Wine

Alcohol
This article is about the chemistry term. For the beverage, see Alcoholic beverage. For
other uses, see Alcohol (disambiguation).
It has been suggested that the section Chemistry and toxicology from the article
Alcoholic beverages be merged into this article or section. (Discuss)
Functional group of an alcohol molecule. The carbon atom is bound to hydrogen atoms
and may bind to other carbon atom(s) to form a carbon chain. Methanol, an alcohol with
a single carbon atom, is pictured. Ethanol, which is drinking alcohol, has two carbon
atoms.
In chemistry, an alcohol is any organic compound in which a hydroxyl group (-OH) is
bound to a carbon atom of an alkyl or substituted alkyl group. The general formula for a
simple acyclic alcohol is CnH2n+1OH. In common terms, the word alcohol refers to
ethanol, the type of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages.
Ethanol is a colorless, volatile liquid with a mild odor which can be obtained by the
fermentation of sugars. (Industrially, it is more commonly obtained by ethylene hydration
—the reaction of ethylene with water in the presence of phosphoric acid.[1]) Ethanol is
the most widely used depressant in the world, and has been for thousands of years. This
sense underlies the term alcoholism (addiction to alcohol).
Other alcohols are usually described with a clarifying adjective, as in isopropyl alcohol
(propan-2-ol) or wood alcohol (methyl alcohol, or methanol). The suffix -ol appears in
the "official" IUPAC chemical name of all alcohols.
There are three major subsets of alcohols: primary (1°), secondary (2°) and tertiary (3°),
based upon the number of carbon atoms the C-OH group's carbon (shown in red) is
bonded to. Ethanol is a simple 'primary' alcohol. The simplest secondary alcohol is
isopropyl alcohol (propan-2-ol), and a simple tertiary alcohol is tert-butyl alcohol (2-
methylpropan-2-ol).
Contents

[hide]
• 1 Simple alcohols
• 2 Nomenclature
o 2.1 Systematic names
o 2.2 Etymology
• 3 Physical and chemical properties
• 4 Applications
• 5 Production
o 5.1 Endogenous
• 6 Laboratory synthesis
• 7 Reactions
o 7.1 Deprotonation
o 7.2 Nucleophilic substitution
o 7.3 Dehydration
o 7.4 Esterification
o 7.5 Oxidation
• 8 Toxicity
• 9 Occurrence in nature
• 10 See also
• 11 References
• 12 Bibliography
Wine
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For other uses, see Wine (disambiguation).
For a topical guide to this subject, see Outline of wine.
Three glasses of the three wine colors (from left to right), white, rosé and red.
Wine is an alcoholic beverage typically made of fermented grape juice.[1] The natural
chemical balance of grapes is such that they can ferment without the addition of sugars,
acids, enzymes or other nutrients.[2] Wine is produced by fermenting crushed grapes
using various types of yeast. Yeast consumes the sugars found in the grapes and converts
them into alcohol. Different varieties of grapes and strains of yeasts are used depending
on the type of wine being produced.[3]
Although other fruits such as apples and berries can also be fermented, the resultant
wines are normally named after the fruit from which they are produced (for example,
apple wine or elderberry wine) and are generically known as fruit wine or country wine
(not to be confused with the French term vin de pays). Others, such as barley wine and
rice wine (i.e., sake), are made from starch-based materials and resemble beer and spirit
more than wine, while ginger wine is fortified with brandy. In these cases, the use of the
term "wine" is a reference to the higher alcohol content, rather than production process.

[4] The commercial use of the English word "wine" (and its equivalent in other
languages) is protected by law in many jurisdictions.[5]
Wine has a rich history dating back to around 6000 BC and is thought to have originated
in areas now within the borders of Georgia and Iran.[6][7] Wine probably appeared in
Europe at about 4500 BC in what is now Bulgaria and Greece, and was very common in
ancient Greece, Thrace and Rome. Wine has also played an important role in religion
throughout history. The Greek god Dionysos and the Roman equivalent Bacchus
represented wine, and the drink is also used in Christian and Jewish ceremonies such as
the Eucharist (also called the Holy Communion) and Kiddush.
The word "wine" derives from the Proto-Germanic "*winam," an early borrowing from
the Latin vinum, "wine" or "(grape) vine," itself derived from the Proto-Indo-European
stem *win-o- (cf. Hittite: wiyana ,Lycian: Oino, Ancient Greek οῖνος - oînos, Aeolic
Greek ϝοίνος - woinos).[8][9]
Drink Beverage
For the act of consuming a beverage through the mouth, see drinking.
"Drinks" redirects here. For the American business, see Drinks Americas.
Part of the Meals series
Common meals
Breakfast • Brunch • Lunch
Tea • Dinner • Supper
Components & courses
Appetizer • Entrée • Main course
Side dish • Drink • Dessert
Related concepts
Food • Eating • Cuisine
Etiquette • Buffet • Banquet
A drink, or beverage, is a liquid specifically prepared for human consumption. In addition
to basic needs, beverages form part of the culture of human society.
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Types of beverage
o 1.1 Water
o 1.2 Alcoholic beverages
o 1.3 Non-alcoholic beverages
o 1.4 Soft drinks
o 1.5 Hot beverages
o 1.6 Others

• 2 Measuring drinks
• 3 See also
• 4 References
• 5 External links
[edit] Types of beverage
A carbonated beverage.
[edit] Water
Main article: Drinking water
Despite the fact that most beverages, including juice, soft drinks, and carbonated drinks,
have some form of water in them; water itself is often not classified as a beverage, and
the word beverage has been recurrently defined as not referring to water.[citation needed]
Essential to the survival of all organisms,[1] water has historically been an important and
life-sustaining drink to humans. Excluding fat, water composes approximately 70% of the
human body by mass. It is a crucial component of metabolic processes and serves as a
solvent for many bodily solutes. Health authorities have historically suggested at least
eight glasses, eight fluid ounces each, of water per day (64 fluid ounces, or 1.89 litres),[2]
[3] and the British Dietetic Association recommends 1.8 litres.[1] The United States
Environmental Protection Agency has determined that the average adult actually ingests
2.0 litres per day.[3]
Distilled (pure) water is rarely found in nature.[4] Spring water, a natural resource from
which much bottled water comes, is generally imbued with minerals. Tap water,
delivered by domestic water systems in developed nations, refers to water piped to homes
through a tap. All of these forms of water are commonly drunk, often purified through
filtration.[5]
[edit] Alcoholic beverages
Main article: Alcoholic beverage
An alcoholic beverage is a drink that contains ethanol, commonly known as alcohol
(although in chemistry the definition of “alcohol” includes many other compounds).
Beer has been a part of human culture for 8000 years.[6]
[edit] Non-alcoholic beverages
Orange juice is usually served cold.
Main article: Non-alcoholic beverage
Non-alcoholic beverages are drinks that would normally contain alcohol, such as beer
and wine but are made with less than .5 percent alcohol by volume. The category
includes drinks that have undergone an alcohol removal process such as non-alcoholic
beers and de-alcoholized wines.
• Non-alcoholic variants:
o Low alcohol beer
o Non-alcoholic wine
o Sparkling cider
[edit] Soft drinks

Main article: Soft drink
The name "soft drink" specifies a lack of alcohol by way of contrast to the term "hard
drink" and the term "drink", the latter of which is nominally neutral but often carries
connotations of alcoholic content. Beverages like colas, sparkling water, iced tea,
lemonade, squash, and fruit punch are among the most common types of soft drinks,
while hot chocolate, hot tea, coffee, milk, tap water, alcohol, and milkshakes do not fall
into this classification. Many carbonated soft drinks are optionally available in versions
sweetened with sugars or with non-caloric sweeteners.
[edit] Hot beverages
A cup of coffee.
• Hot beverages
o Coffee-based beverages
 Cappuccino
 Coffee
 Espresso
 Café au lait
 Frappé
 Flavored coffees (mocha etc.)
 Latte
o Hot chocolate
o Hot cider
 Mulled cider
o Glühwein
o Tea-based beverages
 Flavored teas (chai etc.)
 Green tea
 Pearl milk tea
 Tea
o Herbal teas
 Yerba Mate
o Roasted grain beverages
 Sanka
[edit] Others
Masala buttermilk.
Some substances may be called either food or drink, and accordingly may be eaten with a
spoon or drunk, depending upon their thickness and solid ingredients.
• Buttermilk
• Soup
• Yogurt
[edit] Measuring drinks
UK US
Unit fl. oz (UK) ml fl. oz (US) ml

dash 1/48 0.592 1/48 0.616
teaspoon 1/8 3.55 1/6 4.93
tablespoon 1/2 14.2 1/2 14.8
fluid ounce or pony 1 28.413 1 29.574
shot, bar glass or jigger 3/2 42.6 3/2 44.4
can of Coke 11.6 330 12 330
pint 20 568 16 473
bottle of spirits 24.6 700 25.3 750
bottle of wine 26.4 750 25.3 750
[edit] See also
Food portal
• Cocktails
• Drinking
• Food
• Kefir
• Nutrition
• Soda
[edit] References
1. ^ a b Greenhalgh, Alison (March 2001). "Healthy living -
Water". BBC Health.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/health/healthy_living/nutrition/drinks_water.shtml. Retrieved on
2007-02-19.
2. ^ "The Benefits of Water". Cleveland Clinic.
http://www.clevelandclinic.org/health/health-info/docs/2700/2731.asp?index=7250.
Retrieved on 2007-02-19.
3. ^ a b "Chapter 3, Exposure Scenario Selection" (PDF). EPA.
May 2000. p. 8. http://www.epa.gov/earth1r6/6pd/rcra_c/pd-o/chap3.pdf. Retrieved on
2007-02-19.
4. ^ "Water Links". Center for Science in the Public Interest.
http://www.cspinet.org/nah/water/waterlinks.html. Retrieved on 2007-02-19.
5. ^ "Brief History of Drinking Water". American Water Works
Association. 2007.
http://www.awwa.org/Advocacy/news/info/HistoryofDrinkingWater.cfm. Retrieved on
2007-02-19.
6. ^ Arnold, John P (2005). Origin and History of Beer and
Brewing: From Prehistoric Times to the Beginning of Brewing Science and Technology
(Reprint ed.). BeerBooks.com.
Brandy
For other uses, see Brandy (disambiguation).

Cognac brandy in a typical brandy snifter.
Brandy (from brandywine, derived from Dutch brandewijn — "burnt wine") [1] is a spirit
produced by distilling wine, the wine having first been produced by fermenting grapes.
Brandy generally contains 36%–60% alcohol by volume and is typically taken as an
after-dinner drink. While some brandies are aged in wooden casks, most are coloured
with caramel colouring to imitate the effect of such aging.
Brandy can also be made from fermented fruit (i.e., other than grapes) and from pomace.
[2]
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Types of brandy
o 1.1 Grape brandy
o 1.2 Fruit brandy
o 1.3 Pomace brandy
• 2 Distillation
• 3 Aging
• 4 Labelling
• 5 Pot stills vs. tower stills
• 6 European Union definition
• 7 History
• 8 Usage
o 8.1 Cooking
o 8.2 Beverages
 8.2.1 Blackbird
 8.2.2 Brandy Alexander
 8.2.3 Brandy Sour
• 9 See also
• 10 References
[edit] Types of brandy
There are three main types of brandy. The term "brandy" denotes grape brandy if the type
is not otherwise specified.
[edit] Grape brandy
Grape brandy is produced by the distillation of fermented grapes.
• American grape brandy is almost always from California.[2]
Popular brands include Christian Brothers, Coronet, E&J, Korbel, Paul Masson and J.
Bavet.
• Armagnac is made from grapes of the Armagnac region in
Southwest of France (Gers, Landes, Lot-et-Garonne). It is single-continuous distilled in a
copper still and aged in oaken casks from Gascony or Limousin. Armagnac was the first
distilled spirit in France. Armagnacs have a specificity: they offer vintage qualities.
Popular brands are Darroze, Baron de Sigognac, Larressingle, Delord, Laubade, Gélas
and Janneau.

Brandy de Jerez barrels aging
• Brandy de Jerez is a brandy that originates from vineyards
around Jerez de la Frontera in southern Spain.[3]It is used in some sherries and is also
available as a separate product. It has a Protected Designation of Origin (PDO). The
traditional production method has three characteristics: (1) Aged in American oaken
casks with a capacity of 500 litres, previously having contained sherry. (2) The use of the
traditional aging system of Criaderas and Soleras. (3) Aged exclusively within the
municipal boundaries of Jerez de la Frontera, El Puerto de Santa María, and Sanlúcar de
Barrameda in the province of Cádiz.[4]
• Cognac comes from the Cognac region in France[2], and is
double distilled using pot stills. Popular brands include Hine, Martell, Rémy Martin,
Hennessy, Ragnaud-Sabourin, Delamain and Courvoisier.
• Pisco is produced in Peru and Chile.
• Portugal: Lourinhã, located in western Portugal, is one of the
few brandy-making areas, besides Cognac and Armagnac, that have received appellation
status.
• South African South African grape brandies are, by law,
made almost exactly as in Cognac, using a double-distillation process in copper pot stills
followed by aging in oak barrels for a minimum of three years. Because of this, South
African brandies are of a very high quality[5]. A popular brand is Klipdrift.
• Other countries: Grape brandy is also produced in many other
countries, including Armenia, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Italy,
Macedonia, Mexico, Moldova, Romania, Pakistan and Ukraine. Cyprus brandy differs
from other varieties in that its alcohol concentration is only 32% ABV.
The European Union legally enforces Cognac as the exclusive name for brandy produced
and distilled in the Cognac area of France, and Armagnac from the Gascony area of
France, using traditional techniques. Since these are considered PDO, they refer not just
to styles of brandy but brandies from a specific region, i.e. a brandy made in California in
a manner identical to the method used to make cognac, and which tastes similar to
cognac, cannot be so called in Europe as it is not from the Cognac region of France.
Grape brandy is best when it is drunk at room temperature from a tulip-shaped glass or a
snifter. Often it is slightly warmed by holding the glass cupped in the palm or by gently
heating it. However, heating it may cause the alcohol vapor to become too strong, so that
the aromas are overpowered.[citation needed]
Brandy, like whisky and red wine, has more pleasant aromas and flavors at a lower
temperature, e.g., 16 °C (61 °F). In most homes, this would imply that brandy should be
cooled rather than heated for maximum enjoyment. Furthermore, alcohol (which makes
up 40% of a typical brandy) becomes thin as it is heated (and more viscous when cooled).
Thus, cool brandy produces a fuller and smoother mouthfeel and less of a "burning"
sensation.[6]
[edit] Fruit brandy
A bottle of Calvados, a French fruit brandy made from apples.

Fruit brandies are distilled from fruits other than grapes. Apples, plums, peaches,
cherries, eldberberries, raspberries, blackberries, and apricots are the most commonly
used fruits.
Fruit brandy usually contains 40% to 45% ABV. It is usually colorless and is customarily
drunk chilled or over ice.
Applejack is an American apple brandy, made from the distillation of hard cider. It is
often freeze distilled.
Buchu brandy is South African and flavoured with extracts from Agathosma species.
Calvados is an apple brandy from the French region of Lower Normandy.[2] It is double
distilled from fermented apples.
Coconut brandy is a brandy made from the sap of coconut flowers.
Eau-de-vie is a general French term for fruit brandy (or even grape brandy that is not
qualified as Armagnac or Cognac, including pomace brandy).
German Schnaps is fruit brandy produced in Germany or Austria.
Kirschwasser is a fruit brandy made from cherries.[2]
Kukumakranka brandy is South African and flavoured with the ripe fruit of the
Kukumakranka.
Palinka is a traditional Hungarian fruit brandy.[2] It can be made from any kind of fruit,
most often from plums, apricots, elderberries, pears, or cherries. Less commonly, it is
made from apples, peaches, or walnuts.
Poire Williams is made from Bartlett pears (also known as Williams pears).
Rakia is a type of fruit brandy produced in Albania, Bosnia, Bulgaria, Croatia,
Macedonia, Montenegro, and Serbia; it may be made from plums, apples, quinces, pears,
apricots, cherries, mulberries, grapes, or walnuts.
Slivovice is a strong fruit brandy made from plums; by law, it must contain at least 52%
ABV. It is produced in Slovakia, the Czech Republic, and Poland.
Slivovitz is a fruit brandy made from plums[2]. It is a traditional drink in Bulgaria,
Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia. Macedonia, Serbia, and Slovenia.
Tuica is a clear Romanian fruit brandy made from plums, apples, pears, apricots,
mulberries, peaches, quinces, or mixtures of these. Romania and Moldova also produce a
grape brandy called vin ars (burnt wine) or divin.
[edit] Pomace brandy
Pomace brandy is produced by fermentation and distillation of the grape skins, seeds, and
stems that remain after grapes have been pressed to extract their juice (which is then used
to make wine). Examples include Italian grappa, French marc, Serbian komovica,
Bulgarian grozdova, Georgian chacha, Hungarian törkölypálinka and Cretan tsikoudia,
Cypriot Zivania. [2]
Most pomace brandy is not aged and not coloured.
[edit] Distillation
A batch distillation typically works as follows: Wine with an alcohol concentration of 8%
to 12% v/v and high acidity is boiled in a pot still. Vapours of ethanol, water, and the
numerous aroma components rise upward and are collected in a condenser coil where it
becomes a liquid again. Because ethanol and various aroma components vaporize at a
lower temperature than does water, the concentration of alcohol in the condensed product
(the distillate) is higher than in the original wine.

After one distillation, the distillate, called "low wine," will contain roughly 30% alcohol
(ethanol) by volume. The low wine is then distilled a second time. The first 1% or so of
distillate that's produced, called the "head," has an alcohol concentration of about 83%
and an unpleasant odor, so it is discarded (generally, mixed in with another batch of low
wine for future use). The distillation process continues, yielding a distillate of
approximately 70% alcohol (called the "heart"), which is what will be consumed as
brandy. The portion of low wine that remains after distillation, called the "tail," will be
mixed into another batch of low wine for future use.
Distillation does not simply enhance the alcohol content of wine. The heat under which
the product is distilled and the material of the still (usually copper) cause chemical
reactions to take place during distillation. This leads to the formation of numerous new
volatile aroma components, changes in relative amounts of aroma components in the
wine, and the hydrolysis of components such as esters.
[edit] Aging
Brandy is produced using one of three aging methods:
• No aging: Most pomace brandy and some fruit brandy is not
aged before bottling. The resulting product is typically clear and colorless.
• Single barrel aging: Brandies with a natural golden or brown
color are aged in oak casks. Some brandies have caramel color added to simulate the
appearance of barrel aging.
• Solera process: Some brandies, particularly those from Spain,
are aged using the solera system.
[edit] Labelling
Brandy has a rating system to describe its quality and condition; these indicators can
usually be found near the brand name on the label:
• A.C.: aged two years in wood.
• V.S.: "Very Special" or 3-Star, aged at least three years in
wood.
• V.S.O.P.: "Very Special Old Pale" or 5-Star, aged at least
five years in wood.
• X.O.: "Extra Old", Napoleon or Vieille Reserve, aged at least
six years, Napoleon at least four years.
• Vintage: Stored in the cask until the time it is bottled with the
label showing the vintage date.
• Hors d'age: These are too old to determine the age, although
ten years plus is typical, and are usually of great quality.
In the case of Brandy de Jerez Regulatory Council classifies it according to:
• Brandy de Jerez Solera — one year old.
• Brandy de Jerez Solera Reserva — three years old.
• Brandy de Jerez Solera Gran Reserva — ten years old.
[edit] Pot stills vs. tower stills
Cognac and South African pot still brandy are examples of brandy produced in batches
using pot stills (batch distillation). Many American brandies use fractional distillation in
tower stills to perform their distillation. Special pot stills with a fractionation section on
top are used for Armagnac.
[edit] European Union definition

The European Union has established its own legal definition of the term “brandy”:[7]
5. Brandy or Weinbrand
(a) Brandy or Weinbrand is a spirit drink:
(i) produced from wine spirit, whether or not wine distillate has been added, distilled at
less than 94.8% vol., provided that that distillate does not exceed a maximum of 50% of
the alcoholic content of the finished product,
(ii) matured for at least one year in oak receptacles or for at least six months in oak casks
with a capacity of less than 1000 litres,
(iii) containing a quantity of volatile substances equal to or exceeding 125 grams per
hectolitre of 100% vol. alcohol, and derived exclusively from the distillation or
redistillation of the raw materials used,
(iv) having a maximum methanol content of 200 grams per hectolitre of 100% vol.
alcohol.
(b) The minimum alcoholic strength by volume of brandy or Weinbrand shall be 36%.
(c) No addition of alcohol as defined in Annex I(5), diluted or not, shall take place.
(d) Brandy or Weinbrand shall not be flavoured. This shall not exclude traditional
production methods.
(e) Brandy or Weinbrand may only contain added caramel as a means to adapt colour.
This definition formally excludes fruit brandy, pomace brandy, and even unaged grape
brandy. The same European Union regulation defines the names of these excluded spirits
as fruit spirit, grape marc spirit, and wine spirit. The German term Weinbrand is
equivalent to the English term “brandy”, but outside the German-speaking countries it is
used only for brandy from Austria and Germany. In Poland, brandy is sometimes called
winiak, from wino (wine).
[edit] History
The origins of brandy are clearly tied to the development of distillation. Concentrated
alcoholic beverages were known in ancient Greece and Rome and may have a history
going back to ancient Babylon. Brandy, as it is known today, first began to appear in the
12th century and became generally popular in the 14th century.
Initially wine was distilled as a preservation method and as a way to make the wine easier
for merchants to transport. It was also thought that wine was originally distilled to lessen
the tax which was assessed by volume. The intent was to add the water removed by
distillation back to the brandy shortly before consumption. It was discovered that after
having been stored in wooden casks, the resulting product had improved over the original
distilled spirit.[2] In addition to removing water, the distillation process leads to the
formation and decomposition of numerous aroma compounds, fundamentally altering the
composition of the distillate from its source. Non-volatile substances such as pigments,
sugars, and salts remain behind in the still. As a result, the taste of the distillate may be
quite unlike that of the original source.
As described in the 1728 edition of Cyclopaedia, the following method was used to distill
brandy:
• A cucurbit was filled half full of the liquor from which
brandy was to be drawn and then raised with a little fire until about one sixth part was
distilled, or until that which falls into the receiver was entirely flammable. This liquor,
distilled only once, was called spirit of wine or brandy. Purified by another distillation (or
several more), this was then called spirit of wine rectified. The second distillation was

made in balneo mariae and in a glass cucurbit, and the liquor was distilled to about one
half the quantity. This was further rectified—as long as the operator thought necessary—
to produce brandy.[8]
To shorten these several distillations, which were long and troublesome, a chemical
instrument was invented that reduced them to a single distillation. To test the purity of the
rectified spirit of wine, a portion was ignited. If the entire contents were consumed
without leaving any impurity behind, then the liquor was good. Another, better test
involved putting a little gunpowder in the bottom of the spirit. If the gunpowder took fire
when the spirit was consumed, then the liquor was good.[8]
As most brandies are distilled from grapes, the regions of the world producing excellent
brandies have roughly paralleled those areas producing grapes for viniculture. At the end
of the 19th Century, the western European market—and by extension their overseas
empires—was dominated by French and Spanish brandies, and eastern Europe was
dominated by brandies from the Black Sea region, including Bulgaria, the Crimea, and
Georgia. In 1880, David Saradjishvili founded his Cognac Factory in Tbilisi, Georgia
(then part of the Russian Empire) which was a crossroads for Turkish, Central Asian, and
Persian traderoutes. Armenian and Georgian brandies (always called cognacs in the era)
were considered some of the best in the world, often beating their French competitors at
the International Expositions in Paris and Brussels in the early 1900s. The storehouses of
the Romanov Court in St. Petersburg were regarded as the largest collections of cognacs
and wines in the world—much of it from the Transcaucasus region of Georgia. During
the October Revolution of 1917, upon the storming of the Winter Palace, the Bolshevik
Revolution actually paused for a week or so as the rioters engorged on the substantial
stores of cognac and wines. The Russian market was always a huge brandy-consuming
region, and while much of it was homegrown, much was imported. The patterns of
bottles follow that of western European norm. Throughout the Soviet era, the production
of brandy remained a source of pride for the communist regime, and they continued to
produce some excellent varieties - most famously the Jubilee Brandies of 1967, 1977, and
1987. Remaining bottles of these productions are highly sought after, not simply for their
quality, but for their historical significance.
[edit] Usage
Brandy serves a variety of culinary uses.
[edit] Cooking
• Flavored brandy is added to desserts, including cake and pie
toppings, which enhances the flavor of the dessert .
• Flavored brandy is also commonly added to apple dishes.
• Brandy is a common deglazing liquid in making pan sauces
for steak or other meats
[edit] Beverages
Brandy may be served neat (by itself) or on the rocks (with ice). It is often added to other
beverages to create several popular mixed drinks.
The following cocktails highlight brandy as a primary ingredient.
[edit] Blackbird
• 1 part blackberry brandy
• 2 parts cola

Pour all ingredients directly into a glass with ice cubes. Stir gently. Commonly mixed to
taste similar to a cherry cola.
[edit] Brandy Alexander
• 1 1/2 oz Brandy
• 1 oz Dark Crème de Cacao
• 1 oz Half-and-half or Heavy cream
• 1/4 tsp grated Nutmeg
In a shaker half-filled with ice cubes, combine the brandy, crème de cacao, and half-and-half.
Shake well. Strain into a cocktail glass and garnish with the nutmeg.
[edit] Brandy Sour
• 2 parts Brandy
• 1 part lemon squash
• 2 drops bitters
Mix the above ingredients. Pour into a glass with ice and top with soda water or
lemonade
Whisky
For other uses, see Whisky (disambiguation).
A glass of whisky.
Whisky or whiskey refers to a broad category of alcoholic beverages that are distilled
from fermented grain mash. Different grains are used for different varieties, including
barley, malted barley, rye, malted rye, wheat, and maize (corn). Most whiskies are aged
in wooden casks (generally oak), the exception being some corn whiskeys.
Whisky is a strictly regulated spirit worldwide with multiple competing denominations of
origin and multiple classes and types. The unifying characteristics of the different classes
and types are the fermentation of grain or corn, and the practice of distilling the spirit
down to a minimum of 90% alcohol for grain, and 80% alcohol for corn, prior to adding
water, so as to retain some of the flavor of the grain used to make the spirit and prevent it
from being classified as grain neutral spirits or vodka [1]. Whisky gains as much as 60%
of its flavor from the type of cask used in its aging process and therefore further
classification takes place based upon the type of wood used and the amount of charing or
toasting done to the wood [2]. Bourbon whisky for example is legally required to be aged
in charred new oak barrels whereas quality Scotch whiskies often used the partially spent
barrels from Bourbon production to induce a slower maturation time, adding additional
subtle nuance[3].
With few exceptions, the spelling is Scottish, Canadian, and Japanese whisky (plural:
whiskies), but Irish and American whiskey (whiskeys).[4]
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Etymology
• 2 History
• 3 Types

o 3.1 American whiskeys
o 3.2 Canadian whiskies
o 3.3 Finnish whiskies
o 3.4 German whiskies
o 3.5 Indian whiskies
o 3.6 Irish whiskeys
o 3.7 Japanese whiskies
o 3.8 Scotch whiskies
o 3.9 Welsh whiskies
o 3.10 Other whiskies
• 4 Names and spellings
• 5 Chemistry
o 5.1 Flavours from distillation
o 5.2 Flavours from oak
• 6 See also
• 7 References
[edit] Etymology
Whisky is a shortened form of usquebaugh, which English borrowed from Irish Gaelic
uisce beatha and Scottish Gaelic uisge beatha. This compound descends from Old Irish
uisce, "water," and bethad, "of life," and meaning literally "water of life." It meant the
same thing as the Latin aqua vītae which had been applied to distilled drinks since early
14th century. Other early spellings include usquebea (1706) and iskie bae (1583). In the
Irish Annals of Clonmacnoise in 1405, the first written record of whisky appears
describing the death of a chieftain at Christmas from "taking a surfeit of aqua vitae". In
Scotland, the first evidence of whisky production comes from an entry in the Exchequer
Rolls for 1494 where malt is sent "To Friar John Cor, by order of the king, to make
aquavitae".[5]
[edit] History
It is believed that the art of distillation was brought from the Mediterranean regions by
Irish missionaries between the 6th century and 7th century. While the art of distillation
originated in the East, its first European practice was in Spain introduced by the Moors in
the Middle Ages, with perfumes and aromatics being distilled long before potable spirits.
[6]
[edit] Types
Copper Pot stills at Auchentoshan Distillery in Scotland
Whisky or whisky-like products are produced in most grain-growing areas. They differ in
base product, alcoholic content, and quality.
Malted barley is an ingredient of some whiskies.
• Malt is whisky made entirely from malted barley and distilled
in an onion-shaped pot still.

• Grain is made from malted and unmalted barley along with
other grains, usually in a continuous "patent" or "Coffey" still. Until recently it was only
used in blends, but there are now some single grain scotches being marketed.
Malts and grains are combined in various ways
• Vatted malt is blended from malt whiskies from different
distilleries. If a whisky is labelled "pure malt" or just "malt" it is almost certain to be a
vatted whisky. This is also sometimes labelled as "blended malt" whisky.
• Single malt whisky is malt whisky from a single distillery.
However, unless the whisky is described as "single-cask" it will contain whisky from
many casks, and different years, so the blender can achieve a taste recognisable as typical
of the distillery. In most cases, the name of a single malt will be that of the distillery (The
Glenlivet, Bushmills, Yoichi), with an age statement and perhaps some indication of
some special treatments such as maturation in a port wine cask.
• Pure pot still whiskey refers to a whiskey distilled in a pot-still
(like single malt) from a mash of mixed malted and unmalted barley. It is exclusive
to Ireland.
• Blended whiskies are made from a mixture of malt and grain
whiskies. A whisky simply described as Scotch Whisky or Irish Whiskey is most likely to
be a blend in this sense. A blend is usually from many distilleries so that the blender can
produce a flavour consistent with the brand, and the brand name (e.g. Chivas Regal,
Canadian Club) will usually not therefore contain the name of a distillery. Jameson Irish
Whiskey is an exception and comes from only one distillery. However, "blend" can (less
frequently) have other meanings. A mixture of malts (with no grain) from different
distilleries (more usually called a vatted malt) may sometimes be referred to as a
"blended malt", and a mixture of grain whiskies with no malts will sometimes carry the
designation "blended grain".
• Cask strength whiskies are rare and usually only the very best
whiskies are bottled in this way. They are bottled from the cask undiluted. Rather than
diluting, the distiller is inviting the drinker to dilute to the level of potency most
palatable.
Whiskies do not mature in the bottle, only in the cask, so the "age" of a whisky is the
time between distillation and bottling. This reflects how much the cask has interacted
with the whisky, changing its chemical makeup and taste. Whiskies which have been in
bottle for many years may have a rarity value, but are not "older" and will not necessarily
be "better" than a more recently made whisky matured in wood for a similar time. Most
whiskies are sold at or near an alcoholic strength of 40% abv.
[edit] American whiskeys
Main article: American whiskey
American whiskey is distilled from a fermented mash of cereal grain. It must have the
taste, aroma, and other characteristics commonly attributed to whiskey.
The most common types listed in the federal regulations[7] are:
• Bourbon whiskey, which is made from mash that consists of
at least 51% corn (maize).
• Rye whiskey, which is made from mash that consists of least
51% rye.

• Corn whiskey, which is made from mash that consists of at
least 80% corn (maize).
• Straight whiskey, (without naming a grain) is a whiskey
which has been aged in charred new oak containers for 2 years or more and distilled at
not more than 80 percent alcohol by volume but is derived from less than 51% of any one
grain.
The "named types" of American whiskey must be distilled to not more than 80 percent
alcohol by volume. "Named types" must then be aged in charred new oak containers,
excepting corn whiskey. Corn whiskey does not have to be aged but, if it is aged, it must
be in new un-charred oak barrels or used barrels. The aging for corn whiskey usually is
brief, e.g. six months.
If the aging for a "named type" reaches 2 years or beyond, the whiskey is then
additionally designated "straight" e.g. "straight rye whiskey". "Straight whiskey" (without
naming a grain) is a whiskey which has been aged in charred new oak containers for 2
years or more and distilled at not more than 80 percent alcohol by volume but is derived
from less than 51% of any one grain.
American blended whiskeys combine straight whiskey with un-aged whiskey, grain
neutral spirits, flavorings and colorings.
Important in the marketplace is Tennessee whiskey, of which Jack Daniel's is the leading
example. During distillation, it is identical to bourbon whiskey in almost every important
respect. The most recognizable differences are that Tennessee whiskey is filtered through
sugar maple charcoal, giving it a unique flavor and aroma. The other major difference is
the reuse of barrels which is not allowed in bourbon whiskey production. Though not
defined by regulations, the Government of the United States of America officially
recognized Tennessee whiskey as a separate style in 1941.
[edit] Canadian whiskies
Various Canadian whiskies.
Main article: Canadian whisky
Canadian whiskies are usually lighter and smoother than other whisky styles. Another
common characteristic of many Canadian whiskies is their use of rye that has been
malted, which provides a fuller flavour and smoothness. By Canadian law, [8] Canadian
whiskies must be produced in Canada, be distilled from a fermented mash of cereal grain,
"be aged in small wood for not less than 3 years", and "possess the aroma, taste and
character generally attributed to Canadian whisky." The terms "Canadian Whisky",
"Canadian Rye Whisky" and "Rye Whisky" are legally indistinguishable in Canada and
do not denote any particular proportion of rye or other grain used in production.
[edit] Finnish whiskies
Main article: Finnish whisky
In the last few years Finnish whisky culture has developed strongly and it is still in
progress of evolving. Finnish whisky culture now lives a very strong growth through the
rising standard of living and general culinary trend. The sales figures and the quantity of
devotees of whisky have risen very powerfully. Currently, there are two working
distilleries in Finland and a third one is under construction. Whisky retail sales in Finland
are controlled solely by the state alcohol monopoly Alko and adevertisement of strong

alcoholic beverages is banned. However, the monopoly status of Alko and the advertising
prohibition do not stop people from taking interest in whiskies, even though they can
make it more difficult.[9]
[edit] German whiskies
Main article: German whisky
German whisky is made from grains traditionally associated with the production of
whisky. The distillation of German-made whisky is a relatively recent phenomenon
having only started in the last 30 years. The styles produced resemble those made in
Ireland, Scotland and the United States: single malts, blends, and bourbon styles. There is
no standard spelling of German whiskies with distilleries using both "whisky" and
"whiskey" and one even using "whessky", a play on the word whisky and Hesse, the state
in which it is produced. There are currently ten distilleries in Germany producing whisky.
[10]
[edit] Indian whiskies
Main article: Indian whisky
Indian whisky is an alcoholic beverage that is labelled as "whisky" in India. Much Indian
whisky is distilled from fermented molasses, and as such would be considered a sort of
rum outside of the Indian subcontinent.[11] 90% of the "whisky" consumed in India is
molasses based, although India has begun to distill whisky from malt and other grains.
[12]
Kasauli Distillery is set in the Himalaya mountains and opened in the late 1820s. The
main whisky brand is a single malt named "Solan No. 1". This was named after the town
nearby called Solan. It was the best selling Indian whisky till recently, but has declined
since the early 1980s' because of the stiff competition from the larger distilleries. Other
whiskies this distillery produces are Diplomat Deluxe, Colonel's Special, Black Knight
and Summer Hall .[13]
[edit] Irish whiskeys
Various Irish whiskeys.
Main article: Irish whiskey
Most Irish whiskeys are distilled three times[14], although there are exceptions. Though
traditionally distilled using the pot still method, in modern times a column still is used to
produce the grain whiskey used in blends. By law, Irish whiskey must be produced in
Ireland and aged in wooden casks for a period of no less than three years, although in
practice it is usually three or four times that period.[15] Unpeated malt is almost always
used, the main exception being Connemara Peated Malt whiskey.
There are several types of whiskey common to Ireland: single malt, single grain, blended
whiskey and uniquely to Ireland, pure pot still whiskey. The designation "pure pot still"
as used in Ireland generally refers to whiskey made of 100% barley, mixed malted and
unmalted, and distilled in a pot still made of copper. The "green" unmalted barley gives
the traditional pure pot still whiskey a spicy, uniquely Irish quality. Like single malt, pure
pot still is sold as such or blended with grain whiskey. Usually no real distinction is made
between whether a blended whiskey was made from single malt or pure pot still.
[edit] Japanese whiskies
Main article: Japanese whisky

The model for Japanese whiskies is the single malt Scotch, although there are also
examples of Japanese blended whiskies. The base is a mash of malted barley, dried in
kilns fired with a little peat (although considerably less than is the case in Scotland), and
distilled using the pot still method. For some time Japanese whisky suffered from the
commonly held belief that whisky made in the Scotch style, but not produced in Scotland,
was inferior, and until fairly recently, the market for Japanese whiskies was almost
entirely domestic. In recent years, Japanese whiskies have won prestigious international
awards and now enjoys a deserved reputation for a quality product[16][17]
[edit] Scotch whiskies
Various Scotch whiskies.
Main article: Scotch whisky
Scotch whiskies are generally distilled twice, though some are distilled a third time.[18]
International laws require anything bearing the label "Scotch" to be distilled in Scotland
and matured for a minimum of three years and one day in oak casks, among other, more
specific criteria.[19] If Scotch whisky is from more than one cask, and if it includes an
age statement on the bottle, it must reflect the age of the youngest whisky in the blend.
Many cask-strength single malts omit the age as they use younger elements in minute
amounts for flavouring and mellowing. The basic types of Scotch are malt and grain,
which are combined to create blends. Many, though not all, Scotch whiskies use peat
smoke to treat their malt, giving Scotch its distinctive smoky flavour. While the market is
dominated by blends, the most highly prized of Scotch whiskies are the single malts.
Scotch whiskies are divided into five main regions: Highland, Lowland, Islay, Speyside
and Campbeltown.
[edit] Welsh whiskies
Main article: Welsh whisky
In 2000, Penderyn Distillery started production of the Penderyn single malt Welsh
whisky in Wales. The first bottles went on sale on 1 March 2004, Saint David's Day. It is
now sold throughout the world.
Penderyn Distillery is situated in Brecon Beacons National Park and first produced
whisky in 2000. It is considered the smallest distillery in the world.[20]
[edit] Other whiskies
In Brittany/France, two distilleries (Glann ar Mor[21] and Warenghem[22]) produce
whisky using techniques similar to those in Scotland. Two whiskies are produced on the
French island of Corsica: Altore and P&M. Altore is distilled in Scotland, but blended
and matured on Corsica in muscat casks. P&M (Pietra & Mavella) is a coproduction of
the brewery Pietra and the distillery Mavella. The mash is enriched with chestnut flour.
P&M is also matured in muscat casks.[23]
Manx Spirit from the Isle of Man is, like some Virginia whiskeys in the USA, actually
distilled elsewhere and re-distilled in the country of its nominal "origin". In England, a
new distillery (St. George's Distillery[24]) became operational in late 2006; the product
will come onto the market in due time, based on ageing and marketing considerations.
In Sweden a new distillery (Mackmyra[25]), started selling its products in 2008.
Recently at least two distilleries in the traditionally brandy-producing Caucasus region
announced their plans to enter the Russian domestic market with whiskies. The

Stavropol-based Praskoveysky distillery bases its product on Irish technology, while in
Kizlyar, Dagestan's "Russian Whisky" announced a Scotch-inspired drink in single malt,
blended and wheat varieties.[26]
In Taiwan, the King Car company built a whisky distillery in the city of Yilan, and has
recently begun marketing Kavalan Single Malt Whisky. King Car Whisky Distillery
[edit] Names and spellings
The word "whiskey" is believed to have been coined by soldiers of King Henry II who
invaded Ireland in the 12th century as they struggled to pronounce the native Irish words
uisce beatha [ k ə b ahə], meaning "water of life". ɪʃ ʲ ʲ Over time, the pronunciation changed
from "Whishkeyba" (an approximation of how the Irish term sounds) to "Whisky". The
name itself is a Gaelic translation of the Latin phrase aqua vitae, meaning "Water of
Life".[27]
At one time, all whisky was spelled without the 'e', as "whisky". In around 1870, the
reputation of Scottish whisky was very poor as Scottish distilleries flooded the market
with cheaper spirits produced using the Coffey still. The Irish and American distilleries
adopted the spelling "whiskey", with the extra "e", to distinguish their higher quality
product. Today, the spelling whisky (plural whiskies) is generally used for whiskies
distilled in Scotland, Wales, Canada, and Japan, while whiskey is used for the spirits
distilled in Ireland and America. Even though a 1968 directive of the Bureau of Alcohol,
Tobacco and Firearms specifies "whisky" as the official U.S. spelling, it allows labeling
as "whiskey" in deference to tradition and most U.S. producers still use the historical
spelling. Exceptions such as Early Times, Maker's Mark, and George Dickel are usually
indicative of a Scottish heritage.[6]
In the late Victorian era, Irish whiskey was the world's most popular whisk(e)y. Of the
Irish whiskeys, Dublin whiskeys were regarded as the grands crus of whiskeys. In order
to differentiate Dublin whiskey from other whiskies, the Dublin distilleries adopted the
spelling "whiskey". The other Irish distilleries eventually followed suit. The last Irish
"whisky" was Paddy, which adopted the "e" in 1966.[6]
"Scotch" is the internationally recognized term for "Scotch whisky" however it is rarely
used in Scotland, where grain whisky is generally referred to as "whisky" and single malt
whisky as "malt".[28]
In many Latin-American countries, whisky (wee-skee) is used as a photographer's cue to
smile, supplanting English "cheese". The Uruguayan film Whisky got its name because
of this.
[edit] Chemistry
Whiskies and other distilled beverages such as cognac and rum are complex beverages
containing a vast range of flavouring compounds, of which some 200 to 300 can be easily
detected by chemical analysis. The flavouring chemicals include "carbonyl compounds,
alcohols, carboxylic acids and their esters, nitrogen- and sulphur-containing compounds,
tannins and other polyphenolic compounds, terpenes, and oxygen-containing heterocyclic
compounds" and esters of fatty acids.[29] The nitrogen compounds include pyridines,
picolines and pyrazines.[30]
[edit] Flavours from distillation
The flavouring of whisky is partially determined by the presence of congeners and fusel
oils. Fusel oils are higher alcohols than ethanol, are mildly toxic, and have a strong,
disagreeable smell and taste. An excess of fusel oils in whisky is considered a defect. A

variety of methods are employed in the distillation process to remove unwanted fusel oils.
Traditionally, American distillers focused on secondary filtration using charcoal, gravel,
sand, or linen to subtract undesired distillates. Canadian distillers have traditionally
employed column stills which can be controlled to produce an almost pure (and less
flavourful) ethanol known as neutral grain spirit or grain neutral spirit (GNS).[31]
Flavour is restored by blending the neutral grain spirits with flavouring whiskies.[32]
Acetals are rapidly formed in distillates and a great many are found in distilled beverages,
the most prominent being acetaldehyde diethyl acetal (1,1-diethoxyethane). Among
whiskies the highest levels are associated with malt whisky.[33] This acetal is a principal
flavour compound in sherry, and contributes fruitiness to the aroma.[34]
The diketone diacetyl (2,3-Butanedione) has a buttery aroma and is present in almost all
distilled beverages. Whiskies and cognacs typically contain more than vodkas, but
significantly less than rums or brandies.[35]
[edit] Flavours from oak
Whisky lactone (3-methyl-4-octanolide) is found in all types of oak. This lactone has a
strong coconut aroma.[36] Whisky lactone is also known as quercus lactone.[37]
Commercially charred oaks are rich in phenolic compounds. One study discriminated 40
different phenolic compounds. The coumarin scopoletin is present in whisky, with the
highest level reported in Bourbon whiskey.[38]
Rum
For other uses, see Rum (disambiguation).
Rum grog
Caribbean rum, circa 1941
Rum is a distilled beverage made from sugarcane by-products such as molasses and
sugarcane juice by a process of fermentation and distillation. The distillate, a clear liquid,
is then usually aged in oak and other barrels. The majority of the world's rum production
occurs in and around the Caribbean and in several South American countries, such as
Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana and Brazil. There are also rum producers in places such as
Australia, Fiji, the Philippines, India, Reunion Island, Mauritius, and elsewhere around
the world.
Rum is produced in a variety of styles. Light rums are commonly used in cocktails. In
addition to cocktails, golden and dark rums are appropriate for drinking straight, or for
cooking. Premium rums are also available that are made to be consumed straight or with
ice.
Rum plays a part in the culture of most islands of the West Indies, and has famous
associations with the Royal Navy (See: Grog) and piracy (See: Bumbo). Rum has also
served as a popular medium of exchange that helped to promote slavery along with

providing economic instigation for Australia's Rum Rebellion and the American
Revolution.[1]
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Etymology
• 2 History
o 2.1 Origins
o 2.2 Colonial America
o 2.3 Naval Rum
o 2.4 Colonial Australia
• 3 Categorization
o 3.1 Regional variations
o 3.2 Grades
• 4 Production methodology
o 4.1 Fermentation
o 4.2 Distillation
o 4.3 Aging and blending
• 5 In cuisine
• 6 See also
• 7 Notes
• 8 References
o 8.1 Further reading
[edit] Etymology
The origin of the word rum is generally unclear. Rum is a blunt, Anglo-Saxonlike name.
In an 1824 essay about the word's origin, Samuel Morewood, a British etymologist,
suggested that it might be from the British slang term for "the best," as in "having a rum
time." He wrote that
"As spirits, extracted from molasses, could not well be ranked under the name whiskey,
brandy, or arack, it would be called rum, to denote its excellence or superior quality."
-Samuel Morewood[2]
Given the harsh taste of early rum, this is unlikely. Morewood later suggested another
possibility: that it was taken from the last syllable of the Latin word for sugar, saccharum,
an explanation that is commonly heard today.[2] It should be noted though, that the -um
is a very common noun ending in Latin, and plenty of Latin word roots end in r, so in
reality, you could apply this logic to a plethora of Latin words to draw the link.
Other etymologists have mentioned the gypsy word rum, meaning "strong" or "potent."
These words have been linked to the ramboozle and rumfustian, both popular British
drinks in the mid-seventeenth century. However, neither was made with rum, but rather
eggs, ale, wine, sugar, and various spices. The most probable origin is as a truncated
version of rumbullion or rumbustion."[3] Both words surfaced in British English about
the same time as rum did, and were slang terms for "tumult" or "uproar." This is a far
more convincing explanation, and brings the image of fractious men fighting in
entanglements at island tippling houses, which are early versions of the bar.[2]

Another claim is that the name is from the large drinking glasses used by Dutch seamen
known as rummers, from the Dutch word roemer, a drinking glass.[4] Other options
include contractions of the words saccharum, Latin for sugar, or arôme, French for
aroma.[5] Regardless of the original source, the name was already in common use by
May 1657 when the General Court of Massachusetts made illegal the sale of strong liquor
"whether knowne by the name of rumme, strong water, wine, brandy, etc."[5]
In current usage, the name used for a rum is often based on the rum's place of origin. For
rums from Spanish-speaking locales the word ron is used. A ron añejo indicates a rum
that has been significantly aged and is often used for premium products. Rhum is the term
used for rums from French-speaking locales, while rhum vieux is an aged French rum
that meets several other requirements.
Some of the many other names for rum are Nelson's Blood, Kill-Devil, Demon Water,
Pirate's Drink, Navy Neaters, and Barbados water.[6] A version of rum from
Newfoundland is referred to by the name Screech, while some low-grade West Indies
rums are called tafia.[7]
[edit] History
[edit] Origins
The precursors to rum date back to antiquity. Development of fermented drinks produced
from sugarcane juice is believed to have first occurred either in ancient India or China,[3]
and spread from there. An example of such an early drink is brum. Produced by the
Malay people, brum dates back thousands of years.[8] Marco Polo also recorded a 14th-century
account of a "very good wine of sugar" that was offered to him in what is
modern-day Iran.[3]
The first distillation of rum took place on the sugarcane plantations of the Caribbean in
the 17th century. Plantation slaves first discovered that molasses, a by-product of the
sugar refining process, can be fermented into alcohol.[9] Later, distillation of these
alcoholic by-products concentrated the alcohol and removed impurities, producing the
first true rums. Tradition suggests that rum first originated on the island of Barbados.
Regardless of its initial source, early Caribbean rums were not known for high quality. A
1651 document from Barbados stated, "The chief fuddling they make in the island is
Rumbullion, alias Kill-Divil, and this is made of sugar canes distilled, a hot, hellish, and
terrible liquor".[9]
[edit] Colonial America
The Pirates carrying rum on shore to purchase slaves as depicted in The Pirates Own
Book by Charles Ellms
After rum's development in the Caribbean, the drink's popularity spread to Colonial
America. To support the demand for the drink, the first rum distillery in the colonies was
set up in 1664 on present-day Staten Island. Boston, Massachusetts had a distillery three
years later.[10] The manufacture of rum became early Colonial New England's largest
and most prosperous industry.[11] New England became a distilling center due to the
superior technical, metalworking and cooperage skills and abundant lumber; the rum
produced there was lighter, more like whiskey, and was superior to the character and
aroma of the West Indies product. Anyone who could afford it much preferred it to the
Caribbean product.[citation needed] Rhode Island rum even joined gold as an accepted

currency in Europe for a period of time.[12] Estimates of rum consumption in the
American colonies before the American Revolutionary War had every man, woman, or
child drinking an average of 3 Imperial gallons (13.5 liters) of rum each year.[13]
To support this demand for the molasses to produce rum, along with the increasing
demand for sugar in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries, a labor source to work
the sugar plantations in the Caribbean was needed. A triangular trade was established
between Africa, the Caribbean, and the colonies to help support this need.[14] The
exchange of slaves, molasses, and rum was quite profitable, and the disruption to the
trade caused by the Sugar Act in 1764 may have even helped cause the American
Revolution.[13]
The popularity of rum continued after the American Revolution, with George
Washington insisting on a barrel of Barbados rum at his 1789 inauguration.[15]
Rum started to play an important role in the political system, since the outcome of an
election usually depended on the candidate’s generosity with rum. The people would vote
for incompetent candidates simply because they provided more rum. They would attend
the election to see which candidate appeared less stingy with their rum. The candidate
was expected to drink with the people to show that he was independent and truly a
republican. In a Mississippi election, one candidate poured his drinks and socialized with
the people. He was more personal and it appeared as if he was going to win. The other
candidate announced that he would not be pouring their drinks and they could have as
much as they wanted; because he appeared more generous, he won. This shows that
colonial voters were not concerned with what the candidate represented or stood for; they
were merely looking for who would provide the most rum.[16]
Eventually the restrictions on rum from the British islands of the Caribbean, combined
with the development of American whiskey, led to a decline in the drink's popularity.
[edit] Naval Rum
WRNS serving rum to a sailor from a tub inscribed 'THE KING GOD BLESS HIM'
Rum's association with piracy began with English privateers trading on the valuable
commodity. As some of the privateers became pirates and buccaneers, their fondness for
rum remained, the association between the two only being strengthened by literary works
such as Robert Louis Stevenson's Treasure Island.[17]
The association of rum with the Royal Navy began in 1655 when the British fleet
captured the island of Jamaica. With the availability of domestically produced rum, the
British changed the daily ration of liquor given to seamen from French brandy to rum.
[18] While the ration was originally given neat, or mixed with lime juice, the practice of
watering down the rum began around 1740. To help minimize the effect of the alcohol on
his sailors, Admiral Edward Vernon directed that the rum ration be watered down before
being issued, a mixture which became known as grog. While it is widely believed that the
term grog was coined at this time in honor of the grogram cloak Admiral Vernon wore in
rough weather,[19] the term has been demonstrated to predate his famous orders, with
probable origins in the West Indies, perhaps of African etymology (see Grog). The Royal
Navy continued to give its sailors a daily rum ration, known as a "tot," until the practice
was abolished after July 31, 1970.[20]

A story involving naval rum is that following his victory at the Battle of Trafalgar,
Horatio Nelson's body was preserved in a cask of rum to allow transport back to England.
Upon arrival, however, the cask was opened and found to be empty of rum. The pickled
body was removed and, upon inspection, it was discovered that the sailors had drilled a
hole in the bottom of the cask and drunk all the rum, in the process drinking Nelson's
blood. Thus, this tale serves as a basis for the term Nelson's Blood being used to describe
rum. It also serves as the basis for the term "Tapping the Admiral" being used to describe
drinking the daily rum ration. The details of the story are disputed, as many historians
claim the cask contained French brandy whilst others claim instead the term originated
from a toast to Admiral Nelson.[21] It should be noted that variations of the story,
involving different notable corpses, have been in circulation for many years.[22]
[edit] Colonial Australia
Beenleigh Rum Distillery, on the banks of the Albert River near Brisbane, Australia,
circa 1912
See Also: Rum Rebellion
Rum became an important trade good in the early period of the colony of New South
Wales. The value of rum was based upon the lack of coinage among the population of the
colony, and due to the drink's ability to allow its consumer to temporarily forget about the
lack of creature comforts available in the new colony. The value of rum was such that
convict settlers could be induced to work the lands owned by officers of the New South
Wales Corps. Due to rum's popularity among the settlers, the colony gained a reputation
for drunkenness even though their alcohol consumption was less than levels commonly
consumed in England at the time.[23]
When William Bligh became governor of the colony in 1806, he attempted to remedy the
perceived problem with drunkenness by outlawing the use of rum as a medium of
exchange. In response to this action, and several others, the New South Wales Corps
marched, with fixed bayonets, to Government House and placed Bligh under arrest. The
mutineers continued to control the colony until the arrival of Governor Lachlan
Macquarie in 1810.[24]
[edit] Categorization
Dividing rum into meaningful groupings is complicated by the fact that there is no single
standard for what constitutes rum. Instead rum is defined by the varying rules and laws of
the nations that produce the spirit. The differences in definitions include issues such as
spirit proof, minimum aging, and even naming standards.
Examples of the differences in proof is Colombia, requiring their rum possess a minimum
alcohol content of 50 ABV, while Chile and Venezuela require only a minimum of 40
ABV. Mexico requires rum be aged a minimum of 8 months; the Dominican Republic,
Panama and Venezuela require two years. Naming standards also vary. Argentina defines
rums as white, gold, light, and extra light. Barbados uses the terms white, overproof, and
matured, while the United States defines rum, rum liqueur, and flavored rum.[25] In
Australia Rum is divided into Dark Rum (Under Proof known as UP, Over Proof known
as OP, and triple distilled) and White Rum.
Despite these differences in standards and nomenclature, the following divisions are
provided to help show the wide variety of rums that are produced.

[edit] Regional variations
The Bacardi building in Havana, Cuba
Within the Caribbean, each island or production area has a unique style. For the most
part, these styles can be grouped by the language that is traditionally spoken. Due to the
overwhelming influence of Puerto Rican rum, most rum consumed in the United States is
produced in the Spanish-speaking style.
• Spanish-speaking islands and countries traditionally produce
light rums with a fairly clean taste. Rums from Guatemala, Cuba, Panama, the Dominican
Republic, Nicaragua, Puerto Rico, Colombia and Venezuela are typical of this style.
• English-speaking islands and countries are known for darker
rums with a fuller taste that retains a greater amount of the underlying molasses flavor.
Rums from Barbados, Belize, Bermuda, Saint Kitts, the Demerara region of Guyana, and
Jamaica are typical of this style.
• French-speaking islands are best known for their agricultural
rums (rhum agricole). These rums, being produced exclusively from sugar cane juice,
retain a greater amount of the original flavor of the sugar cane and are generally more
expensive than molasses-based rums. Rums from Haïti, Guadeloupe, Marie-Galante and
Martinique are typical of this style.
Cachaça is a spirit similar to rum that is produced in Brazil. Seco, from Panama, is also a
spirit similar to rum, but also similar to vodka, since it is triple distilled. The Indonesian
spirit Batavia Arrack, or Arrak, is a spirit similar to rum that includes rice in its
production.[26] Mexico produces a number of brands of light and dark rum, as well as
other less expensive flavored and unflavored sugar cane based liquors, such as
aguardiente de caña and charanda. In some cases cane liquor is flavored with mezcal to
produce a pseudo-tequila-like drink.[citation needed]
A spirit known as Aguardiente, distilled from molasses and often infused with anise, with
additional sugarcane juice added after distillation, is produced in Central America and
northern South America.[27]
In West Africa, and particularly in Liberia, cane juice (also known as Liberian rum[28] or
simply CJ within Liberia itself,[29] is a cheap, strong spirit distilled from sugar cane,
which can be as strong as 86 proof.[30]
Within Europe, a similar spirit made from sugar beet is known as tuzemák (from
tuzemský rum, domestic rum) in the Czech Republic and Kobba Libre on the Åland
Islands.[citation needed]
In Germany, a cheap substitute of genuine dark rum is called Rum-Verschnitt (literally:
blended rum). This distilled beverage is made of genuine dark rum (often from Jamaica),
rectified spirit, and water. Very often, caramel coloring is used, too. The relative amount
of genuine rum it contains can be quite low since the legal minimum is at only 5 percent,
but the taste of Rum-Verschnitt is still very similar to genuine dark rum. In Austria, a
similar rum called Inländerrum or domestic rum is available. However, Austrian
Inländerrum is always a spiced rum, (brand example: Stroh) German Rum-Verschnitt, in
contrast, is never spiced or flavored.
[edit] Grades

Example of dark, spiced, and light rums.
The grades and variations used to describe rum depend on the location that a rum was
produced. Despite these variations the following terms are frequently used to describe
various types of rum:
• Light Rums, also referred to as light, silver, and white rums.
In general, light rum has very little flavor aside from a general sweetness, and serves
accordingly as a base for cocktails. Light rums are sometimes filtered after aging to
remove any color. The Brazilian Cachaça is generally this type, but some varieties are
more akin to "gold rums". The majority of Light Rum comes out of Puerto Rico. Their
milder flavor makes them popular for use in mixed-drinks, as opposed to drinking it
straight.
• Gold Rums, also called amber rums, are medium-bodied
rums which are generally aged. These gain their dark color from aging in wooden barrels
(usually the charred white oak barrels that are the byproduct of Bourbon Whiskey). They
have more flavor, and are darker-tasting than Silver Rum, and can be considered a
midway-point between Silver/Light Rum and the darker varieties.
• Spiced Rum: These rums obtain their flavor through addition
of spices and, sometimes, caramel. Most are darker in color, and based on gold rums.
Some are significantly darker, while many cheaper brands are made from inexpensive
white rums and darkened with artificial caramel color.
• Dark Rum, also known as black rum, classes as a grade
darker than gold rum. It is generally aged longer, in heavily charred barrels. Dark rum has
a much stronger flavor than either light or gold rum, and hints of spices can be detected,
along with a strong molasses or caramel overtone. It is used to provide substance in rum
drinks, as well as color. In addition to uses in mixed drinks, dark rum is the type of rum
most commonly used in cooking. Most Dark Rum comes from areas such as Jamaica,
Haiti, and Martinique, though two Central American countries, Nicaragua and
Guatemala, produced two of the most award-winning dark rums in the world: Flor de
Caña and Zacapa Centenario, respectively.[31]
• Flavored Rum: Some manufacturers have begun to sell rums
which they have infused with flavors of fruits such as mango, orange, citrus, coconut or
lime. These serve to flavor similarly themed tropical drinks which generally comprise
less than 40% alcohol, and are also often drunk neat or on the rocks.
• Overproof Rum is rum which is much higher than the
standard 40% alcohol. Most of these rums bear greater than 75%, in fact, and
preparations of 151 to 160 proof occur commonly.
• Premium Rum: As with other sipping spirits, such as Cognac
and Scotch, a market exists for premium and super-premium rums. These are generally
boutique brands which sell very aged and carefully produced rums. They have more
character and flavor than their "mixing" counterparts, and are generally consumed
without the addition of other ingredients.
[edit] Production methodology
Unlike some other spirits, such as Cognac and Scotch, rum has no defined production
methods. Instead, rum production is based on traditional styles that vary between
locations and distillers.

[edit] Fermentation
Sugarcane is harvested to make sugarcane juice and molasses.
Most rum produced is made from molasses.[citation needed] Within the Caribbean, much
of this molasses is from Brazil.[15] A notable exception is the French-speaking islands
where sugarcane juice is the preferred base ingredient.[3]
Yeast and water are added to the base ingredient to start the fermentation process. While
some rum producers allow wild yeast to perform the fermentation, most use specific
strains of yeast to help provide a consistent taste and predictable fermentation time.[32]
Dunder, the yeast-rich foam from previous fermentations, is the traditional yeast source
in Jamaica.[33] "The yeast employed will determine the final taste and aroma profile,"
says Jamaican master blender Joy Spence.[3] Distillers that make lighter rums, such as
Bacardi, prefer to use faster-working yeasts.[3] Use of slower-working yeasts causes
more esters to accumulate during fermentation, allowing for a fuller-tasting rum.[32]
[edit] Distillation
As with all other aspects of rum production, there is no standard method used for
distillation. While some producers work in batches using pot stills, most rum production
is done using column still distillation.[32] Pot still output contains more congeners than
the output from column stills and thus produces a fuller-tasting rum.[3]
[edit] Aging and blending
Many countries require that rum be aged for at least one year. This aging is commonly
performed in used bourbon casks,[32] but may also be performed in stainless steel tanks
or other types of wooden casks. The aging process determines the coloring of the Rum.
Rum that is aged in oak casks becomes dark, whereas Rum that is aged in stainless steel
tanks remains virtually colorless. Due to the tropical climate common to most rum-producing
areas, rum matures at a much faster rate than is typical for Scotch or Cognac.
An indication of this faster rate is the angel's share, or amount of product lost to
evaporation. While products aged in France or Scotland see about 2% loss each year, rum
producers may see as much as 10%.[32] After aging, rum is normally blended to ensure a
consistent flavor. Blending is the final step in the Rum making process. [34] As part of
this blending process, light rums may be filtered to remove any color gained during
aging. For darker rums, caramel may be added to the rum to adjust the color of the final
product.
[edit] In cuisine
Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on
Rum
Besides rum punch, cocktails such as the Cuba Libre and Daiquiri have well-known
stories of their invention in the Caribbean. Tiki culture in the US helped expand rum's
horizons with inventions such as the Mai Tai and Zombie. Other well-known cocktails
containing rum include the Piña Colada, a drink made popular by Rupert Holmes' song
"Escape (The Piña Colada Song)",[35] and the Mojito. Cold-weather drinks made with
rum include the Rum toddy and Hot Buttered Rum.[36] In addition to these well-known
cocktails, a number of local specialties utilize rum. Examples of these local drinks

include Bermuda's Dark and Stormy (Gosling's Black Seal rum with ginger beer), and the
Painkiller from the British Virgin Islands.
Rum may also be used as a base in the manufacture of liqueurs. Spiced Rum is made by
infusing rum with a combination of spices. Another combination is jagertee, a mixture of
rum and black tea.
Rum may also be used in a number of cooked dishes. It may be used as a flavoring agent
in items such as rum balls or rum cakes. Rum is commonly used to macerate fruit used in
fruitcakes and is also used in marinades for some Caribbean dishes. Rum is also used in
the preparation of Bananas Foster and some hard sauces. Rum is sometimes mixed in
with ice cream often together with raisins.
Ti Punch is short for "petit punch", little punch. This is a very traditional drink in the
French-speaking region of the Caribbean.
[edit]
Gin
This article is about the beverage. For other uses, see Gin (disambiguation).
Gin is a spirit flavoured with juniper berries. Distilled gin is made by redistilling white
grain spirit which has been flavoured with juniper berries. Compound gin is made by
flavouring neutral grain spirit with juniper berries without redistilling and can be
considered a flavoured vodka.
The most common style of gin, typically used for mixed drinks, is London dry gin.
London dry gin is made by taking a neutral grain spirit (usually produced in a column
still) and redistilling after the botanicals are added. In addition to juniper, it is usually
made with amounts of citrus botanicals like lemon and bitter orange peel. Other
botanicals that may be used include anise, angelica root and seed, orris root, licorice root,
cinnamon, cubeb, savory, lime peel, grapefruit peel, dragon eye, saffron, baobab,
frankincense, coriander, nutmeg and cassia bark.
Plymouth Gin, the brand, like all gins claims to use a unique recipe - but "Plymouth" is a
place designated type of gin, not just the actual brand name itself, and typically uses a
subset of the botanicals above, similar to London dry gin. It has lemon and orange,
angelica, anise, cardamom, coriander and Juniper.
Distilled gin evolved from the Dutch spirits jonge- and oude- Jenever or Genever (young
and old Dutch gin), Plymouth gin, and Old Tom gin. Sloe gin is a common ready-sweetened
form of gin that is traditionally made by infusing sloes (the fruit of the
blackthorn) in gin. Similar infusions are possible with other fruits, such as damsons (See
Damson gin).
There is now a legal definition under EU rules of what constitutes a London Dry Gin, and
a London Gin. Essentially London Dry Gin must be an entirely distilled product, with the
exception of a very small amount of permitted sugar, though this is not always present. A
London Gin has non distilled additives (ex-sugar) in it, such as colouring like saffron and
geranium blue, which do not distil.

A well-made gin will be relatively dry compared to other spirits. Gin is often mixed in
cocktails with sweeter ingredients like tonic water or vermouth to balance this dryness.
Contents
[hide]
• 1 History
• 2 Cocktails with gin
• 3 Brands of gin
o 3.1 Notable brands
o 3.2 Historical brands
• 4 See also
• 5 References
[edit] History
It is a common misconception that the word gin derives from the Swiss city Geneva. In
fact, the word gin derives from the French word for juniper— genévrier— which is the
fruit that flavours the drink. Its invention is often credited to the Dutch physician
Franciscus Sylvius.[1][2] It was sold in pharmacies and used to treat such medical
problems as kidney ailments, lumbago, stomach ailments, gallstones, and gout. It had
been present in England in varying forms since the early 17th century, and at the time of
the Restoration enjoyed a brief resurgence. It was only when William of Orange, ruler of
the Dutch Republic, seized the British throne in what has become known as the Glorious
Revolution that gin became vastly more popular, particularly in its baser forms, when it
was more likely to be flavored with turpentine, rather than the juniper of later London
gins. Dutch gin, also known as jenever or genever, is a distinctly different drink from
English-style gin; it is distilled with barley and sometimes aged in wood, giving it a slight
resemblance to whisky. Schiedam, in the province of South Holland, is famous for its
jenever. Jenever is produced in a pot still and is typically lower in alcohol and more
strongly flavoured than London gin[citation needed].
Hogarth's Gin Lane
Gin became popular in England after the government allowed unlicensed gin production
and at the same time imposed a heavy duty on all imported spirits. This created a market
for poor-quality grain that was unfit for brewing beer, and thousands of gin-shops sprang
up throughout England. By 1740 the production of gin had increased to six times that of
beer, and because of its cheapness it became popular with the poor. Of the 15,000
drinking establishments in London, over half were gin-shops. Beer maintained a healthy
reputation as it was often safer to drink the brewed ale than unclean plain water. Gin,
though, was blamed for various social and medical problems, and it may have been a
factor in the higher death rates which stabilized London's previously growing population.
The reputation of the two drinks was illustrated by William Hogarth in his engravings
Beer Street and Gin Lane (1751). This negative reputation survives today in the English
language, in terms like "gin-mills" to describe disreputable bars or "gin-soaked" to refer
to drunks, and in the phrase "Mother's Ruin," a common British name for gin.

The Gin Act 1736 imposed high taxes on retailers and led to riots in the streets. The
prohibitive duty was gradually reduced and finally abolished in 1742. The Gin Act 1751
was more successful, however. It forced distillers to sell only to licensed retailers and
brought gin-shops under the jurisdiction of local magistrates. Gin in the 18th century was
produced in pot stills, and was somewhat sweeter than the London gin known today.
In London in the early eighteenth century, gin sold on the black market was prepared in
illicit stills (of which there were 1500 in 1726) and was often adulterated with turpentine
and sulfuric acid. [1] As late as 1913 Webster's Dictionary states without further
comment that 'Common gin is usually flavored with turpentine.' [2]
The column still was invented in 1832, and the "London dry" style was developed later in
the 19th century. In tropical British colonies, gin was used to mask the bitter flavour of
quinine, a protection against malaria, which was dissolved in carbonated water to form
tonic water. This was the origin of today's popular gin and tonic combination, even
though it is not necessary for the majority of today's consumers of the drink. Quinine is
still prescribed for malaria in many developing countries where more recent treatments
are prohibitively expensive.[3][4]
Gin is a popular base spirit for many mixed drinks, including the martini. Secretly
produced "bathtub gin" was commonly available in the speakeasies and "blind pigs" of
Prohibition-era America due to the relative simplicity of the production method. Gin
remained popular as the basis of many cocktails after the repeal of Prohibition.
The National Gin Museum is in Hasselt, Belgium.
[edit] Cocktails with gin
Perhaps the best-known gin cocktail is the Martini, traditionally made with gin and dry
vermouth. Other gin-based drinks include:
• 20th Century
• Allen - Gin with lemon juice and Maraschino liqueur
• Gimlet - gin and lime juice
• Gin and Juice - gin and orange juice
• Gin and Tonic
• Gin Fizz
• Gin Rickey - gin, lime juice and carbonated water
• Gin bucket
• The Last Word
• London Mule, the gin version of a Moscow Mule
• Maiden's Prayer[5]
• Negroni
• Old Etonian
• Orange Blossom - Plymouth gin and orange juice [6]
• Pimm's Cup
• Pink Gin
• Ramos gin fizz
• Salty Dog
• Satan's Whiskers
• Singapore Sling
• Tom Collins
• White Lady

Gin is often combined with a number of other mixers.
[edit] Brands of gin
[edit] Notable brands
• Aviation
• Beefeater - First produced in 1820
• BOLS Damrak Amsterdam - Dutch jenever
• Bombay Sapphire - distilled with ten botanicals
• Boodles British Gin
• Booth's - first produced in 1790 by Sir Felix Booth
• Bulldog Gin - infused with Poppy and Dragon Eye
• Citadelle - 19 exotic botanicals, made in Cognac, France
• Cork Dry Gin - First distilled at the Watercourse Distillery in
Cork City in 1793.
• Damrak - Sweet candied citrus aromas with a spicy licorice
and a juniper edge.
• Gilbey's Gin
• Ginebra San Miguel - produced in the Philippines
• Gordon's
• Greenall's
• G'vine - based on an Ugni Blanc base spirit and infused with
green grape flowers
• Hendrick's Gin - Made in Scotland, infused with cucumber
and rose petals.
• Old Tom gin
• Plymouth - first distilled in 1793
• Sacred Gin distilled in one of London's 2 new micro-distilleries.
• Seagram's Gin
• Sipsmith Gin distilled in the other of London's 2 new micro-distilleries.
• South Gin - from New Zealand using New Zealand-native
manuka berries and kawa kawa leaves
• Steinhäger
• Tanqueray
• Uganda Waragi - triple distilled Ugandan Waragi Gin
• Whitley Neill Gin - Small batch gin distilled with Baobab
fruit and Cape Gooseberries
[edit] Historical brands
• Fleischmann's Gin - Marketed as the original American gin,
first distilled in 1870[7]
Vodka

For other uses, see Vodka (disambiguation).
Vodka museum in Mandrogi, Russia
Vodka (From Russian водка, from вода [water] + ка [the diminutive suffix][1]) is a
distilled beverage. It is a clear liquid consisting mostly of water and ethanol purified by
distillation—often multiple distillation—from a fermented substance, such as grain
(usually rye or wheat), potatoes or sugar beet molasses. It may also contain an
insignificant amount of other substances such as flavoring or unintended impurities.
[citation needed]
Vodka usually has an alcohol content of 35% to 50% by volume. The classic Russian,
Lithuanian and Polish vodka is 40% (80 proof). This can be attributed to the Russian
standards for vodka production introduced in 1894 by Alexander III.[2] According to the
Vodka Museum in Moscow, Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev (more famous for his
work in developing the periodic table) found the perfect percentage to be 38%. However,
since spirits in his time were taxed on their strength, the percentage was rounded up to 40
to simplify the tax computation. At strengths less than this, vodka drunk neat (without ice
and not mixed with other liquids) can taste "watery", while strengths above 40% may
give the taste of vodka more "burn". Some governments set a minimum alcohol content
for a spirit to be called "vodka". For example, the European Union sets a minimum of
37.5% alcohol by volume.[3]
Although vodka is traditionally drunk neat in the Eastern European and Nordic countries
of the "Vodka Belt", its popularity elsewhere owes much to its usefulness in cocktails and
other mixed drinks, such as the bloody mary, the screwdriver, the white russian, the
vodka tonic, and vodka martini.
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Etymology
• 2 History
o 2.1 Russia
o 2.2 Ukraine
o 2.3 Poland
• 3 Today
• 4 Production
o 4.1 Distilling and filtering
o 4.2 Flavoring
o 4.3 Other processing
• 5 Vodka and the EU
• 6 Health
• 7 Notes
• 8 References
• 9 See also
[edit] Etymology
According to Encyclopedia Britannica, the name "Vodka" is a diminutive of the Russian
word voda (water).[4][5][6]

The word was recorded for the first time in 1405[7] in the court documents from the
Palatinate of Sandomierz in Poland; at these times the word referred to medicines and
cosmetics.[citation needed] A number of Russian pharmaceutical lists contain the terms
"vodka of bread wine" (водка хлебного вина vodka khlebnogo vina) and "vodka in half
of bread wine" (водка полу хлебного вина vodka polu khlebnogo vina).[8] As alcohol
had long been used as a basis for medicines, this implies that the term vodka could be a
noun derived from the verb vodit’, razvodit’ (водить, разводить), "to dilute with water".
Bread wine was a spirit distilled from alcohol made from grain (as opposed to grape
wine) and hence "vodka of bread wine" would be a water dilution of a distilled grain
spirit.
While the word could be found in manuscripts and in lubok (лубок, pictures with text
explaining the plot, a Russian predecessor of the comic), it began to appear in Russian
dictionaries in the mid-19th century.
Another possible connection of "vodka" with "water" is the name of the medieval
alcoholic beverage aqua vitae (Latin, literally, "water of life"), which is reflected in
Polish "okowita", Ukrainian оковита, or Belarusian акавіта. (Note that whisky has a
similar etymology, from the Irish/Scottish Gaelic uisce beatha/uisge-beatha.)
People in the area of vodka's probable origin have names for vodka with roots meaning
"to burn": Samogitian: degtėnė; Polish: gorzała; Ukrainian: горілка, horilka; Belarusian:
гарэлка, harelka; Lithuanian: degtinė; Slavic: arielka, is also in use, colloquially and in
proverbs[9]); Latvian: degvīns; Finnish: paloviina. In Russian during 17th and 18th
century горящее вино (goryashchee vino, "burning wine") was widely used. Compare to
Danish; brændevin; Dutch: brandewijn; Swedish: brännvin; Norwegian: brennevin
(although the latter terms refer to any strong alcoholic beverage).
Another Slavic/Baltic archaic term for hard liquors was "green wine" (Russian:
zelyonoye vino,[10] Lithuanian: žalias vynas).
[edit] History
Encyclopedia Britannica writes that vodka originated in Russia in the 14th century.[11]
The origins of vodka cannot be traced definitively, but it is believed to have originated in
the grain-growing region that now embraces western Russia, Belarus, Lithuania, Ukraine,
and Poland. It also has a long tradition in Scandinavia.
For many centuries beverages contained little alcohol. It is estimated that the maximum
amount was about 14% as only this amount is reachable by means of natural
fermentation. The still allowing for distillation – the "burning of wine" – was invented in
the 8th century.[12]
[edit] Russia
The "vodka belt" countries of Northern, Central and Eastern Europe are the historic home
of vodka, and also have the highest vodka consumption in the world
Encyclopedia Britannica writes vodka originated in Russia during the 14th century, and
the name is a diminutive of the Russian voda (“water”).[13] It was not originally called
vodka — instead, the term bread wine (хлебное вино; khlebnoye vino) was used. Until
mid-18th century, it remained relatively low on alcohol content, not exceeding 40% by
volume. It was mostly sold in taverns and was quite expensive. At the same time, the

word vodka was already in use, but it described herbal tinctures (similar to absinthe),
containing up to 75% by volume alcohol, and made for medicinal purposes.
The first written usage of the word vodka in an official Russian document in its modern
meaning is dated by the decree of Empress Elizabeth of June 8, 1751, which regulated the
ownership of vodka distilleries. The taxes on vodka became a key element of government
finances in Tsarist Russia, providing at times up to 40% of state revenue.[14] By the
1860s, due to the government policy of promoting consumption of state-manufactured
vodka, it became the drink of choice for many Russians. In 1863, the government
monopoly on vodka production was repealed, causing prices to plummet and making
vodka available even to low-income citizens. By 1911, vodka comprised 89% of all
alcohol consumed in Russia. This level has fluctuated somewhat during the 20th century,
but remained quite high at all times. The most recent estimates put it at 70% (2001).
Today, some popular Russian vodka producers or brands are (amongst others)
Stolichnaya and Russian Standard.[15]
[edit] Ukraine
Main article: Horilka
Horilka (Ukrainian: горілка) is the Ukrainian term for "vodka".[16] Horilka may also be
used in a generic sense in the Ukrainian language to mean moonshine, whisky or other
strong spirits. Among East Slavic peoples, the term horilka is used to stress the Ukrainian
origin of a vodka, for example, in Nikolai Gogol's historic novel Taras Bulba: "and bring
us a lot of horilka, but not of that fancy kind with raisins, or with any other such things—
bring us horilka of the purest kind, give us that demon drink that makes us merry, playful
and wild!".[16]
A pertsivka or horilka z pertsem (pepper vodka) is a vodka with whole fruits of capsicum
put into the bottle, turning horilka into a sort of bitters. Horilkas are also often made with
honey, mint, or even milk,[17] the latter not typical of vodkas of other origins. Some
claim that horilka is considered stronger and spicier than typical Russian vodka.[18]
[edit] Poland
Monopolowa by J. A. Baczewski
In Poland, vodka (Polish: wódka) has been produced since the early Middle Ages. In
these early days, the spirits were used mostly as medicines. Stefan Falimierz asserted in
his 1534 works on herbs that vodka could serve "to increase fertility and awaken lust".
Around 1400 it became also a popular drink in Poland. Wódka lub gorzała (1614), by
Jerzy Potański, contains valuable information on the production of vodka. Jakub
Kazimierz Haur, in his book Skład albo skarbiec znakomitych sekretów ekonomiej
ziemiańskiej (A Treasury of Excellent Secrets about Landed Gentry's Economy, Kraków,
1693), gave detailed recipes for making vodka from rye.
Some Polish vodka blends go back centuries. Most notable are Żubrówka, from about the
16th century; Goldwasser, from the early 17th; and aged Starka vodka, from the 16th. In
the mid-17th century, the szlachta (nobility) were granted a monopoly on producing and
selling vodka in their territories. This privilege was a source of substantial profits. One of
the most famous distilleries of the aristocracy was established by Princess Lubomirska
and later operated by her grandson, Count Alfred Wojciech Potocki. The Vodka Industry
Museum, now housed at the headquarters of Count Potocki's distillery, has an original

document attesting that the distillery already existed in 1784. Today it operates as
"Polmos Łańcut."
Large-scale vodka production began in Poland at the end of the 16th century, initially at
Kraków, whence spirits were exported to Silesia before 1550. Silesian cities also bought
vodka from Poznań, a city that in 1580 had 498 working spirits distilleries. Soon,
however, Gdańsk outpaced both these cities. In the 17th and 18th centuries, Polish vodka
was known in the Netherlands, Denmark, England, Russia, Germany, Austria, Hungary,
Romania, Ukraine, Bulgaria and the Black Sea basin.
Early production methods were primitive. The beverage was usually low-proof, and the
distillation process had to be repeated several times (a three-stage distillation process was
common). The first distillate was called "brantówka," the second—"szumówka," the third
—"okowita" (from "aqua vitae"), which generally contained 70–80% alcohol by volume.
Then the beverage was watered down, yielding a simple vodka (30–35%), or a stronger
one if the watering was done using an alembic. The exact production methods were
described in 1768 by Jan Paweł Biretowski and in 1774 by Jan Chryzostom Simon. The
beginning of the 19th century inaugurated the production of potato vodka, which
immediately revolutionized the market.
The end of the 18th century marked the start of the vodka industry in Poland (eastern part
of Poland was part of Russian empire at that time). Vodkas produced by the nobility and
clergy became a mass product. The first industrial distillery was opened in 1782 in Lwów
by J. A. Baczewski. He was soon followed by Jakub Haberfeld, who in 1804 established
a factory at Oświęcim, and by Hartwig Kantorowicz (1823) at Poznań. The
implementation of new technologies in the second half of the 19th century, which
allowed the production of clear vodkas, contributed to their success. The first rectification
distillery was established in 1871. In 1925 the production of clear vodkas was made a
Polish government monopoly.
After World War II, all vodka distilleries were taken over by Poland's communist
government. During the 1980s, the sale of vodka was rationed. After the victory of the
Solidarity movement, all distilleries were privatized, leading to an explosion of brands.
[edit] Today
A large selection of vodkas at an Auchan hypermarket near Nizhny Novgorod
Vodka is now one of the world's most popular spirits. It was rarely consumed outside
Europe before the 1950s. By 1975, vodka sales in the United States overtook those of
bourbon, previously the most popular hard liquor and the native spirit of the country. In
the second half of the 20th century, vodka owed its popularity in part to its reputation as
an alcoholic beverage that "leaves you breathless", as one ad put it — no smell of liquor
remains detectable on the breath, and its neutral flavor allows it to be mixed into a wide
variety of drinks, often replacing other liquors (particularly Gin) in traditional drinks,
such as the Martini.
According to The Penguin Book of Spirits and Liqueurs, "Its low level of fusel oils and
congeners — impurities that flavour spirits but that can contribute to the after-effects of
heavy consumption — led to its being considered among the 'safer' spirits, though not in
terms of its powers of intoxication, which, depending on strength, may be
considerable."[19]

Russian culinary author William Pokhlebkin compiled a history of the production of
vodka in Russia during the late 1970s as part of the Soviet case in a trade dispute; this
was later published as A History of Vodka. Pokhlebkin claimed that while there was a
wealth of publications about the history of consumption and distribution of vodka,
virtually nothing had been written about vodka production. Among his assertions were
that the word "vodka" was used in popular speech in Russia considerably earlier than the
middle of the 18th century, but the word did not appear in print until the 1860s.
[edit] Production
Vodka bottling machine, Shatskaya Vodka
Shatsk, Russia
Vodka may be distilled from any starch/sugar-rich plant matter; most vodka today is
produced from grains such as sorghum, corn, rye or wheat. Among grain vodkas, rye and
wheat vodkas are generally considered superior. Some vodka is made from potatoes,
molasses, soybeans, grapes, sugar beets and sometimes even byproducts of oil refining or
wood pulp processing. In some Central European countries like Poland some vodka is
produced by just fermenting a solution of crystal sugar and yeast. In the European Union
there are talks about the standardization of vodka, and the Vodka Belt countries insist that
only spirits produced from grains, potato and sugar beet molasses be allowed to be
branded as "vodka", following the traditional methods of production.[20][21]
[edit] Distilling and filtering
A common property of vodkas produced in the United States and Europe is the extensive
use of filtration prior to any additional processing, such as the addition of flavourants.
Filtering is sometimes done in the still during distillation, as well as afterwards, where the
distilled vodka is filtered through charcoal and other media. This is because under U.S.
and European law vodka must not have any distinctive aroma, character, colour or
flavour. However, this is not the case in the traditional vodka producing nations, so many
distillers from these countries prefer to use very accurate distillation but minimal
filtering, thus preserving the unique flavours and characteristics of their products.
The "stillmaster" is the person in charge of distilling the vodka and directing its filtration.
When done correctly, much of the "fore-shots" and "heads" and the "tails" separated in
distillation process are discarded. These portions of the distillate contain flavour
compounds such as ethyl acetate and ethyl lactate (heads) as well as the fusel oils (tails)
that alter the clean taste of vodka. Through numerous rounds of distillation, or the use of
a fractioning still, the taste of the vodka is improved and its clarity is enhanced. In some
distilled liquors such as rum and baijiu, some of the heads and tails are not removed in
order to give the liquor its unique flavour and mouth-feel.
Repeated distillation of vodka will make its ethanol level much higher than is acceptable
to most end users, whether legislation determines strength limits or not. Depending on the
distillation method and the technique of the stillmaster, the final filtered and distilled
vodka may have as much as 95-96% ethanol. As such, most vodka is diluted with water
prior to bottling. This level of distillation is what truly separates a rye-based vodka (for
example) from a rye whisky; while the whisky is generally only distilled down to its final
alcohol content, vodka is distilled until it is almost totally pure alcohol and then cut with

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