore undergoes meiosis
and produces 4 haploid
zoospores. One of the four
cells becomes a root like
holdfast the others divide and
become a new filament.
oogonium

holdfast

CLASSIFICATION OF ALGAE
BASED ON SEVEN MAJOR DIVISIONS
1) Nature and properties of pigments
2) Chemistry of reserve food products
3) Morphology of flagella
4) Morphology of cells and thalli
5) Life history reproductive structures and methods
of reproduction
6) Food-storage substance
7) Cell wall composition

A famous botanist F.E. Fritsch (1935) classified algae into following
11 classes, based on pigmentation, reserve food material, flagellation
and reproduction.
 Class 1. Chlorophyceae (= Isokontae): Important genera are:
Chlamydomonas, Volvox, Chlorella, Ulothrix, and Spirogyra.
Class 2. Xanthophyceae (= Heterokontae): Important genera are:
Microspora, Vaucheria, Protosiphon.
Class 3. Chrysophyceae: Example:Chrysosphaera.
Class 4. Bacillariophyceae (= diatoms):Examples: Pinularia, Navicula,
Fragilaria.
Class 5. Cryptophyceae:Example:Cryptomonas.
Class 6. Dinophyceae:Example:Peridinium.
Class 7. Chloromonadineae:Example:Vacuolaria.
Class 8. Eugleninae:Example:Euglena.
Class 9. Phaeophyceae:Examples:Fucus, Sargassum.
Class 10. Rhodophyceae:Examples: Polysiphonia and
Batrachospermum.Class
11. Myxophyceae (= Cyanophyceae):
Examples: Nostoc, Oscillatoria, Anahaena, Lyngbya, Plectonema.

PHYLUM RHODOPHYCOPHYTA
 4000 species of REDAlgae
 Most are marine
 Smaller than brown algae and are often
found at a depth of 200 meters.
 Contain chlorophyll a and rarely d as
well as phycobilins which are important
in absorbing light that can penetrate
deep into the water
 Have cells coated in carageenan which is
used in cosmetics, gelatin capsules and
some cheeses
 Red algae GELIDIUM from which AGAR
is made

RED ALGAE
Porphyra - nori use to
wrap uncooked fish &
other food items
Smithora naiadum - a
epiphyte on eel and surf
grass
Pikea robusta
Red Algae

PHYLUM XANTHOPHYCOPHYTA
 Yellow Green Algae
 Xanthophytes walls with cellulose and pectin
 Chlorophyll a,c and rarely e are present
 Cellular storage product is chrysolaminarin
 Flagella unequal in length
 Asexual reproduction by cell division and
fragmentation
 Vaucheria is a well known member of this division

VAUCHERIA

PHYLUM CHRYSOPHYCOPHYTA
 Golden Algae
 predominately flagellates some are
amoeboid
 Chlorophyll a and c present
 Reserve food as chrysolaminarin and
their frequent incorporation of silica
 Characteristic color due to masking of
their chlorophyl by brown pigments
 Reproduction is commonly asexual but
at times isogamous

GOLDEN ALGAE

PHYLUM PHAEOPHYCOPHYTA
 1500 species of Brown algae
 Mostly marine and include seaweed
 All are multicellular and large (often
reaching lengths of 147 feet)
 Individual alga may grow to a length of
100m with a holdfast, stipe and blade
 Chlorophyll a and c present
 Used in cosmetics and most ice creams
 Many of them have holdfasts and air
bladders which give them buoyancy

Fucus sp. Nereocystis luekeana

PHYLUM BACILLARIOPHYCOPHYTA
 The Diatoms
 Diatoms provide abundant food supply
for aquatic animals
 Chlorophyll a and c present
 Shells of diatoms are called frustules
 Deposits of these shells from centuries
of growth are called diatomite or
diatomaceous earth

DIATOMS

PHYLUM EUGLENOPHYCOPHYTA
 Unicellular and motile by means of flagella
 Chl a & b present
 1000 species of Euglenoids
 Have both plantlike and animal-like
characteristics
 Euglena cell with contractile vacoules and
fibrils
 Carry out photosynthesis in chloroplast and is
facultatively autotrophic
 Reproduction by longitudinal binary fission
 Dormant cysts are formed

EUGLENA

PHYLUM CHLOROPHYCOPHYTA
 Green algae
 7000 diverse species
 green algae contain one chloroplast per cell
which contain pyrenoids
 Both green algae and land plants have
chlorophyll a and b as well as carotenoids and
store food as starch
 Both have walls made of cellulose
 Reproduction by asexual methods or
isogamous and heterogamous sexual means

PHYLUM CRYPTOPHYCOPHYTA
 Cryptomonads are biflagellate organisms
 Cells are slipper shaped and flattened occur
singly
 Some with cellulose wall others naked
 There are 1 or 2 plastids with or without
pyrenoids
 Reproduction by longitudinal cell division or by
zoospores or cysts

CRYPTOMONAS

PHYLUM PYRROPHYCOPHYTA
 Flagella are inserted in the girdle and arranged
with one encircling the cell and other trailing
 Many are covered only by plasmalemma and in
some there is a wall made of cellulose
 Some have a series of cellulose plates with in
plasmalemma termed thecal plates
 Dianoflagellates a diverse group of
biflagellated uni cellular organisms present

DIANO FLAGELLATES

 Food for humans
 Food for invertebrates and fishes in mariculture
 Animal feed
 Soil fertilizers and conditioners in agriculture
 Treatment of waste water
 Diatomaceous earth (= diatoms)
 Chalk deposits
 Phycocolloids (agar, carrageenan from red algae;
alginates from brown algae)
 Drugs
 Model system for research
 Phycobiliproteins for fluorescence microscopy
Beneficial Aspects of Algae

ROLE OF ALGAE TO DETECT
ENVIRONMENT POLLUTION
 Indicator of pollution - algae blooms can occur when too
much nitrogen and phosphorus enter a waterway.
 Algae are ideally suited for water quality assessment
because they have rapid reproduction
rates and very short life cycles, making them valuable
indicators of short-term impacts.

 Algae can be used to treat both municipal and
industrial wastewater.
 Algae play a major role in aerobic treatment of
waste in the secondary treatment process.
 Algae - based municipal wastewater treatment
systems are mainly used for nutrient removal
(removal of nitrogen and phosphorous).
 Algae have the ability to accumulate the heavy
metals and thereby remove toxic compounds from
the wastewater. In some cases, algae also play a
role in the removal of pathogens in the tertiary
treatment stage.
ALGAE USAGE IN SEWAGE
TREATING PLANTS

ALGAE IN FILTER PLANTS
 An algae scrubber filters water by moving water
rapidly over a rough, highly illuminated surface,
which causes algae to start growing in large
amounts.
 As the algae grow, they consume nutrients such as
inorganic nitrate,
inorganic phosphate, nitrite, ammonia,
and ammonium from the water.

ALGAEROLEIN TREATING HEALTH PROBLEMS
 Ulva Can be used to treat goiter; reduce fever,
ease pain, induce urination
 Codium Can be used to treat urinary diseases,
treat edema,
 SargassumCan be used to treat cervical
lymphadenitis, edema;
 Porphyra Can be used to treat goiter, bronchitis,
tonsillitis and cough
 Gelidium Laxative; can be used to treat tracheitis,
gastric diseases and hemorrhoids; can be used to
extract agarinishes inflammation; reduces fever;

HARMFUL EFFECTS OF ALGAE
 Several species are parasitic on higher plants
 Green algae cephaleuros attacks leaves of
tea,coffee,pepper causing considerable damage
 Some algae live in the roots and fleshy parts of
higher plants but not harmed
 Acrylicacid is produced by a unicellular algae in
plankton act as extracellular inhibitors its shown by
chemical analysis
 Some planktonic algae produce toxins which are
lethal to fish and other animals these toxins are
extracellular liberated from algae by bacterial
decomposition of algal blooms